1.

Introduction

i. History of Civil Aviation in the world and in Nepal

ii. Role and functions of Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoCTCA) and Civil
Aviation Authority of Nepal

iii. Conventions of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

iv. International and Domestic Airports in Nepal

v. Aircraft Characteristics Related to Airport Design

 Introduction

Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military aviation, both
private and commercial. Most of the countries in the world are members of the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) and work together to establish common standards and recommended
practices for civil aviation through that agency.
Civil aviation includes two major categories:
 Scheduled air transport, including all passenger and cargo flights operating on regularly scheduled
routes; and
General aviation (GA), including all other civil flights, private or commercial
Some countries also make a regulatory distinction based on whether aircraft are flown for hire like:
Commercial aviation includes most or all flying done for hire, particularly scheduled service
on airlines; and
Private aviation includes pilots flying for their own purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.)
without receiving any kind of remuneration.

All scheduled air transport is commercial, but general aviation can be either commercial or private.
Normally, the pilot, aircraft, and operator must all be authorized to perform commercial operations
through separate commercial licensing, registration, and operation certificates.

History of Civil Aviation in the world

After Second World War, commercial aviation grew rapidly using mostly ex-military aircraft to
transport people and cargo. This growth was accelerated by glut (heavy supply) of heavy and super
heavy bomber airframes like B-29 and Lancaster, which could be converted into commercial aircraft. The
DC-3 were also used for easier and longer commercial flights. The first Commercial Jet Airliner to fly was
the British de Havilland Cornet. By 1952, BOAC had introduced the Cornet into scheduled service.

History of Civil Aviation in Nepal

Role and Functions of Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Transport (MoCTCA) and Civil Aviation
Authority of Nepal

Functions of MoCTCA

Creation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of plan, policies and programmes for
culture, tourism and air transport development

Preserve and promote culture, tourism and air industry

Construction, repairing, maintenance and management of aerodromes

Operation and management of air transport

Contact and coordinate with regional and International Civil Aviation related Organizations
 Functions of CAAN

Issuance of Operation Certificates to aircraft Operation Agency, Aircraft Maintenance

Organization, Aviation Training Organization and other aviation related bodies

Issuance of Airworthiness Certificate

Issuance of License, Rating and Certificate to aviation personnel

Safety Oversight of Aviation Service Provider Organizations

Issuance of Technical Regulations like Civil Aviation Requirements, Directives, Manuals,

Advisory, Circulars, etc.

Certification of Aerodromes

Construction, Operation and Management of Aerodromes

Provide Air Navigation Services except Aviation Meteorology

Advise Government of Nepal on Civil Aviation matters

Conventions of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

Convention of International Civil Aviation Organization, also known as Chicago Convention, was
initiated by US, inviting 55 nations, in which 54 nations attended International Civil Aviation Conference
in Chicago on 7th December, 1944. On this day, 52 nations had signed new Convention on International
Civil Aviation as Interim Agreement which foresaw the creation of a Provisional ICAO (PICAO) to serve as
a temporary advisory and coordinating body on 6th June, 1945. On 4th April, 1947 upon sufficient
ratifications, the provisional aspects of PICAO were no longer relevant and it officially became known as
ICAO.

In modern transport era, Conventions Annexes have increased and evolved to include more than
12000 International Standard and Recommended Practises (SARP), all of which have been agreed by
ICAOs now 191 member states.

Convention on International Civil Aviation set forth the purpose of ICAO as,

WHEREAS the future development of International Civil Aviation can greatly help to create and
preserve friendship and understanding among the nations and peoples of the world, yet its abuse can
become a threat to the greatest security and

WHEREAS it is desirable to avoid friction and to promote that cooperation between nations and
peoples upon which the peace of world depends
 THEREFORE, the undersigned governments having agreed upon on certain principles and
agreements in order that International Civil Aviation maybe developed in a safe and orderly manner and
that International Air Transport Services maybe established on the basis of equality of opportunity and
operated soundly and economically.

Objectives of ICAO

Create and preserve friendship and understanding among the nations and peoples of the world

Laid the foundation for the standards and procedures for peaceful global air navigation

Development of International Civil Aviation in a safe and orderly manner and in such a way that
air transport services would be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated
soundly and economically

Organize and support intensive International cooperation which the developing air transport
network would require

Achieve highest possible degree of uniformity in Civil Aviation regulations, standards,

procedures and organization in global manner

International and Domestic Airports in Nepal

Aircraft Characteristics Related to Airport Design

The characteristics of aircraft which influence the design of airport are given below :

Type of propulsion

Size of Aircraft

Minimum turning radius

 Minimum circling radius

Speed of Aircraft

Capacity of Aircraft

Weight of Aircraft (Gross take-off weight)

Take-off and Landing Distances

Tyre Pressure and Contact Area

Range (Normal haul length)

Hot Blasts

Spillage

Noise

Type of Propulsion

The size of aircraft, its circling radius, speed characteristics, weight carrying capacity,
noise nuisance, etc depend upon the type of propulsion of the aircraft

The performance characteristics of aircrafts, which determine the basic runway length
depend upon the type of propulsion

Size of aircraft

Span of the wings

This decides width of taxiway, separation clearance between two parallel traffic
ways, size of aprons and hangars, width of hangar gate, etc.

Fuselage length or Length of aircraft

This decides widening of taxiways on curves, width of exit taxiway, sizes of

aprons and hangars, etc.

Height or Empennage height

This decides height of hangar gate and miscellaneous installations inside the
hangar.
 Gear tread (Distance between main gears)

This governs minimum turning radius of aircraft

Wheel base

This decides minimum turning radius of aircraft and minimum taxiway radius

Tail width

This decides size of parking and apron

Minimum turning radius

To determine radii at the ends of the taxiways and to ascertain the position on the
loading apron, it is necessary to ascertain turning radii of the aircraft, which is determined through the
process mentioned below,

Draw a line through the axis of the nose gear when it is at its maximum angle of
rotation. This angle of rotation is fixed by the manufacturers and in case of large jet aircraft, it is limited
to 60.

Draw another line through the axis of the two main gears.

Intersection of these two lines forms the centre of rotation.

 Minimum circling radius

There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take turn in space. This
space depends upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume and weather conditions. The radii
recommended for different types of aircrafts

Small general aviation aircrafts under UFR conditions = 1.6 km (1 mile)

Bigger aircrafts (two piston engine) under VFR conditions = 3.2 km (2 miles)

Piston engine aircrafts under IFR conditions = 12.8 km (8 miles)

Jet engine aircrafts under IFR conditions = 80 km (50 miles)

Speed of aircraft

The speed of aircraft can be defined in two ways,

Cruising or Ground speed

Speed of aircrafts with respect to the ground when the aircraft is flying in air at its
maximum speed

Air speed

Speed of aircraft relative to the wind

Capacity of aircraft

It determines the baggage, cargo, passengers and fuel that can be accommodated in the
aircraft, capacity of runway systems and passenger processing terminal facilities.
 Weight of aircraft or Gross take-off weight

It directly influence the length of the runway as well as structural requirements i.e.
thickness of runway, taxiway, apron and hangars. It depends upon weight of passenger, baggage, cargo
and fuel, it is carrying and its structural weight along with the fuel which is continuously decreasing
during the course of flight.

Take-off and landing distances

It is influenced by altitude of the airport, gradient of the runways, direction and

intensity of wind, temperature and manner of landing and take-off, along with the weight of aircraft at
the time of landing and take-off.

Tyre pressure and contact area

Tyre pressure and wheel load determines the radius of contact. Small contact area
results in higher punching effect. On the basis of these parameters, thickness of pavement is designed.

Range or normal haul length

The frequency of operations and hence, peak traffic volume and runway capacity
depend upon the range.

Hot blasts

At relatively higher velocities, the aircrafts eject hot exhaust gases which causes
inconvenience to the passengers. The heats of the blasts which affect the surfaces depend upon the
height of tail pipe and angle at which it is resting. Asphaltic concrete, plain concrete and rubberized tar
concrete are employed for resistance against combined action of hot blasts and spillage.

Spillage
 Spillage of fuel takes place when engine is shut down or is losing speed. Flexible
pavements are much affected by spillage, which causes dissolution of bitumen. Epoxy asphalt concrete
and rubberized tar concrete pavement are used to resist spillage and hot blasts.

Noise

Noise generated by aircraft creates problems in making design on layout and capacity.
FAA noise regulation came into action to minimize the effect of noise.

2. Airport Planning Study

2.1 Elements of an Airport Planning Study (Inventory, Forecasts, Airport Capacity, Facility
Requirements, Airport Site, Factors Influencing Airport Size, Land Use Planning, Environmental
Assessment, Economic and Financial Feasibility, Continuous Planning Process)

2.2 Airport Site Evaluation; Factors affecting airport location

2.3 Airport Master Planning (Airport layout, Runway orientation and Runway configurations, Taxiway
configuration, Movement area, Manoeuvring area, Obstacle limitation surfaces, Location of the tower,
Terminal area, Apron)

2.4 Airport Airside Capacity and Delay; Runway capacity, Apron Gate capacity, Taxiway capacity

2.5 Aerodrome Design Standards and Classifications as per ICAO

2.6 Geometric Design of the Aerodrome

Runway, Taxi Apron and Holding Bays

Control tower Visibility requirements

2.7 Use of AutoCAD in Airport Master Planning

2. Airport Planning
Planning is a process aimed at translating goals and policies into programs that would guide
evolution of aviation system.
 The aim of airport planning is to determine and plan for the scope of development of an
individual airport within a system in accordance with a scheme which is most likely to fit the individual
facilities into an optimal overall development pattern.

Level of Planning
Strategic Planning

It examines long-term structures and determines how well various structures fit with identified
goals and objectives.

Tactical Planning

It determines short term and medium term courses of action which best fit into overall strategic
plans and goals.

Data for airport planning

Traffic data

Route and city pair specific data including origin and destination flows

Airport specific data

Demand data

Origin and Destination demand

Trip purpose distribution for cargo demands

General aviation activity demand

Airport data

Financial results

Facilities Inventories

Capacity

Temporal traffic patterns, including hourly distribution

Airlines served
 Access traffic conditions

Safety records

Weather conditions

Traffic operation patterns

Supply data

City pair available capacity

Schedule and fares for passengers and cargo

Load factor prevailing

Airlines operating cost data

Socio-economic data

Income characteristics and consumption patterns

Foreign and Tourism trade patterns

Economic studies for regional economic plan if available

Population and demographic characteristics and forecasts, if available

2.1 Elements of an Airport Planning Study

a. Inventory of existing facilities and condition :

The first segment of an airport master plan is the inventory and existing conditions. Typical broad
categories of information collected include the following: the history of the airport; physical facilities on
the airport; the regional setting of the airport and surrounding land uses; the environmental setting of
the airport; socio-economic and demographic data for the airport service area; historical aviation
activity; and airport business affairs. The inventory section also can include a description of the airports
regional land use, an environmental overview, and a brief financial review as appropriate.

Civil
 Air carrier

Operations

Origin and Destination

Passengers

Cargo

General aviation and military operations and ownership distribution

General Aviation are privately owned and publicly owned

Environmental factors

Comprehensive land use plans

Transportation plans

Socio-economic factors

Applicable laws and regulations

Financial resources

VTOL and STOL

(Vertical and Short Take-off and landing)

Military

Expansion possibilities

Airspace and Navaids

Aeronautical activities

b. Forecasts:

The Federal Aviation Administrations (FAA) Advisory Circular states that: Forecasts of
future levels of aviation activity are the basis for effective decisions in airport planning. These
projections are used to determine the need for new or expanded facilities. The forecast level of
activity established for an airport with passenger and cargo service includes the number of
expected passengers to be transported and the amount (weight) of air cargo carried by a
specific critical aircraft. In case of general aviation and corporate aviation, forcaste includes
aircraft operations (take-offs and landings), fueling needs and expectations on aircraft
maintenance and storage requirements.etc.
Forecast activities are usually defined in short-, medium- and long-term periods. Some of the
factors that influence forecasts include :
i. socio-economic data,
ii. regional demographic characteristics,
iii. geographic attributes (distance, climate) and other external factors

Scheduled aviation

Operations

Passengers

Cargo/ mail

Origin and Destination

General aviation

Operations

Based aircrafts

Distribution of owners

Military

Operation of military fields

Operation at civil airports

c. Airport Capacity
 The number of aircrafts movement which an airport can process within a specified
period of time with an average delay to the departing aircraft within the acceptable time limit is airport
capacity.

The purpose of capacity analysis is to

Measure objectively the capacity of various components of an airport system

Estimate the delay

d. Facility requirements

During the airport master planning process, planners determine what, if any, additional facilities
will be required to accommodate forecast activity. This task begins with an assessment of the ability of
existing facilities to meet current and future demand. If they cannot, planners must determine what
additional facilities will be needed to accommodate the unmet demand. This is normally referred to as
the facility requirements.
These facilities may include runways, taxiways, aprons, passenger terminals, air cargo facilities,
navigation aids, airport traffic control towers and security, safety and maintenance facilities. The criteria
used to define these facilities are contained in a series of Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) Codes,

Runways and Taxiways

Passenger and Cargo terminals and aprons

Rescue and Fire fighting services

Air traffic control tower

Aircraft maintenance

Long-term and Short-term parkings

Access roads

Public transport access

Lighting
 Navaids

Flight Kitchens

Fuel farm

Sewage treatment and pumping station

Electric Sub-station

Security fence and control gates

Hotels

d. Airport site

Selection of the site is another important factor that guards the efficiency and effectivness of an
airport.

For the selection of airport site, the study should include history and development of adjoining
airports and safety measures adopted. Advantage should be taken of the defects in the planning which
may have been noticed subsequently.

Factors affecting Airport Site :

1. The area served must be able to generate and attract the estimated passenger and cargo traffic.
Otherwise, the airport will not be worth investing.
2. Meteorological factors like wind velocity, wind direction, presence of turbulence and cross-
winds must be considered. The runway orientation is so decided that the crosswind component
is minimal.
3. The altitude above mean sea level influences runway length. Roughly, the runway length needs
to be increased by about 7% for every 300 m altitude above mean sea level.
4. The site should have a fairly level area with gentle contours.
5. Future expansion may be needed, and there should be land for this
6. An elevated site is easy to drain and free from obstructions in the approach zone.(i.e the
areashouldn't be flood prone)
7. The site should be easily accessible frome the city and shouldnt be near slaughter house.
8. The approaches should be clear of obstructions like hills, tall buildings, transmission lines,
chimneys, etc.

e. Factors influencing Airport size:

1. Performance characteristics and size of aircraft

 2. Anticipated volume and character of traffc :
The traffic volume has its effect in terms of peak hour volume, nature of air traffic, size of
aircraft, number of air transporters required, runways, taxiways, aprons, hangers, terminals, etc.,
that is the facilities and the forecasted traffic.

3. Meteorological conditions like wind and temperature :

Effects the orientation of runway , number of runway and length of runway

4. Elevation of airport site :

Higher the elevation lower is the air density and hence lower temperature which result in
lower drag on aircraft while landing, but it will take longer length to produce lift takeoff so
length of runway increases with increase in elevation.

Availability of land

Direction of prevailing winds

Topography of area

Type of aircraft using the airport

Expected air traffic

e. Land use planning

It refers to logical allocation of the available land resources to different land using activities in
accordance as documented in the airport master plan (including the purposal for future allocation of
landfor various land using activities)
Objectives of land use planning :
1. To promote efficient utilization, acquisition and disposition of land ensure the highest and
best use of land
2. To direct, harmonize and influence discussions and activities of the private and public
sectors relative to the use and management of lands
3. To reconcile land use conflicts and proposals between and among individuals, private and
government entities relative to the present and future need for the land
4. To promote desirable patterns of land uses to prevent wasteful development and minimize
the cost of public infrastructure and utilities and other social services
5. To preserve areas of ecological, aesthetic, historical and cultural significance
*In simple , Land use planning refers to the manner of utilization of land, including its allocation,
development and management.
From the consideration of noise nuisance and obstruction free zone, it is desirable that the
airport should be located away from the built-up area. The advantage of air transport in context of time
may be lost, if considerable time is taken from downtown to airport.
 Existing land use should not be affected by aircraft operations. Since, land value of the area
where the new airport is established or in urban area gets enhanced thus, while planning the airport,
maximum required area should be acquired at the first instance.

f. Environmental Assessment

An Airport Master Plan needs to consider potential environmental impacts of the development
being proposed. The FAA encourage to consider the environmental aspect when the choices are being
between the alternatives.
It is related with the study of impacts of the construction and operation of airport upon
acceptable limit of air and water quality, noise nuisance level, ecological processes and demographic
development of the area to determine how the airport requirements can be best accommodated.

g. Economic and Financial Feasibility

The financial study portion of an airport master plan provides guidance on what will be required
to demonstrate the airport sponsors ability to fund the projects in the master plan. In terms of long
term funding project,like the construction of the airports, their remains a certain level of uncertinity
about the sponser to continue the future funding,so this kind of uncertainity should be adressed in the
proces of financial feasibility.
Talking about the Airport improvements can be financed from various sources. Some of those
sources include the following:
1. Federal funding
i. Airport Improvement Program (AIP)
2. Passenger facility charges
3. State funding
4. Third-party funding (sometime known as a public-private partnership)
5. Non-aeronautical fees and charges
6. Bonds (various)
i. General obligation bonds
ii. Revenue bonds
iii. Industrial bonds
iv. Special facility revenue bonds
7. Local funds (various)
*Review of an airports revenue structure also is part of the financial study.
One should carryout benefit-cost analysis which enhances the capacity of airport, which is one
of the major influencing factors for planning of airport as it should be economically feasible for the
locality of airport site.
 The financial plan of the airport describes how sponsor will finance the projects recommended
in the master plan and demonstrates the financial feasibility of the program. A financial analysis must be
made of the forms of the capital available for carrying out the development.

2.2 Airport Site Evaluation

The airport site among many alternatives or a particular site can be evaluated based on the
following criteria:

Safety Criteria

The best site can be chosen as the one which is more safe or as if the particular site is safe
enough or not to operate aviation. This safety criteria is divided into two categories,

i. Airport Safety

ii. Aviation Safety

Efficiency Criteria

Efficiency criteria of a site can be evaluated based on

i. Operational efficiency

ii. Access to remote locations

Environmental criteria

The best site is one where no or minimal adverse environmental effects is being evaluated.

Economic development criteria

Economic development rating provides information to the planners regarding increase or

decrease the growth of economic development as per needs.

Cost criteria

The cost criteria provide the means for reflecting the magnitude of annual capital cost of
development of maintenance for each of the alternatives.

Steps in site selection

Requirement of land area

Evaluation of factors affecting airport location

 Preliminary office study of possible sites

Site Inspection

Environmental Study

Review of potential sites

Preparation of outline plans and estimates of costs and revenues

Final evaluation and selection

Report and recommendations

Factors affecting Airport Location

Proximity to other airports

Land Use and Land Values

Topography, soil condition and drainage

Cross wind components

Atmospheric factors

Aircraft noise nuisance

Availability of construction materials

Availability of utilities

Safety factors

Accessibility

Availability of adequate area

Traffic Volume and type of traffic

Social and Economic Considerations

Future development

Revenue

Proximity to other airports

In order to have maximum advantages, minimum spacing between airports should be

maintained. It depends on circling radius of largest aircraft, operational controls used.
 Airport for general aviation under VFR : 3.2 km

For two piston aircraft under VFR : 6.4 km

Piston engine under IFR : 25.6 km

Jet engine aircraft : 160 km

Land use and land values

Existing land use should not be affected by aircraft operations. Since, Land value of the
area where new airport is established or in urban area gets enhanced, costly land acquisition should be
avoided as possible.

Topography, soil condition and drainage

The area as far as possible should be self-drained. Generally, grading will be excessive if
ground slopes exceed about 11%. Measures to ensure satisfactory drainage if drainage required for
each site should be ascertained.

An elevated area has advantages regarding better visibility and drainage than valley, in
which less grading is required.

Proper geological study should be carried out to know distribution of soil and rock types
as, soil improvement techniques are quite costly and should be avoided as far as possible.

Cross wind component

The runway length can be reduced by locating the runway strip in such a way that both
take-off and landing are against direction of wind. It is therefore advisable to have number of runway
strips so that every take-off or landing could be made at an angle not exceeding 30 with wind direction.

Atmospheric factors

The information on fog, haze, smoke, etc which may consequently reduce visibility
should be collected.

Aircraft Noise Nuisance

The problem of noise is one of principal factors against establishment of a new airport
specifically near developed residential location.

Availability of construction material

The cost of construction and maintenance of airport is greatly influenced by the

availability of construction material i.e. suitable rock as a chief construction material.

Availability of utilities
 The utilities such as manpower, water supply, sewage, telephone services, fuel, etc. If
available at or near site will be a great advantage.

Safety factors

While selecting an airport site factors such as visibility, direction and intensity of
prevailing winds and freedom of approaches from obstructions which influence the safety of flights
should be carefully studied.

Accessibility

Airport should be located away from the built-up area to avoid obstruction and noise
nuisance. The advantage of air transport is lost in context of time, if considerable time is taken from
downtown to airport.

Availability of adequate area

The area for acquisition should not only meet the immediate requirements of the
planner but it should have enough scope for upgrading and expansion.

Traffic Volume and type of traffic

A forecast of this parameter in case of existing airport which is proposed for

development. In case of new airport, guidance maybe taken from neighbouring airports.

Social and Economic Considerations

Location of airport should be selected in such a way that flight paths do not pass over
concentration of population while aircrafts are below certain heights.

Location of airport should be selected in such a way that land acquisition is not costly
and the project is economically feasible.

Future development

The location of airport should be selected in such a way that future expansion and
development is possible as per requirement of that instance.

Revenue

Aviation activities

Landing fees

Plane storage and hangar rents

Airline accommodation
 Plane repair services

Gas and oil sale

Ii. Non-Aviation activities

Telegraph services

Telephone services

Restaurants and bars

Automobile parking and other changes

Taxes from commercial establishment

2.3 Airport Master Planning

An airport master plan presents the planners conception of the ultimate development of a
specific airport. This plan is not only the physical form of ultimate development plan but a description of
development stages and both financial implications and fiscal strategies involved.An airport master plan
represents the airports blueprint for long-term development.

Goals and Objective of Master plan

Provide effective graphical representatives of the future development of airport and

future land use in the vicinity of the airport.

To establish a realistic schedule for implementation of the

proposed development

Propose an achievable financial plan to support the scheduled implementation

program.

To validate the plan technically and procedurally through investigation of

concepts and alternatives on technical, economic and environmental grounds.
.

Prepare policies for future aeronautical demand, municipal deliberations on spending,

debt incurrence and land use controls.

Establish coordination, monitoring procedures, data management and public

monitoring system.

Setting the stage and establishing the framework for a continuing planning process.
Elements of Master plan as specified by FAA

Organization and pre-planning

Inventory of existing condition and issues

Aviation demand forecasting

Requirement analysis and concept development

Airport site selection

Environmental Procedure and analysis

Simulation

Airport Plans

Plan implementation

Flowchart for preparing Airport Master plan

 Collect and analyze data

Forecast Traffic Demand

Airport Master Plan

Select best layout

Evaluate Layout

Size airport facilities

Prepare alternative layout

Select Best site

Evaluate new sites

Select new airport site

No

Yes

New Airport

Space standards and level of service

Operating policies

Capacity analysis of airport system

a. Airport Layout

It shows

Runways, taxiways, aprons, blast pads, shoulders, buildings, parking areas, lighting,
runway markings, wind indicators, drainage beacons.
 Existing ground contours

Airport boundaries, bench mark

Airport reference point with latitude and longitude given

ALPs become out-of-date when they:

Do not adequately provide for future needs
Do not conform with current airport design standards
Do not accurately reflect existing features
Do not reflect airport and critical land use changes which may affect the navigable
airspace or the ability of the airport to expand .

*To acess any grant for airport development project ,it need the updated ALP approved by FAA(Federal
avaition authority ).Updated mean jus review the ALP and its sufficiency in the present context .

b. Runway Orientation and runway configuration

According to ICAO "runnway are the area on the land aerodrome prepared for taking
off and landing of the aircraft"

All runways should be oriented in such a way that approach and departure area are
free of obstacles, runway is in the direction of prevailing wind when it blows
consistently from one direction, aeroplane maybe landed at least 95% time with cross-
wind components not exceeding prescribed limit and visibility clouds and other
environmental factors are considered.

i. Runway Orientation:
Runways are define/identified by its orientation w.r.t magnetic North .eg. 270 degree
runway is Runway 27 or R27. If the orientation of runway is 90 degree w.r.t magnetic North
represent as R 09. When the same runway is used form opposites directions the runway is
identified by both direction eg. R 09/27
Runway can be orientated in two main type
1. Primary runways
The runway that is oriented into prevailing winds
2. Crosswind runways
The runway that is oriented toward the most common crosswind direction

ii. Runway configuration:

The Basic runway configuration are :

i. Single Runway
 ii. Paralel Runway
iii. Open -V Runway
iv. Intersecting Runway

Fig: Single Runway Fig: Parallel Runway

 Fig: Open V runway
i
 Factors affecting locations and orientation of runways

Location of neighbouring airports

Obstructions and topography

Built-up area and noise

Air traffic control technique

Wind direction and visibility conditions

Capacity

Runway configuration (Elements)

i. Actual length of runway (6000ft -in avarage ,8000ft-for larger/wide-body aircraft,

10000ft -international wide-body aircraft)

ii. Runway width

iii. Longitudinal slope (gradient) and its changes

iv. Sight distance

v. Distance between slope changes

vi. Transverse slope (gradient)

vii. Runway surface and its texture

viii. Runway shoulders

ix. Runway strips

x. Runway end safety areas

xi. Clearway and Stop ways

i. Actual length of runway

It is dependent on various factors

Highest category of aircraft expected to use

Elevation of airport above mean sea level

 Maximum temperature

Take-off weight (Lesser of

a. Zero fuel weight of aircraft plus weight of fuel required to

fly to destination plus weight of fuel reserve required for 75
minutes of flying time

b. Aircraft maximum landing weight plus weight of fuel

required to fly to destination)

Distance airplanes can fly from one airport to next with maximum pay load and
minimum fuel load required is indicated on aircraft take-off performance curve

Runway length required for take-off

Equal to airplanes accelerate-stop distance or airplanes take-off

distance whichever is greater

Runway length required for landing

ii Runway width

It depends on outermost part of machine of largest aircraft

It ranges from 45 m for A to 30 m for G type airport

Shoulders are provided on either side by stabilizing or turfing soil

ICAO recommends minimum 150 m landing width for non-instrumental, 300

m for instrumental

iii. Longitudinal slopes and its changes

Frequent change in slope (gradient) restricts sight distance, increase runway

length and jeopardize the safety of aircraft

ICAO recommends rate of grade change of 0.3% for every 30 m length of

vertical curve

Two points of intersection of extreme tangents to curve should not be closer

than 7500 times sum of grade changes
iv. Sight distance

ICAO recommends, any two points above 3 m of runway shall be mutually

visible from a distance equal to half the length of runway

v. Transverse gradient

ICAO restricts the gradient to 1.5% with a minimum of 0.5%

vi. Clearway

ICAO recommends different clearances for various categories of airport (A,B,C

= 210 to D,E,F,G = 150)

c. Taxiway configuration
Taxiway are defined as paths on the airfield surface for the taxing of aircraft and are
intended to provide linkage between one part of the airfield to another. Aircraft movement on
taxiways are essentially ground movements and are relatively slow

Types of taxiway:

a. Apron taxiway: Located on the periphery of an apron to provide

uninterrupted taxing of aircraft across the apron.

b. Dual parallel taxiway: Two parallel taxiways on which aircraft can taxi in
opposite directions.

c. Terminal taxiway: It is a portion of an apron intended to provide access to

only aircraft stands or gate positions.

Taxiway Geometrics:

1. Length : As short as possible

It will increase as number of taxiways have to be provided along therunway

2. Longitudinal Gradient : If gradient is steep it affects fuel consumption.

As per ICAO gradient of 3% for A and B types of airport and 1.5% for C, D and E
types of airport.

3. Width of taxiway: Width of taxiway is lesser than runway, as aircraft is not

airborn and speed are less
There is not much variability in the maneuverability of aircraft and nose of
 aircraft follows the taxiway centerline.
Width varies between 22.5 and 7.5 28

4. Sight distance : As speed of aircraft on taxiway is lower than the speed on

runway, the smaller value of sight distance will be sufficient on the taxiway.

Turning Radius: Change in aircraft path is done by providing a

horizontal curve.

6. The design should be such that the aircraft can negotiate the curve without
significantly reducing the speed.

7. Relationship between exit speed and radius of curve Radius = V2/125f; V is in

Kmph and f is coefficient of friction =0.13 30

*Taxiway width

The width of taxiways is lower than that of runways because of low speed and ease of
manoeuvrability.

WT = TM + 2C

Where, WT = taxiway width

TM = Outer main gear wheel span

C = Clearance between outer main gear wheel and taxiway edge

Code letter Taxiway width

A 7.5 m
B 10.5 m
C 15-18 m
D 18-23 m
E 23 m

8. Taxiway curves

Changes in direction of taxiway should be less as far as possible

Code letter Extra widening

A 1.5 m
B 2.25 m
C 3-4.5 m
D 4.5 m
E 4.5 m
.
9. Taxiway intersection

The intersection of taxiway and runway should provide a smooth junction

10. Taxiway minimum separation distance

In case of parallel running runway and taxiway,

minimum separation distance as per ICAO is,

S = 0.5* (SW + SS)

Where, S = Separation distance

 SW = Strip width

SS = Wing span

11. Slopes on taxiway

Longitudinal slopes

The longitudinal slope of taxiway should not exceed

1.5% for code letter C, D and E

3% for code letter A and B

Longitudinal slope changes

1% per 30 m with minimum radius of curvature of 3000 m for code

letter C, D and E

1% per 25 m with minimum radius of curvature of 2500 m for code

letter A and B

Transverse slopes

It should be sufficient to prevent the accumulation of water on the surface of taxiway

but should not exceed

1.5 % for C, D and E

2% for A and B

12. Sight distance

The sight distance on taxiway should be such that surface up to a distance of 300 m is visible
from 3 m height (height of eye of pilot).

d. Movement area

Movement area is that part of aerodrome to be used for take-off, landing and taxiing of
aircraft, consisting of manoeuvring area and apron.

e. Manoeuvring area
 Manoeuvring area is that part of aerodrome to be used by aircraft for take-off, landing and
taxiing, excluding aprons and areas designed for maintenance of an aircraft.

f. Obstacle Limitation Surfaces

There are a series of surfaces that set the height limits of objects around on aerodrome. It
consists of following individual surfaces

Outer horizontal surfaces

Conical surface

Inner horizontal surfac

Approach surface

Inner approach surface

Transitional surface

Inner transitional surface

Baulked landing surface

Take-off climb surface

g. Terminal Area

It is a major factor for airport planning as terminal area planning is the interface between
landside and airside operations. The primary objective to consider terminal area is to achieve an
appropriate balance of accessibility, passenger convenience, operating efficiency, facility investment and
aesthetic.

Terminals areas includes:

i. Terminal and operational buildings

ii. Vehicle parking area

iii. Aircraft service hangars

iv. Facilities for cargo handling and storage

v. Facilities for passengers

Following factors should be considered for terminal area

 i. Terminal area geometrics

ii. Passenger flow

iii. Passengers vehicle flow

iv. Airport administration

v. Aircraft operations

vi. Safety and Security

vii. Financial viability

viii. Capacity

Fig: diffrent arrangement of airport terminals

h. Apron

It is the area of airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refuelled or boarded.
Although, the use of aprons is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically
more accessible to the user than the runway or taxiway.

The use of apron maybe controlled by the apron management service to provide
coordination between users.
i. Location of the tower :
Air control (known to pilots as "tower" or "tower control") is responsible for the
active runway surfaces. Air control clears aircraft for takeoff or landing, ensuring that
prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If the air controller detects any unsafe
conditions, a landing aircraft may be instructed to "go-around" and be re-sequenced into the
landing pattern. This re-sequencing will depend on the type of flight and may be handled by the
air controller, approach or terminal area controller.
Within the tower, a highly disciplined communications process between air
control and ground control is an absolute necessity. Air control must ensure that ground
control is aware of any operations that will impact the taxiways, and work with the approach
radar controllers to create "gaps" in the arrival traffic to allow taxiing traffic to cross runways
and to allow departing aircraft to take off. Ground control need to keep the air controllers
aware of the traffic flow towards their runways in order to maximise runway utilisation through
effective approach spacing

2.4 Airport airside Capacity and delay

The capacity of airfield depends on a number of prevailing conditions, including ceiling and
visibility, air traffic control, aircraft mix and type of operation.

It is a measure of the maximum number of aircraft operations that can be accommodated

on airport airside component in an hour

Causes of delay

Weather

Terminal air traffic operations

Air traffic centre operations

Airfield runway closures

Runway capacity

It is maximum sustainable throughput of aircraft operations, both arrivals and departures

that could be performed during specified time intervals at a given airport of a specific runway
configurations, under given weather conditions and at acceptable level of aircraft delay.

Factors affecting runway capacity are:

 Meteorological conditions in terms of visibility, cloud ceiling and wind

Airfield layout, runway configuration and operational strategy

Aircraft arrival and departure ratios

Aircraft characteristics

Apron gate capacity

The factors on which the capacity of apron gate system depends on are,

Number of stands available

Number of aircraft that can occupy the apron at any given moment

Position of gate

Type of aircraft parking system

2.5 Aerodrome Design Standards and Classification as per ICAO

REMEMBER TO DO FROM SUNILS BOOK

Code Element (1) Code Element (2)

Code No. (1) Aeroplane Code letter (3) Wing span (4) Outer main gear
reference field wheel span (5)
length (2)
1 Less than 800 m A Up to but not Up to but not
including 15 m including 4.5 m
2 800 up to but not B 15 m up to but not 4.5 m up to but
including 1200 m including 24 m not including 6 m
3 1200 m up to but C 24 m up to but not 6 m up to but not
not including 1800 including 36 m including 9 m
m
4 1800 m and over D 36 m up to but not 9 m up to but not
including 52 m including 14 m
E 52 m up to but not 9 m up to but not
including 65 m including 14 m
F 65 m up to but not 14 m up to but not
 including 80 m including 16 m

2.6 Geometric Design of the Aerodrome :

Bays (WRITE FROM
VEDIO AFTER DOWNLOAD COMPLETED )

2.6.1 Runway, Taxi Apron and Holding

i. Geometric design of runway

ii. Geometric designof taxi apron

iii. Geometric design of holding bays