Precast concrete structures for buildings

Ir. Arnold Van Acker, Belgium

1. Basic design principles

Every construction material and system has its own characteristics which to a greater or lesser extend
influence the layout, span length, construction depth, stability system, etc. This is also the case for precast
concrete, not only in comparison to steel, wood and masonry structures, but also with respect to cast in-
situ concrete. Theoretically, all joints between the precast units could be made in such a way that the
completed precast structure has the same monolithic concept as a cast in-situ one. However, this is a
wrong approach and one, which is very labour intensive and costly. If the full advantages of precast
concrete are to be realised, the structure should be conceived according to its specific design philosophy:
long spans, appropriate stability concept, simple details, etc. Designers should from the very outset of the
project consider the possibilities, restrictions and advantages of precast concrete, its detailing,
manufacture, transport, erection and serviceability stages before completing a design in precast concrete.

2. Precast building systems

2.1. Frame and skeletal systems

Portal frame and skeletal systems consist of linear elements (beams, columns) of different shapes and
sizes, combined to form the skeleton of a building. They are very suitable for buildings, which need a
high degree of flexibility. This is mainly because of the possibility to use large spans and to achieve open
spaces without interfering walls. There are two basic types:

The portal frame, consisting of columns and roof beams, and used for single-storey retail
warehousing and industrial manufacturing facilities.

The skeletal structure, consisting of columns, beams and slabs for low to medium-rise buildings with
a small number of walls for high rise. Skeletal frames are used chiefly for commercial buildings,
offices and car parks, but sometimes also for apartment buildings.

2.1.1. Portal frames

The basic components of a single portal frame consist of two columns and a roof beam. The columns are
clamped into the foundations and function as moment resisting cantilevers. The beam is simply supported
on the columns with pin connections. In this way a stable portal frame is realized, able to take up both
vertical and horizontal actions. The total skeleton of the building is composed of a series of basic portal
frames placed at a certain distance between each other.

Fig. 1 Precast portal frame systems

There exist several variant solutions with regard to types of beams, use of primary and secondary roof
beams, roof elements, shed roofs, etc. It is also possible to insert intermediate floors in some parts of the
building or over the whole surface. This is commonly achieved by adding a separate beam/column assembly
to carry the intermediate floor slabs.
2.1.2. Skeletal structures

Multi-storey precast concrete skeletal structures are constructed with columns and beams of different shapes
and sizes, stair and elevator shafts, and floor slabs. The system is widely used for multi-storey buildings up
to 20 storeys and above. The structural frame is commonly composed of rectangular columns going over
one or more storeys. The beams are normally rectangular, L-shaped or inverted T-beams. They are single
span beams, simply supported and pin-connected to the columns or concrete corbels, or by specially
developed hidden connection details. Prestressed hollow core floor slabs are by far the most common types
of floor slabs in this type of structure.

Fig. 2 Precast skeletal frame structure

2.2 Wall frame systems

Precast walls are used for internal and external walls, lift shafts, central cores etc. Precast wall systems
are mostly used in domestic construction, both for individual housing and for apartments. The solution
can be considered as the industrialized form of cast in-situ walls or classical brick or block masonry
walls. The precast walls can be load bearing or only partition walls. The surface of the elements is smooth
on both sides and ready for painting or wall papering. Precast walls offer the advantage of speed of
construction, smooth surface finishing, acoustic insulation and fire resistance.

Modern systems belong to the so-called open construction technique, which means that the architect is free
to design the project according to the requirements of the client. The trend is to build free open spaces
between the load-bearing walls, and to use light partition walls for the internal layout. It offers the possibility
to change at a later stage the interior layout without major costs.

Fig. 3 Example of a combined wall frame and skeletal structure

2.3 Floor structures

Precast floors belong to the oldest precast products. The market at present offers a large variety of precast
floor and roof systems, from which five main types can be distinguished: hollow core floors, ribbed soffit
floors, massive slab floors, composite floor-plate floors and composite beam-and-bloc floors. The
principal advantages of precast floors are speed of construction, absence of scaffolding, large variety of
types, large span capacity, and economy.

Max. Structural Most Unit

Floor type Reinforcement span (m) depth (mm) common weight
width(mm) (kN/m)

Reinforced and prestressed 9 100 - 300 300 - 1200 2.0 - 4.0

hollow core elements

Prestressed hollow core 20 120 - 550 200 2.0 - 4.8

elements

Prestressed double-T 24 (30) 200 - 800 2400 2.0 - 5.0

elements

Prestressed inverted-U 9 150 - 300 600 1.5 - 3.5

elements

Reinforced and prestressed 6 100 - 250 300 - 600 0.7 - 3.0

massive slab

Composite floor-plate 7 100 - 200 600 - 2400 2.4 - 4.8

floors

Beam and bloc floors 7 200 - 300 200 - 600 1.8 - 2.4

Table 1 Indication of the sizes and weights of the main types of precast floors.

Precast floors can also be classified according to their manufacture into totally and partially precast floors.
Totally precast floors are composed of units, which are totally cast at the plant. After erection, the units are
connected to the structure and the longitudinal joints are grouted. In some cases a cast in-situ structural
topping screed is added. Partially precast floors are composed of a precast part and a cast in-situ part. Both
parts are working together at the final stage to achieve the composite structural capacity. The main totally
precast floor and roof types are described hereafter.

a. Hollow core floors

Prestressed hollow core units have longitudinal cores of which the main purpose is to reduce the weight of
the floor. The elements are available in different depths to satisfy the various performance needs for span
and loading. The percentage void (volume of voids to total volume of solid slab of equal depth) for HC slabs
is between 30% and 50%.
The units are normally 1200 mm wide and up to 18 m long. The edges of the units are profiled to ensure
adequate vertical shear transfer across the grouted joint between adjacent units.

Hollow core floors are often used for large spans and moderate loading, like in offices, apartments, car
parks, etc. The main advantages are reduced self-weight, flat soffit, high performances and industrialized
production process.
b. Ribbed floors

Double-T units usually comprise two ribs joined by a top plate. Normally these components are prestressed.
The main advantages in using this type of floor units are:

Load bearing capacity in combination with large spans

The ends of the units can be notched to form a halving joint to reduce the overall depth
Double-T units are manufactured as standard up to 2400 mm wide (actually 2390 mm) or 3000 mm
wide, thus reducing the number of units to be fixed on site. Inverted U-elements are usually 600 mm
wide.
The overall depth of "Double T" units can vary between 150 mm and 800 mm, allowing spans up to 22 m.
These units have excellent stability and load-bearing capacity offering a long span unit, able to carry
relatively high loads. Where units with a shallow flange depth (40/50 mm) are used, an in-situ reinforced
concrete structural topping is normally required to ensure both vertical shear transfer between adjacent units
and horizontal diaphragm action in the floor.

c. Concrete roof elements

Concrete roof elements are mainly used for industrial and commercial buildings, sport halls etc. There are
different types of elements such as ribbed units, folded plates, single or double wing-elements etc. The main
features of the elements are:

Light weight due to slender cross-sections

Large spans
Smooth soffit

Typical cross-sections of concrete roof elements are shown in Figure 6.4. Normally these components are
prestressed.

Fig. 4 Concrete roof elements

d. Massive slab floors

Massive slab units are often made in lightweight or in cellular concrete, to reduce self-weight and improve
the thermal properties. They are mainly used in housing and for roofs of industrial and commercial
buildings. Precast massive slab units are also manufactured in normal concrete. Both reinforced and
prestressed massive slabs are used.
3. Structural stability
3.1 Moment resisting foundations

For buildings up to 3 or 4 storeys, horizontal stability may be provided by the cantilever action of the
columns. They are normally continuous for the full height of the structure. There are three possible solutions
to realize moment fixed connections between precast columns and foundations: pockets, projecting
reinforcement and bolting. In the case of pockets, grout or concrete is placed in the annulus between the
column and inside face of the pocket. In the solution with projecting reinforcement, projecting bars from the
foundation are fixed into grouted openings in the columns. In the bolted connection, the foundation bolts are
fixed into steel angles, cast in the column, and protected with grout.

Pocket foundation Projecting reinforcement Bolted connection

Fig. 5 Moment resisting connections between precast columns and foundations

3.2 Braced structures

For multi-storey skeleton structures, braced systems are the most effective solution, irrespective of the
number of storeys. The horizontal stiffness is provided by staircases, elevator shafts and shear walls The
concentration of all horizontal actions to some selected members permits smaller columns and simpler
connections. Precast concrete shear walls have large in-plane stiffness and strength, are easy to erect, and
may be integrated with the beam-column system as either infill walls or cantilever walls or boxes. Infill
masonry walls and steel cross bracing are also used.

Shear walls are also often used to complement the horizontal stiffening action of cores, for example at both
ends of a long and narrow building with a central core, or where cores are placed in an eccentrical position.

Shear walls
Floor diaphragms

Core

Fig. 6 Shear walls are needed to balance the torsion

induced by the eccentric position of the core.
3.3 Diaphragm action

In precast buildings, horizontal loads from wind or other actions are usually transmitted to the stabilizing
elements by the diaphragm action of the roofs and floors. By definition, diaphragms are flat horizontal
structures, of which one of the principal functions is to transfer horizontal forces acting on different places of
the structure, to the vertical stabilizing components.

The precast concrete floors or roofs are designed to function as a deep horizontal beam. The structural
central core, shear walls or other stabilizing components act as supports for this analogous beam with the
lateral loads being transmitted to them (Figure 7). To resist these forces, diaphragm action of the entire floor
is achieved either through adequate connections between the floor units, or with the aid of a cast in-situ
reinforced concrete topping.

Fig. 7 Force distribution in floor diaphragm

Floors made of hollow core units are very appropriate to act as diaphragm, because of their edge profile and
the grouting of the longitudinal joints between adjacent units. It is advisable to limit the design value of the
average horizontal shear stress in the longitudinal joints between hollow core units to 0.15 N/mm, for
regions non-affected by earthquake. The shear stress, calculated on the effective depth of the joint is seldom
critical, so that hollow core floors normally provide sufficient diaphragm action without a structural topping,
but the units must be restrained from moving apart.

In earthquake zones, the usual system to assure diaphragm action with hollow core floors is a structural
topping over the whole floor area. However the inconvenience is its complementary weight. A possible
solution to omit topping is to realize the shear transfer in the longitudinal joints by a continuous wave
profile. The solution enables to absorb large deformations during the reversal load cycles without
degradation of the joint.

Fig. 8 Waved profile of hollow core slab edge

In precast floors with TT-units without structural topping, shear transfer between the elements is secured by
bars welded to plates fully anchored in the units.
4. Architectural concrete facades
The term "Architectural Concrete" refers to precast concrete of high quality with respect to strength,
durability, shape and surface finishing. It is generally used for precast facades of buildings, which are
intended to contribute to the esthetical expression of the construction. The application of concrete as a
facade material dates back to the twenties, at the appearance of Modernism under the impulse of great
architects like Le Corbusier, Gropius, Aalto and others. At that time concrete was a new material, already
fully in use in civil engineering works. Not only the structural properties but also the rough appearance of
the concrete itself appealed to the architects at that time

The break-true of the modern architectural concrete is situated in the sixties and based on important
innovations and progress in concrete technology, moulding techniques and surface finishing. It is mainly
used for facades of all sorts of buildings: apartments, offices, commercial buildings, education and
cultural buildings, etc.

4.1 Concept of architectural facades

In the first period, facades in architectural concrete were composed of large series of identical precast
elements. They were generally dimensioned for one storey height, with a width of 1.50 to 7.20 m. For
each building, the facing elements were designed differently, and numerous examples exists of
masterworks from this period. However, the complete faade remained fairly flat and also the box shape
of the building was mostly kept because of the search for series at the manufacture of the units.

In the eighties, a complete change in the architectural concept took place: in stead of spending all
attention to single elements, facades in architectural concrete were designed as an entity. Volumes,
surfaces, lines and differences in level became increasingly important. Box shaped buildings with facades
composed of the same basic elements were abandoned and the design now focuses the total concept of the
faade.

Also the employed materials exhibit a strong evolution. Instead of exposing the internal concrete structure
by water washing, sandblasting or other techniques used in the past, on offer now are finishing types such
as reconstructed natural stone, polished concrete and brick or stone veneering.

Another phenomenon in the evolution of architectural concrete was the so-called neo-classical and post-
modernistic style, which was introduced in the eighties by some famous architects like Boffil, Nuez and
others. The facades are characterised by monumental design, sculptural ornaments, and simulated natural
stone finishing.
Architectural concrete is still frequently applied today. The style and technique is a continuation of the
trends initiated during the last decades of the previous century: total faade concept, variety of finishes,
combination of different materials, reconstructed natural stone, ornamental details etc.

4.2 Structural systems

Depending on their function within the building, architectural concrete cladding can be designed as load-
bearing or non load-bearing, either simple skin or double skin. The most common structural systems are
described hereafter.
4.2.1. Load-bearing facades

Load-bearing facades support the vertical loads from the floors and the structure above. They can also
contribute to the horizontal stability of the building. The most classical example is the sandwich faade
(Figure 9.a). Sandwich units are composed of two concrete leaves with a thermal insulation in-between. The
inner layer carries the weight of the floor and the above facade.

Sandwich frame elements Load-bearing spandrel elements

Fig. 9 Load-bearing facades in architectural concrete

The facade can also be composed of load bearing spandrel panels as shown in Figure 9.b. Here the spandrel
elements act like beams, transferring vertical loads to columns. They can be executed as sandwich units, with
the exterior cladding in architectural concrete. Another possibility is to precast only the interior skin of the
spandrel beam and to finish it on site with brick masonry or any other added finishing material.

4.2.2. Non load-bearing facades

Non load-bearing facades fulfil only an enclosing function. The units are fixed to the structure of the
building, either individually, or they can be self-bearing. In the first case the exterior columns or beams
and floors of the building structure support the self-weight of the cladding elements. In the second case
the faade is supporting itself and the elements are only anchored horizontally to the structure. In
principle, the shape of the units can be designed without any restrictions. Non load bearing sandwich
elements are generally used in skeleton structures or for sidewalls of load-bearing facades. Single skin
elements are mostly used for facings of columns, spandrel panels etc.

Non bearing faade Self bearing facade

Fig. 10 Principle of self bearing and non bearing facades

4.2.3 Twin skin faade

It concerns a sandwich facade construction in which the two concrete leaves, i.e. the inside leaf and the
outside leaf, are fabricated separately and erected separately. The load bearing leaf of the facade consists
of simple framed panels placed with the smooth moulded side towards the interior of the building. The
precast floor units are supported on these elements. In a following step, an airtight joint sealing is applied
and the insulation layer is attached to the exterior face of the framed panels. Finally the exterior cladding
is erected. It can be made in precast concrete or in another cladding material.
 load-bearing internal skin

thermal insulation

exterior cladding

Fig. 11 Principle of the twin skin faade system

The solution offers several advantages over the classical sandwich panels:

- Large flexibility in the design of the exterior facade. Complete freedom with respect to size, shape
and materials used.
- Possibility to use other materials for the exterior cladding
- The precast units are simple. The internal panels are rectangular storey-high elements with a large
repetition. The exterior cladding is mostly made of flat panels. The connections are very simple.
- The insulation is continuous over the facade without any single weak thermal point, inclusive at the
panel joints.
- The facade comprises a ventilated cavity between the exterior cladding and the insulation.
- The outlook of the facade can be totally different from one building to another, without major
difference in the interior structure and used elements. The joint pattern in the facade is unobtrusive.

A handicap of the solution is that it needs more individual precast units, which means more handling,
storage capacity, transport, connections etc. However, it is merely compensated by the more simple
production of the individual units.

4.2.4 Special elements

Architectural concrete can also be used for decorative purposes inside buildings. As a matter of fact, all
precast components can be made in architectural concrete when needed. There exist numerous examples of
such realizations, e.g. balcony units, cornices, parapets, plinths, string courses, special columns in large
entrance halls, floors with decorative underneath profiles, suspended decorative ceilings, internal walls,
central cores, polished stairs etc.

5. Tendencies in precast concrete

Structural efficiency: The ideas here are to design structures and develop systems so that the building
offers maximum efficiency to the user. For example create maximum exploitation capacity of the
available building space by using more slender building components like in slim floor structures etc.
Competition between different construction materials and systems is more and more judged in terms of
performances and costs. Systems offering more floor area inside the building volume are increasingly
competitive.

Flexibility in use: Certain types of buildings are frequently required to be adaptable to the users needs.
This is especially the case with offices, but housing might also need to be more adaptable in the future.
The most suitable solution to this effect is to create a large free internal space without any restriction to
possible subdivisions with partition walls.

Optimum use of materials: Each construction material possesses specific properties and optimum
applications. Until recently, the structure of a building was mostly built in the same material. Now, the
tendency is to use a combination of different construction materials that are best suited for the particular
function within the project.

Speed of construction: Because of the slowness of traditional in-situ construction methods, long
construction delays have been accepted. Today, the demand for a speedy return on investment is
becoming more and more important: the decision to start the work is postponed until the last moment, but
the initially agreed construction delay has to be met. In addition, projects are getting more complex,
which is not in favour of short construction delays. One of the solutions taken by the general contractor is
to put more responsibilities on precasters.

Quality consciousness: Quality has a broad meaning. Not only do the quality of materials and execution
have to respond to higher standards than before, but also the quality in the domain as regards user
friendliness, comfort and aesthetics is becoming more important. Several precasting companies have
already obtained the ISO-9000 label, and a lot of work is being done in the field of European
Standardisation.

Adaptability: In the future, there will be much less demolition of entire buildings and more demands to
adapt older buildings to the new market requirements. The principal reasons for this attitude will be the
high costs for demolition due to regulations regarding noise, dust, traffic problems and many other
inconveniences. On the other hand, after 30 to 50 years, an office building becomes less attractive for
renting, and the owner will look for renovation, for example getting a more modern faade for his
building. The design concept should facilitate such renovations, without demolition of the rest of the
structure. The initial concept of the entire building will therefore have to take account of the life span of
the different components of the building: load bearing structure: up to 100 years and more; facade: 30 to
60 years; services: 20 years. Consequently everything apart of the main structure should be designed
replaceable and renewable within the normal building life to avoid early termination. Periodic
refurbishment, major modifications, replacements and improvements throughout the building life shall be
possible.

Protection of the environment: in many countries the design of buildings and structures continues to be
determined solely by the factors of "capital" and "labour" employed by ecologically unregulated market
economies. This will become expensive when "nature" is added as the third market-determining factor
with the full cost required to be paid.

Preserving the environment is becoming globally increasingly important. In Europe, some governments
are already imposing regulations as regards the disposal of plastic, recovering of packaging, recycling of
waste, ground pollution by chemicals, etc. It is expected that more severe restraints will be imposed in
construction, e.g. with respect to emissivity of materials, shortage of raw materials, waste dumping, noise
and dust, energy consumption etc.

6. Conclusion
Prefabrication has a great potential to respond to new market demands. Possible solutions lie not only
within the classical advantages related to working conditions, technology and speed of construction, but
also in new developments of materials such as high performance and self-compacting concrete, buildings
systems such as mixed structures, manufacturing technology, automation, service integrated products and
others.