Evaporation and Hydrologic Abstractions

Objectives

1. Get familiar with the main definitions related to the evaporation

process
2. Understand the physical context of evaporation
3. Learn about the different methods on evaporation measurement
4. Learn how to estimate evaporation and evapotranspiration rates
through the Penman and the Penman-Monteith methods.
5. Get familiar with the main definitions of hydrologic abstractions
6. Understand the general concepts of the infiltration process
7. Understand the stages involved in the infiltration process
8. Learn about infiltration measurement
9. Learn about the different methods for the estimation of infiltration
10.Learn how to estimate hydrologic abstractions ( index method,
SCS method)

1
A. Evaporation
1. Introduction

Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from the liquid form to the
gaseous form (water vapour)

The natural rate of evaporation is determined by three fundamental factors:

the natural availability of water in its liquid form

the availability of energy for evaporation on the waters surface
the ease with which water vapour diffuses into the atmosphere

Transpiration is the conversion of water into vapour taking place in the pores of the
flora and especially in the plant foliage. Plant water is absorbed from the soil by the
roots and through the vascular system it is transported to the foliage pores also known
as stomata, where it is transpired from (soil roots vascular system foliage pores
stomata). Transpiration is a function of vital importance for plants not only for the
fundamental role it plays in the circulation of the vascular system, but also for its role
in photosynthesis; the transpired water is a certain by-product of photosynthesis.

The main difference between transpiration and evaporation from water surfaces or wet
soils lies in the fact that plant cells control the transpiration rate by regulating stomata
openings. Stomata get smaller when there is less available water in the plant and close
at night when photosynthesis is suspended. Besides that transpiration is a physical
process (not a metabolic one) that is being governed by the same natural laws as
evaporation. Transpiration is in fact a form of evaporation and thus the same symbol is
used for both measures.

The term Evapotranspiration represents the combined total water losses caused by
soil evaporation and flora transpiration. From the above it is evident that
evapotranspiration from soil surfaces covered or not by plants, depends on the
availability of water in the soil (and consequently in plant tissues), whereas this doesnt
apply to evaporation from water surfaces (e.g. lakes, where the availability of water is
assured and doesnt constitute a limiting factor).

The amount of evapotranspiration taking place from soil surfaces totally and uniformly
covered by flora in period of growth under conditions of water abundance (i.e. in
accordance with evaporation from water surfaces) is called Potential
Evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration, potential or actual, depends on the crop type in the study area and
its characteristics (crop height, foliage, stage of growth, etc.). The term Reference
crop evapotranspiration has been introduced in order to standardise the calculation
process. It represents the evapotranspiration from a hypothetical extensive surface
covered completely by green grass of uniform low height, actively growing, completely
shading the ground and under conditions of water abundance. Evapotranspiration from
any other crop type can be calculated from the reference crop evapotranspiration with
a specific methodology. It is apparent from the term definition that the reference crop
evapotranspiration refers to conditions of potential evapotranspiration.

2
2. Evaporation Physical Context

2.1 Energy for phase transition in water

Evaporation to occur requires energy input in order to overcome the molecular forces
of attraction between the particles of liquid water and convert the liquid into water
vapour where the molecular forces are small. The energy required to convert a liquid
to a gas is called latent heat of vaporization.

During phase transitions between the solid, liquid and gaseous phase energy is
absorbed or released. The following figure depicts phase transitions in water and the
energy required or released for each process to take place.

Absorption Absorption of
of 80 calories 540 calories
Latent heat of Latent heat of
Absorption of
fusion (melting) vaporization
100 calories
(evaporation)

Ice Water Water Water Vapour

1 gr 1 gr 1 gr 1 gr
o
0 C o
0 C
o
100 C o
100 C

Release of Release of Release of

80 calories 100 calories 540 calories
Latent heat of Latent heat of
solidification condensation
(freezing)

Figure 1: Phase transitions in water

2.2 The Earths energy budget Available energy for evaporation

The natural process of evaporation is supplied with energy from solar radiation. The
energy difference between solar radiation (short-wave) and terrestrial infrared
radiation (long-wave) provides the latent heat required for the evaporation of water,
whereas another fraction of this difference is assigned as sensible heat through the
mechanisms of conduction and convection. For evaporation calculations the latent heat
of vaporization is of direct interest, whereas the suns incoming energy and the energy
emitted from the Earths surface are of indirect importance.

3
 SPACE SHORT WAVES LONG W AVES

Incoming 100
Solar
Source: Koutsoyiannis
Radiation Outgoing short and long wave radiation and Xanthopoulos (1999)
100 6 20 4 6 64

ATMOSPHERE
Diffusion from
the atmosphere
Absorption Absorption
from 3 and emission
from the Absorption
greenhouse and emission
gases from the clouds
(CO2, H2O, etc.)
Absorption
Reflection Sensible Latent
19 from the clouds heat flux
from the clouds 111 heat flux
(conduction,
convection/ (evaporation,
vertical transpiration)
transfer)
Absorption
from water vapour
and dust
Reflection
51 from the surface 117 96 7 23
OCEANS, Absorption of Emission Absorption of
solar radiation of long waves long waves
SOIL from the surface from the surface from the surface

Figure 2: The Earths energy budget

The available energy for evaporation is the net radiation on the water surface and is
given by:

Rn = S n Ln +

where:

Rn total net radiation

Sn total net short wave radiation
Ln total net long wave radiation
latent heat
sensible heat

The total short wave radiation, Sn, depends on the following factors:
Solar energy flux on the atmospheres outer limit on a flat surface So (parallel to
the Earths surface). This flux on a daily basis is an astronomical measure that
depends on the day of the year and the latitude of the location. It is calculated
according to Table 1.
Albedo, r (the fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or reflection
coefficient). Characteristic values of the albedo are presented in Table 2.
Sunshine duration, represented by the fraction n/N, where n corresponds to the
actual number of sunshine hours (in the day, month, etc.) and N to the maximum
possible sunshine hours from sunrise to sunset. n is a typical meteorological
variable that is influenced by the presence of clouds, whereas N is an astronomical
measure and is calculated according to Table 3.
Latitude,

4
Table 1: Mean monthly values of extraterrestrial radiation S0 in kJ/m2/day for latitudes 36o-46o of
Northern hemisphere

JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OKT
NOV
DEC
Source: Koutsoyiannis and Xanthopoulos, 1999

Table 2: Reflection coefficient/Albedo values of various surfaces

Surface Albedo
Soil 0.05 0.40
Sand 0.15 0.45
Grass 0.16 0.26
Agricultural crops 0.18 0.25
Tundra 0.18 0.25
Forests 0.05 0.20
Water 0.03 1.00
Snow 0.40 0.95
Ice 0.20 0.45
Clouds 0.30 0.90

Table 3: Mean monthly values of sunshine duration (in hours) for latitudes 36o-46o of the
Northern hemisphere

JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OKT
NOV
DEC

Source: Koutsoyiannis and Xanthopoulos, 1999

5
Sn is calculated by the following equation:

n kj
S n = (1 r ) * S 0 * (0.29 * cos + 0.55 * )
m 2 day

The total long wave radiation, Ln, depends on the following factors:
o Temperature
o Vapour pressure
o Sunshine duration

Ln is calculated by the following equation:

n kj
Ln = * * (0.56 0.09 * e 0.5 ) * (0.1 + 0.9 *
4
)
m 2 day

6
3. Evaporation Measurement

Natural evaporation and evapotranspiration, as well as precipitation, are meteorological

variables of great hydrologic interest and therefore their systematic measurement and
recording would be particularly useful. However, unlike precipitation natural
evaporation and evapotranspiration are very difficult to measure by means of a reliable
method. Solid and liquid precipitation is easily collected and measured, whereas water
vapour resulting from evaporation is diffused in the air and therefore cannot be
measured in the same way.

An indirect method for evaporation measurement is made by measuring the water loss
from a water surface instead of the water vapour mass added to the atmosphere. This
water budget method is the operation principle of evaporimeters, small tanks and pans
filled with water. There is a variety of tanks and pans according to the needs and
conditions of each region/country. The most widely used evaporimeters are the
following:

American class A pan (developed by the U.S. Weather Bureau), the most widely
used instrument for measuring evaporation
Colorado sunken pan
UK British standard tank
The GGI-3000 tank, developed in the former USSR and widely used in East Europe
The 20 m2 tank, developed in the former USSR

Figure 3: Evaporimeters

7
 Figure 4: Evaporimeter

It is evident that evaporimeters do not measure natural evaporation, E, but the

evaporation from the particular instrument, Em, which modifies the evaporation natural
process. The evaporation rate from small bodies of water differs from the evaporation
from big reservoirs and more specifically it is higher due to the small area of the
instrument and the small volume of water. Therefore in order to estimate natural
evaporation the measured variable Em needs to be multiplied with the pan coefficient,
k, which is smaller than 1 and depends on the instruments geometry, local area
conditions and meteorological conditions (humidity, wind speed, etc.).

E = k Em

Evaporation measurement with evaporimeters isnt considered reliable, especially at

scales smaller than the annual one, due to the uncertainty involved in the estimation of
the pan coefficient and the common unreliability of the instrument measurements
mainly caused by human error. For this reason and for the general requirement for
areal estimates of evaporation it is preferable to estimate evaporation and (potential)
evapotranspiration indirectly through the measurement of other meteorological
variables affecting them, such as incoming and outgoing radiation, sunshine duration,
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and atmospheric pressure.

8
4. Evapotranspiration Estimation

There are two main methods for the estimation of evaporation; the energy budget
method and the mass transfer method, for both of which measurements of
climatological data at two different levels are required. Penman was the first to
combine the two methods and develop a combination equation for the estimation of
evaporation. The Penman combination method has eliminated the need for
measurements at two different levels of the atmosphere and thus evaporation can be
estimated from measurements of temperature, relative humidity and wind speed at
only one height, set at 2 meters.

The Penman combination equation due to its main assumptions is normally applied to
the estimation of potential evaporation from an open water surface. However, the
method has been used extensively in the past for the estimation of potential
evapotranspiration. In order to overcome the limitations of the Penman combination
method Monteith developed further this method by introducing the term stomatal
resistance, rs. This resulted in the Penman-Monteith method which is appropriate for
the estimation of potential evapotranspiration from plants and in particular of the
reference crop evapotranspiration. The same method can be used for the estimation of
real evapotranspiration with the only difference that the standard meteorological data
required for the Penman method are not sufficient, but in addition measurements of
the stomatal resistance are also required. Recently the Penman-Monteith method is
widely used for evapotranspiration estimations due to its more accurate description of
the phenomenon.

4.1 Evaporation estimation Penman

The following figure depicts in detail the calculation process that needs to be followed
for the estimation of evaporation according to the Penman method.
U: relative humidity (%)

es: saturation vapour pressure

u2: wind speed at 2 m
: temperature (oC) 17.27*T
height (m/sec) es = 6.11 * 2.718 T + 237.3 hPa

SLOPE OF THE CURVE OF
F(u)
SATUR. VAPOUR PRESSURE
WIND SPEED FUNCTION HYGROMETRIC
VS. TEMPERATURE
CONSTANT D
4098*es hPa
= SATURATION
(T + 237.3)2
o
C F (u ) = 0.26 * (1 + 0.54 * u 2 ) kg = 0.67 hPa o
LATENT HEAT OF m 2 day C DEFICIT
VAPOURIZATION
D = es e hPa
R kg
E= * n+ * F (u ) * D
= 2501 2.361* T kj/kg + + m 2 day
e: vapour pressure
U
e = es * hPa
Rn 100
NET INCOMING
Sn RADIATION Ln
Incoming short-wave radiation minus reflected
short-wave radiation
Net long-wave radiation
n kj n kj
Rn = S n Ln kj Ln = * * (0.56 0.08 * e 0.5 ) * (0.1 + 0.9 *
4
S n = (1 r ) * S 0 * (0.29 * cos + 0.55 * )
)
m 2 day m 2 day m 2 day

n: real sunshine (hr)

: latitude of : Temperature in Kelvin
r: reflection
coefficient (lbedo) location (o)
: potential sunshine (hr)
= T + 273 Kelvin
0<r<1 (Table 2) Estimated (Table 3) according to
month and latitude : Stefan-Bolzmann constant
So: Short-wave radiation
at the atmospheres outer boundary
kj = 4.9 *10 6 kj
m 2 day m 2 k 4 day
Estimated (Table 1) according
to month and latitude

Figure 5: Evaporation calculation process Penman method

9
4.2 Evapotranspiration estimation Penman-Monteith

The following figure depicts in detail the calculation process that needs to be followed
for the estimation of the reference crop evapotranspiration according to the Penman-
Monteith method.

The introduced term of stomatal resistance, rs, which expresses the resistance to
evaporation caused by stomata on the leaves of plants, depends on many factors such
as radiation, saturation deficit, foliage temperature, moisture in the foliage, plant
height, etc. It is apparent that its value isnt constant for a particular crop and its value
increases in conditions of water scarcity. The estimation of the particular parameter is
quite complex; values however of rs can be defined for specific standard conditions.

In the Penman-Monteith equation stomatal resistance, rs, and aerodynamic resistance,

ra, are both incorporated in the modified hygrometric constant, , whose simplified
expression in the case of the reference crop (rs = 69 s/m) is included in Figure 6.

U: relative humidity (%)

es: saturation vapour pressure

u2: wind speed at 2 m
: temperature (oC) 17.27*T
height (m/sec) es = 6.11 * 2.718 T + 237.3 hPa

SLOPE OF THE CURVE OF
SATUR. VAPOUR PRESSURE F(u)
MODIFIED
VS. TEMPERATURE WIND SPEED FUNCTION
HYGROMETRIC
D
CONSTANT
4098 * e s hPa 90 SATURATION
= o F (u ) = * u2 kg 2 ' = 0.67 * (1 + 0.33 * u 2) hPa o
LATENT HEAT OF (T + 237 .3) 2 C T + 273 m day C DEFICIT
VAPOURIZATION

R kg D = es e hPa
E= * n+ * F (u ) * D
= 2501 2.361* kj/kg + ' + ' m 2 day
e: vapour pressure
U
e = es * hPa
Rn 100
NET INCOMING
Sn RADIATION Ln
Incoming short-wave radiation minus reflected
Net long-wave radiation
Short-wave radiation
n kj
n kj Rn = S n Ln kj Ln = * * (0.34 0.044 * e 0.5 ) * (0.1 + 0.9 *
4
S n = (1 r ) * S0 * (0.29 * cos + 0.55 * )
)
m 2 day m 2 day m 2 day

n: real sunshine (hr)

: latitude of : Temperature in Kelvin
r: reflection
coefficient (lbedo) location (o)
: potential sunshine (hr)
= T + 273 Kelvin
0<r<1 (Table 2) Estimated (Table 3) according to
month and latitude : Stefan-Bolzmann constant
So: Short-wave radiation kj = 4.9 *10 6 kj
at the atmospheres outer boundary m 2 day m 2 k 4 day
Estimated (Table 1) according
to month and latitude

Figure 6: Evapotranspiration calculation process Penman-Monteith method

The Penman-Monteith equation reduces to the Penman equation for an rs value of

zero. Therefore the Penman-Monteith equation could be considered as a generalisation
of the Penman equation that is valid for both evaporation from open water surfaces
and evapotranspiration from soil surfaces. Theoretically it can be used for the
estimation of potential, as well as actual evapotranspiration, provided that the
resistances rs and ra are estimated.

10
4.3 Hypsometric variation of wind speed

Wind speed increases as the distance from the ground increases and therefore the
measurement of wind speed depends on the height at which the instrument is
installed. There isnt a standard height, but it usually ranges between 2 and 10 meters
above the ground. Especially for evaporation estimations the standard height is at 2
meters.

Assuming that z1 is the instruments height, then the wind speed conversion at a height
of z2 = 2 meters is achieved through the following equation:

z2
ln
u2 z0
=
u1 ln z1
z0

where:

u1, u2 wind speeds at heights z1 and z2 respectively

z0 roughness length

The following table presents some typical values of the roughness length, z0, for
different types of surfaces.

Table 4: Typical values of the roughness length (z0)

Ice 0.001
Asphalted surface 0.002
Water surface 0.01-0.06
Grass, max height of 1cm 0.1
Grass, height 1-10 cm 0.1-0.2
Grass-cereals, etc., height 10-50 cm 2-5
Vegetation, height 1-2 m 20
Trees, 10-15 m 40-70

11
B. Hydrologic Abstractions
1. Introduction

Evaporation and transpiration represent in a large timescale (annual or larger) the

main difference between the incoming precipitation and the outflow in a hydrologic
catchment. In a smaller timescale, hourly or daily, the quantitative difference between
precipitation and surface runoff includes other components besides evaporation and
transpiration. These components comprise of retention in various forms and soil
infiltration. The amount of water taking part in the processes of retention and
infiltration are initially considered as hydrologic abstractions in the small timescale. In a
larger timescale this amount of water are transformed partly to evaporation and
transportation (hydrologic losses) and partly to surface runoff or groundwater flow.

2. Retention

The term retention includes the following processes:

Interception by vegetation of a fraction of the rainfall from reaching the

ground,
Depression storage (Surface storage) represents the water retained in
hollows and depressions of the terrain, and
Interception of snow represents another special form of retention which
takes place when the ground and the vegetation are covered by snow

Interception is the physical process of obstruction and temporal storage of a fraction

of precipitation by vegetation. Intercepted water is either evaporated or absorbed by
vegetation or falls onto the ground surface. Thus, interception includes three
components (Ward and Robinson, 1990):

Throughfall that is the water falling onto the ground through spaces in the
vegetation canopy or by dripping from the leaves,
Stemflow, water trickling along the branches and eventually down the main
stem or trunk and onto the ground surface,
Interception loss, water retained in the canopy that is finally either
evaporated or absorbed by the plant.

For the engineering hydrologist of particular interest is the last component of

interception, the interception loss, which depends on the vegetation cover and
precipitation characteristics as well as on the meteorological conditions that define the
evaporation rate. The vegetation cover characteristics are incorporated in one
parameter, the interception storage capacity. At the beginning of a rainfall event the
interception loss occurs at a high rate, but with time this rate decreases as the value of
the interception storage reduces from its maximum value (interception storage
capacity).

Depression storage (Surface storage) is the physical process during which a part of
the rainfall reaching the ground gets trapped in hollows and depressions of the terrain
from where it will either evaporate or infiltrate into the soil.

12
Interception of snow is a similar process to interception of rainfall but with the
following main differences (Ward and Robinson, 1990):

The melting and return of the retained water back to the ground occurs with a
significant time lag.
The final hydrologic abstractions resulting from snow interception are much
lower than those from rainfall (evaporation is equivalent to approximately 5%
of the equivalent height of water from snowfall).

The physical processes related to snow cover and melting are particularly complex, as
well as their mathematical analysis.

3. Infiltration

Infiltration is the natural process during which water from rainfall, snowmelt or
irrigation penetrates the soil. This process is closely related to water movement inside
the soil (from one point to another) in a way that the infiltration rate depends as much
on the availability of water for infiltration as on the soil properties related to the ability
of the water to move through it. Infiltration and water movement through the soil play
a very important hydrologic role having an influence on surface runoff,
evapotranspiration (and thus on the biologic cycle of plants), aquifer recharge, but also
on solute transport.

The infiltration rate is obviously variable not only in space but also in time. It depends
on the following factors in order of priority:

Intensity and duration of rainfall events

Soil physical properties
Condition of the soil surface layer and the presence or not of
vegetation
Moisture content of the soil surface layer at the beginning of the
rainfall event
Temperature
Quality of the rainfall water, etc.

Water movement during the process of infiltration takes place under the influence of
the following forces:

Gravity, dominating when the soil pores are saturated with water
Tension and suction that develop in soil water in unsaturated flow conditions,
when soil pores are partly saturated with water and partly with air. These
forces exceed gravity and as a result water is retained in the soil.

Tension and suction forces are a result of the following mechanisms:

Adsorption
Capillarity
Osmosis

The water adsorption mechanism on the surface of the soil grains is caused by
electrostatic forces due to the polarity of water molecules. These forces are effective
only very close to the water - soil grains interface and for this reason thin water

13
membranes form around the soil particles called hygroscopic water. The forces are
proportional to the total surface of the particles per unit area of the soil and therefore
the quantity of hygroscopic water increases with the decrease of the soil grain
diameter. In clay soils retention of water via the adsorption mechanism can be quite
significant.

Capillary forces are caused by surface tension at the interface between soil water
and soil air within the capillary tubes formed in soil pore spaces. These forces increase
too with the decrease of soil pores, hence also with the grain size.

Capillary water

Adsorbed/Hygroscopic
water

Figure 7: Capillary and hygroscopic water

Osmotic forces are much less significant in comparison to adsorption and capillary
forces. These forces appear when there is a difference in the concentration of a solute
across a permeable membrane. In the case of soils, the pores themselves can play the
role of these membranes by allowing movement through them of only the water and
not the solute.

4. Infiltration stages (process)

The stages of the infiltration process after a relatively long dry period are described
below:

Initially hygroscopic water is formed via the adsorption mechanism.

After the need for hygroscopic water has been satisfied, the infiltrated water
moves under the influence of gravity and capillarity that in this phase act
cumulatively: Water descends in the soil because of its own weight and
simultaneously it is also sucked by the tensions of attraction developed by the
capillary of the gaseous phase. This double influence causes the high initial value
of the infiltration rate.
As time passes the infiltration rate decreases since the capillary field from being
cumulative at the beginning of the rainfall event reduces to zero when the soil
becomes saturated.
After the end of the rainfall event infiltration at the soil surface stops but water
movement beneath the soil surface continues for a long period. The downward
movement of water driven by gravity slows down.
In the course of time a part of the soil moisture of the upper soil level evaporates
or transpires through the vegetation and as a result the soil water content takes
smaller values closer to the ground surface and bigger as we are going down.

14
 Consequently capillary forces change direction and start heading upwards leading
to the formation of a capillary rise zone above the level of the water table.

Atmosphere Root
p<0
Zone
Shallow Zone

Intermediate Zone

Capillary Fringe
p=0
Typical
Groundwater

Water pressure
Table distribution
Zone

Groundwater
p>0

Impermeable layer
p
Figure 8: Evolution of infiltration, interception and retention during a rainfall event

The evolution of the above process during a rainfall event is presented in the following
figure.
Rainfall duration
Rainfall intensity

Interception from
vegetation
Retention
from surface
Hyetogram depressions

f0
Infiltration from
surface
depressions

Infiltration
Curve fc
Time
f = fc + (f0 fc ) exp ( kt)

Figure 9: Evolution of infiltration, interception and retention during a rainfall event

15
5. Infiltration measurement

Despite the in depth understanding of the infiltration mechanisms and of those related
to water movement in the soil, and despite the progress in mathematical models of
unsaturated flow in the soil, the infiltration estimation methodologies are still unable to
provide the desirable combination between accuracy and ease in application. The main
reason for that is the strong heterogeneity and anisotropy that the soil exhibits. There
are various methodologies for the quantitative estimation of infiltration through
measurements or the use of empirical and theoretical equations.

Infiltrometers measure the infiltration rate (or infiltration intensity) only at the
particular points where they are placed and under ideal stress conditions that vary
significantly from those during a real precipitation event.

The most commonly used types of infiltrometers consist of a cylinder that is inserted
into the ground and is supplied with water either via surface flooding or via sprinklers.
Its quite common to use infiltrometers with two concentric rings (Figure 10) in order
to eliminate the effect of lateral flow to the surrounding drier soil. Infiltration
measurements are then taken for the inner ring from which water is draining to the
outer guard-ring preventing lateral flow from the central core.

Infiltrometers provide only point indications regarding the infiltrating capacity of soils
and they are definitely incapable of describing adequately the physical process of
infiltration on a soil surface.

Figure 10: Double-ring infiltrometer

16
6. Infiltration calculation/estimation

It has been demonstrated that infiltration capacity, the maximum infiltration rate that
can go through a soil at a given time, decreases with time for a given rainfall intensity.
Several empirical and theoretical equations have been developed to describe this
process, the most important of which are described below.

4.4 Horton

Horton was one of the first to systematically deal with the infiltration process and
developed an empirical equation representing the decrease of the infiltration rate with
time. Assuming an adequate supply of rainfall, the infiltration rate decreases
exponentially and has an asymptotic approach to a constant value. The values of the
three parameters, f0, fc and k, depend on the soil and vegetation type and their
estimation that presents difficulties is done experimentally.
Infiltration f (cm/hr)

f0

fc

Time, t

Figure 11: Graph depicting the decline in infiltration with time Horton

f = f c + ( f 0 f c ) e kt

f f c = ( f 0 f c ) e kt ln ( f f c ) = ln ( f 0 f c ) k t

where:

f infiltration (cm/hr)
f0 initial infiltration (cm/hr)
fc final infiltration (cm/hr)
k parameter
t time

4.5 Holtan

Another equation for the estimation of the infiltration rate was developed by Holtan.
The particular method considers infiltration as a function of soil moisture storage and is
expressed by the following equations.

17
 f = a Fpn + f c

Fp = n h F

f f c = a Fpn ln ( f f c ) = ln a + n ln Fp

where:

f infiltration (cm/hr)
Fp available storage
fc final infiltration (cm/hr)
n parameter
n porosity
h soil depth
F cumulative infiltration (cm)
a parameter

4.6 Kostiakov

Kostiakov developed an equation for the estimation of cumulative infiltration as a

function of time. It is given by the following equation.

F = a tb

ln F = ln a + b ln t

where:

F cumulative infiltration (cm)

a, b parameters
t time

4.7 Green-Ampt

Green and Ampt based on a simplified infiltration model and Darcys law for water
movement in porous media developed a relatively complete mathematical description
of the phenomenon. The parameters used in the equation have an explicit physical
meaning as they are related to physical properties of the system.

f = K s + a K s F 1

where:

f infiltration (cm/hr)
F cumulative infiltration (cm)
Ks, a parameters

18
4.8 Philip

Philip developed an analytical solution to Richards equation in the form of an infinite

power series calculating the total infiltration volume. The polynomial equation can be
truncated to include only the first two terms, which represent the effect of suction and
gravity, since the importance of the rest is small. From that equation the infiltration
rate can be calculated as:

f = 0.5 S t 0.5 + A

where:

f infiltration (cm/hr)
t time
S, A parameters

The following figure presents graphically the fitting of these five different infiltration
models to experimental data (represented by triangles).

7
Horton
Kostiakov
6
Holtan
Green Ampt
Infiltration (cm/hr)

5 Philip

1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)

Figure 12: Fitting of five infiltration models

19
7. Estimation of total hydrologic abstractions

As already mentioned the separate quantitative estimations of retention and infiltration

during a rainfall event have a reduced accuracy. Despite the accomplished progress
through the use of computers, in the catchment operational scale the main problem of
heterogeneity of the physiographic characteristics which influence the hydrologic
processes, still remains (geomorphology, soil type, land cover, etc.). Consequently
even if precise theoretical models of these processes are used, the uncertainty in the
physical parameters and their spatial and temporal variation doesnt permit the precise
forecasting of the corresponding hydrologic variables.

In most cases however the engineering hydrologist isnt interested in the individual
components of the hydrologic abstractions and their governing mechanisms, but for
their cumulative quantitative resultant. Knowing the total rainfall intensity and the total
hydrologic abstractions, one is in the position to estimate the proportion of total rainfall
that becomes runoff that is known as effective rainfall or rainfall excess.

7.1 The index method

The index method is a simplified but acceptable and easy to use approach for the
estimation of the total hydrologic abstractions. According to this method the
abstractions occur in time at a constant rate, equal to , which has the same units as
rainfall intensity. In the case that the rainfall intensity becomes smaller than , i < ,
then the abstractions take place at a rate equal to i. Consequently:

il = min ( , i )

The area above the index line represents the total volume of runoff, whereas the
area below the line represents all the hydrologic abstractions. Therefore if the
hyetogram of a rainfall event and the index are known, then the hyetogram of the
effective rainfall can be determined. In the case that the rainfall and the runoff are
known then index can be determined by calculating the difference between rainfall
and runoff and distributing it uniformly across the duration of the rainfall event.

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 Rainfall intensity, i
(mm/hr)
Surface Runoff Volume
V=A*(i-)*t
A: Catchment Area

index
Discharge, Q (m3/s) Time (hr)

Surface Runoff Volume

V=Q*t

Baseflow

Time (hr)

Figure 13: The index method

The index method does not represent reality precisely since the rate at which
abstractions occur exhibits a decrease with time whereas the method assumes a
constant abstraction rate. Furthermore the method does not account for the fact that
both infiltration and retention have a stage during which they are equal to rainfall, i.e.
an initial stage during which no rainfall becomes effective. This can be dealt with a
modification of the index method according to which an initial rainfall depth is
considered completely lost independently on rainfall intensity and after that once again
a constant abstraction rate is used.

Index determined from a single rainfall-runoff event unfortunately cannot be

generally applied to other rainfall events as it varies between events due to the fact
that its value is highly dependant on several catchment parameters. This fact in
particular limits the reliability of the applications of the particular method.

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7.2 The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method

The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method represents a more realistic and relatively
more recent method for the estimation of hydrologic abstractions. The main
assumptions of the SCS method are the following:

1. At the start of the rainfall event the entire rainfall amount becomes a hydrologic
abstraction without providing any effective rainfall. This occurs until time t0 and
for a total abstraction height of h0.
2. The total hydrologic abstraction that can occur during a rainfall event with a
total rainfall height of h cannot exceed a maximum value of S+h0. The value S
is called maximum potential retention.
3. At every instant in time (after t0) the ratio of the effective rainfall height h to
the potential effective rainfall height (h h0) is equal to the ratio of the
difference between the hydrologic abstraction and the initial hydrologic
abstraction (h h0) to the maximum potential retention S, i.e.:

h h h0
=
h h0 S

By setting ha = h h the following relations are obtained:

h = 0 if h h0 and h =
(h h0 )2 if h > h0
h h0 + S

The preceding equations can be simplified with the (reasonable) assumption that
h0 = 0.2 S and in this way the effective rainfall h can be estimated just from one
parameter, the maximum potential retention S.

h = 0 if h 0.2 * S and h =
(h 0.2 * S )2 if h > 0.2 * S
h + 0.8 * S

In the case that he has been estimated (from measurements of surface runoff) then S
can be calculated as:

S = 5 * h + 10 * h 10 * h * (h + 1.25 * h)

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 30

Rainfall height (mm)

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (hr)
150

h/(h-h0)=(ha-h0)/S
Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

100

h
h

50
S
h-h0
t0 ha-h0
h0 h0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (hr)

Figure 14: Explanatory figure for the SCS method

Rainfall height (mm)

30

20

10

0
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101
Time (hr)

700
Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

600

500

400

300

200

100
S+h0
0
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101
Time (hr)

Figure 15: Explanatory figure for the SCS method

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Empirical estimation of parameter S

100
S (mm) = 254 1
CN

Parameter CN (Runoff curve number) takes values between 0 and 100 and depends on
the following:

1. Permeability of the soil

2. land use
3. antecedent soil moisture conditions

Soils are classified according to the infiltration rates:

Table 5: Soil type classification

Soil type
A High infiltration rates (e.g. sand and gravel)
B Moderate infiltration rates (e.g. sandy clay)
C Low infiltration rates (e.g. clay loam)
D Very low infiltration rates (e.g. plastic loam)

Table 6: Classification - Antecedent soil moisture conditions

Antecedent soil moisture conditions
I Dry conditions (rainfall < 13mm or < 35mm for an area covered
with vegetation in period of growth)
II Moderate conditions (rainfall between 13 and 38 mm or between
35 and 53 mm for an area covered with vegetation in period of
growth)
III Wet conditions (rainfall > 38mm or > 53mm for an area covered
with vegetation in period of growth)

Table 7: Some example values of CN for various land uses and type II moisture conditions
Soil Type
Land Use A B C D
Meadows 30-68 58-79 71-86 78-89
Woods 25-45 55-66 70-77 77-83
Residential areas 51-77 68-85 79-90 84-92
Roads 72-98 82-98 87-98 89-98

For the other two types of antecedent soil moisture conditions CN is calculated from
CNII according to the following relationships:

0.42 CN II
CN I =
1 0.0058 CN II

2.3 CN II
CN III =
1 + 0.013 CN II

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C. References

Principles of Hydrology, R.C. Ward and M. Robinson, third edition, McGraw-Hill, UK,
1990

Introduction to Hydrology, W. Viessman and G.L.Lewis, Prentice Hall, 2003

Engineering Hydrology, Koutsoyiannis and Xanthopoulos (in Greek), NTUA 1999

Hydrology in Practice, E.M. Shaw, Chapman & Hall: Taylor & Francis, 2005

Engineering Hydrology, E. M. Wilson, fourth edition, Macmillan Press, 1990

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