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Chapter 1
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors
C. Agelet de Saracibar
ETS Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politcnica de Catalua (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE), Barcelona, Spain
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Contents
Contents
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Algebra of vectors
3. Algebra of tensors
4. Higher order tensors
5. Differential operators
6. Integral theorems
Introduction
Tensors
Continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of
materials, either solids or fluids, which are independent of any
particular coordinate system in which they are observed.
Introduction
Tensors
According to their tensorial order, tensors may be classified as:
Zero-order tensors: scalars, i.e. density, temperature, pressure
First-order tensors: vectors, i.e. velocity, acceleration, force
Second-order tensors, i.e. stress, strain, strain rate
Third-order tensors, i.e. piezoelectric tensor
Fourth-order tensors, i.e. elastic constitutive tensor,
elastoplastic constitutive tensor
Introduction
Notation on Printed Documents
Zero-order tensors: , a, A
First-order tensors: , a, A
Second-order tensors: , a, A
Third-order tensors: A
Fourth-order tensors: A
Algebra of Vectors
Scalar
A physical quantity, completely described by a single real
number, such as the temperature, density or pressure, is called a
scalar and is designated by , a, A .
A scalar may be viewed as a zero-order tensor.
Vector
A vector is a directed line element in space. A model for physical
quantities having both direction and length, such as velocity,
acceleration or force, is called a vector and is designated by.
, a, A.
A vector may be viewed as a first-order tensor.
Algebra of Vectors
Sum of Vectors
The sum of vectors yields a new vector, based on the parallelo-
gram law of addition.
The sum of vectors has the following properties,
u+ v = v+u
(u + v ) + w = u + ( v + w )
u+0=u
u + ( u ) = 0
where 0 denotes the unique zero vector with unspecified
direction and zero length.
Algebra of Vectors
Scalar Multiplication
Let u be a vector and be a scalar. The scalar multiplication u
gives a new vector with the same direction as u if > 0 or with
the opposite direction to u if < 0.
The scalar multiplication has the following properties,
( ) u = ( u )
( + ) u = u + u
(u + v ) = u + v
Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
The dot (or scalar or inner) product of two vectors u and v,
denoted by u v, is a scalar given by,
u v = u v cos ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
The dot (or scalar or inner) product of vectors has the following
properties,
u v = v u
u0 = 0
u ( v + w ) = ( u v ) + ( u w )
u u > 0 u 0
u u = 0 u = 0
u v = 0, u 0, v 0 u v
Algebra of Vectors
Unit Vectors
A vector e is called a unit vector if its norm (or lenght or
magnitude) is equal to 1,
e =1
Orthogonal Vectors
A non-zero vector u is said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular)
to a non-zero vector v if,
u v = 0, u 0, v 0 ( u, v ) = 2 u v
Algebra of Vectors
Projection
The projection of a vector u along a direction given by a unit
vector e is a (positive or negative) scalar quantity defined as,
u e = u cos ( u, e ) , 0 ( u, e )
u
( u, e )
e
u cos ( u, e )
Algebra of Vectors
Cartesian Basis
Let us consider a three-dimensional Euclidean space with a fixed
set of three right-handed orthonormal basis vectors e1 , e 2 , e3 ,
denoted as Cartesian basis, satisfying the following properties,
x3 ,
e3
e1 e2 = e1 e3 = e2 e3 = 0
e1
O e2
x2 , e1 = e2 = e3 = 1
x1,
Algebra of Vectors
Cartesian Components
Any vector u in the three-dimensional Euclidean space is
represented uniquely by a linear combination of the basis
vectors e1 , e 2 , e3 , i.e.
u = u1e1 + u2e 2 + u3e3
where the three real numbers u1 , u2 , u3 are the uniquely
determined Cartesian components of vector u along the given
directions e1 , e 2 , e3 , respectively.
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of the vector u
can be collected into a vector of components [u ] 3 given by,
T
[u ] = [u1 u2 u3 ]
Algebra of Vectors
Index Notation
Using index notation the vector u can be written as,
u = i =1 ui ei
3
u = ui ei
Algebra of Vectors
Index Notation
The index that is summed over is said to be a dummy (or
summation) index.
The same repeated index can appear only twice.
An index that is not summed over in a given term is called a
free (or live) index.
vi = ai b j c j = ai ( b1c1 + b2 c2 + b3c3 )
v = ai bi c j d j = ( a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 )( c1d1 + c2 d 2 + c3 d3 )
vi = ai b j c j ck d k = ai ( b1c1 + b2 c2 + b3c3 )( c1d1 + c2 d 2 + c3 d3 )
Algebra of Vectors
Kronecker Delta
The Kronecker delta ij is defined as,
1 if i = j
ij =
0 if i j
The Kronecker delta satisfies the following properties,
ii = 3, ij jk = ik , ij u j = ui
Note that the Kronecker delta plays the role of a replacement
operator.
Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
The dot (or scalar or inner) product of two orthonormal basis
vectors ei and e j , denoted as ei e j , is a scalar quantity (taking
values either 0 or 1) and can be conveniently written in terms of
the Kronecker delta as,
ei e j = ij
Algebra of Vectors
Components of a Vector
Taking the basis {ei }, the projection of a vector u onto the basis
vector ei yields the i-th component of u ,
u ei = ( u j e j ) ei = u j e j ei = u j ji = ui
Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
Taking the basis {ei }, the dot (or scalar or inner) product of two
vectors u and v, denoted as u v , is a scalar quantity and using
index notation can be written as,
u v = ui ei v j e j = ui v j ei e j = ui v j ij = ui vi
= u1v1 + u2 v2 + u3v3
Algebra of Vectors
Euclidean Norm
Taking the basis {ei }, the Euclidean norm (or length or
magnitude) of a vector u, denoted as u , is a non-negative
scalar quantity and, using index notation, can be written as,
12 12
= ( ui ei u j e j ) = ( ui u j ij )
12 12
u = (u u ) = ( ui ui )
2 12
= (u + u + u
2
1
2
2 3 )
Assignment 1.1
Assignment 1.1 [Classwork]
Write in index form the following expressions,
v = (a b) c
v = a (b c)
v = ( a b )( c d )
v = a ( b c )( c d )
Assignment 1.1
Assignment 1.1 [Classwork]
Write in index form the following expressions,
v = ( a b ) c = a j b j ci ei = vi ei , vi = a j b j ci
v = a ( b c ) = ai b j c j ei = vi ei , vi = ai b j c j
v = ( a b )( c d ) = ai bi c j d j , v = ai bi c j d j
v = a ( b c )( c d ) = ai b j c j ck d k ei = vi ei , vi = ai b j c j ck d k
Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
The cross (or vector) product of two vectors u and v , denoted
as u v, is another vector which is perpendicular to the plane
defined by the two vectors and its norm (or length) is given by
the area of the parallelogram spanned by the two vectors,
u v = u v sin ( u, v ) e, 0 ( u, v )
where e is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane defined by
the two vectors, u e = 0, v e = 0, in the direction given by the
right-hand rule, .
Algebra of Vectors
Norm of the Cross Product of two Vectors
The norm (or magnitude or length) of the cross (or vector)
product of two vectors u and v, denoted as u v , measures
the area spanned by the two vectors and is given by,
u v = u v sin ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
u v
v
u v
u
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Algebra of Vectors
Permutation Symbol
The permutation (or alternating or Levi-Civita) symbol ijk is
defined as,
+1 for even permutations of (i, j , k ), i.e. 123, 231, 312
ijk = 1 for odd permutations of (i, j , k ), i.e. 213, 132, 321
0 if there is repeated index
Algebra of Vectors
Permutation Symbol
The permutation (or alternating or Levi-Civita) symbol ijk may
be written in terms of the Kronecker delta and has the following
properties,
i1 i 2 i 3 ip iq ir
ijk = det j1 j 2 j 3 , ijk pqr = det jp jq jr
k 1 k 2 k 3 kp kq kr
ijp pqk = ip jq iq jp , ijk pjk = 2 ip , ijk ijk = 2 ii = 6
ijk =
( i j )( j k )( k i )
2
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Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Vectors
Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
The cross (or vector) product of two right-handed orthonormal
basis vectors satisfies the following properties,
x3 ,
e1 e2 = e3 , e2 e3 = e1 , e3 e1 = e2 ,
e3
O e2
e2 e1 = e3 , e3 e2 = e1 , e1 e3 = e2 ,
x2 ,
e1
e1 e1 = e2 e2 = e3 e3 = 0.
x1,
Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
Taking the basis {ei } , the cross (or vector) product of two
vectors u and v, denoted as u v , is another vector,
perpendicular to the plane defined by the two vectors, and can
be written in index form as,
u v = ui ei v j e j = ui v j ei e j = ui v j ijk e k = ijk ui v j e k
= ( u2 v3 u3v2 ) e1 + ( u3v1 u1v3 ) e 2 + ( u1v2 u2 v1 ) e3
e1 e 2 e3
= det u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
The cross (or vector) product of vectors has the following
properties,
u v = ( v u)
u v = 0, u 0, v 0 u || v
( u ) v = u ( v ) = ( u v )
u( v + w) = u v + u w
Assignment 1.2
Assignment 1.2
Using the expression,
2 2 2
u v = u v sin 2 ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
obtain the following relationships between the permutation
symbol and the Kronecker delta,
ijp klp = ik jl il jk , ipq jpq = 2 ij , ijk ijk = 2 ii = 6
Assignment 1.2
Assignment 1.2
Using the expression,
2 2 2
u v = u v sin 2 ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
obtain the following relationships between the permutation
symbol and the Kronecker delta,
ijp klp = ik jl il jk , ipq jpq = 2 ij , ijk ijk = 2 ii = 6
Using index notation, the left hand side takes the form,
u v = ( u v ) ( u v ) = ( ijk u j vk ) ( ilmul vm ) = u j vk ul vm ijk ilm
2
Assignment 1.2
Using index notation, the right hand side takes the form,
u
2 2
v sin ( u, v ) = u
2 2
v
2
(1 cos ( u, v ) ) =
2
u
2 2
v (u v )
2
= u j u j vk vk u j v j uk vk = u j vk ul vm ( jl km jm kl )
Comparing the two expressions we get,
ijp klp = ik jl il jk
Contracting index j with index l,
ijp kjp = ijp klp jl = ( ik jl il jk ) jl = 3 ik il lk = 2 ik
Contracting index i with index k,
ijp ijp = ijp kjp ik = 2 ik ik = 2 ii = 6
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Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
The box (or triple scalar) product of three right-handed
orthonormal basis vectors ei , e j , e k , denoted as ei ( e j e k ) , is a
scalar quantity (taking values either 1, -1 or 0) and can be
conveniently written in terms of the permutation symbol as,
ijk = ei ( e j e k ) = ( ei e j ) ek
Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
Taking the orthonormal basis {ei }, the box (or triple scalar)
product of three vectors u, v, w , denoted as u ( v w ), is a
scalar quantity and using index notation can be written as,
u ( v w ) = ui ei ( v j e j wk ek ) = ui v j wk ei ( e j ek )
= ijk ui v j wk
u1 u2 u3
= det v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3
Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
The box (or triple scalar) product of three vectors u, v, w
represents the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the
three vectors forming a right-handed triad,
V = u ( v w)
vw
u
V = u ( v w)
w
v
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Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
The box (or triple scalar) product has the following properties,
u ( v w ) = w (u v ) = v ( w u)
u ( v w ) = u ( w v )
u (u v ) = v (u v ) = 0
Algebra of Vectors
Triple Vector Product
Taking the orthonormal basis {ei } , the triple vector product of
three vectors u, v, w , denoted as u ( v w ) , is a vector and
using index notation can be written as,
u ( v w ) = ijk ui ( pqj v p wq ) ek
= kij pqj ui v p wq e k
= ( kp iq kq ip ) ui v p wq ek
= ui vk wi e k ui vi wk e k
= (u w ) v (u v ) w
Algebra of Vectors
Triple Vector Product
Taking the orthonormal basis {ei } , the triple vector product of
three vectors u, v, w , denoted as ( u v ) w , is a vector and
using index notation can be written as,
( u v ) w = ijk ( pqiu p vq ) w j ek
= jki pqi u p vq w j e k
= ( jp kq jq kp ) u p vq w j e k
= u j w j vk ek v j w j uk e k
= (u w ) v ( v w ) u
Algebra of Vectors
Triple Vector Product
The triple vector product has the following properties,
u ( v w ) = (u w ) v (u v ) w
(u v ) w = (u w ) v ( v w ) u
u ( v w ) (u v ) w
Algebra of Tensors
Second-order Tensors
A second-order tensor A may be thought of as a linear operator
that acts on a vector u generating a vector v , defining a linear
transformation that assigns a vector v to a vector u,
v = Au
Algebra of Tensors
Second-order Tensors
As linear operators defining linear transformations, second-
order tensors have the following properties,
A ( u + v ) = Au + Av
( A ) u = ( Au )
( A B ) u = Au Bu
Algebra of Tensors
Tensor Product
The tensor product (or dyad) of two vectors u and v , denoted
as u v , is a second-order tensor which linearly transforms a
vector w into a vector with the direction of u following the rule,
(u v ) w = u ( v w ) = ( v w ) u
A dyadic is a linear combination of dyads.
Algebra of Tensors
Tensor Product
The tensor product (or dyad) has the following linear properties,
( u v )( w + x ) = ( u v ) w + ( u v ) x
( u + v ) w = u w + v w
(u v ) w = ( v w ) u = u ( v w )
( u v )( w x ) = ( v w ) u x = u x ( v w )
A ( u v ) = ( Au ) v
Generally, the tensor product (or dyad) is not commutative, i.e.
u v v u
( u v )( w x ) ( w x )( u v )
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Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
Tensor Product
The tensor product (or dyad) of two orthonormal basis vectors ei
and e j , denoted as ei e j , is a second-order tensor and can be
thought as a linear operator such that,
(e e ) e = (e
i j k j e k ) ei = jk ei
Algebra of Tensors
Second-order Tensors
Any second-order tensor A may be represented by a linear
combination of dyads formed by the Cartesian basis {ei }
A = Aij ei e j
where the nine real numbers, represented by Aij , are the
uniquely determined Cartesian components of the tensor A
with respect to the dyads formed by the Cartesian basis {ei },
represented by ei e j , which constitute a basis second-order
tensor for A .
The second-order unit tensor may be written as,
1 = ij ei e j = ei ei
Algebra of Tensors
Cartesian Components
The ij-th Cartesian component of the second-order tensor A,
denoted as Aij , can be written as,
ei Ae j = ei ( Akl e k el ) e j = ei ( Akl lj e k )
= ei ( Akj e k ) = Akj ei e k = Akj ik = Aij
ei 1e j = ei e j = ij
Algebra of Tensors
Matrix of Components
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of any second-
order tensor A may be collected into a 3 x 3 matrix of compo-
nents, denoted by [ A ] , given by,
A = Aij ei e j
Algebra of Tensors
Matrix of Components
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of the second-
order unit tensor 1 may be collected into a 3 x 3 matrix of
components, denoted as [1], given by,
1 = ij ei e j = ei ei
1 0 0
[1] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Algebra of Tensors
Second-order Tensors
The tensor product (or dyad) of the vectors u and v, denoted as
u v , may be represented by a linear combination of dyads
formed by the Cartesian basis {ei }
u v = ui v j ei e j
Algebra of Tensors
Matrix of Components
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of any second-
order tensor u v may be collected into a 3 x 3 matrix of
components, denoted as [u v ], given by,
u v = ui v j ei e j
Algebra of Tensors
Second-order Tensors
Using index notation, the linear transformation v = Au can be
written as,
v = Au
vi ei = ( Aij ei e j ) ( uk e k ) = Aij uk ( ei e j ) e k = Aij uk jk ei
vi ei = Aij u j ei
yielding
v = Au, vi = Aij u j , [ v ] = [ A ][u ]
Algebra of Tensors
Positive Semi-definite Second-order Tensor
A second-order tensor A is said to be a positive semi-definite
tensor if the following relation holds for any non-zero vector u 0
u Au 0 u 0
u Au > 0 u 0
Algebra of Tensors
Transpose of a Second-order Tensor
The unique transpose of a second-order tensor A , denoted as AT ,
is governed by the identity,
v AT u = u Av u, v
vi AijT u j = vi Aji u j = u j Aji vi u j , vi
The Cartesian components of the transpose of a second-order
tensor A satisfy,
AijT := ( AT ) = ei AT e j = e j Aei = Aji
ij
Algebra of Tensors
Transpose of a Second-order Tensor
The matrix of components of the transpose of a second-order
tensor A is equal to the transpose of the matrix of components
of A and takes the form,
A = Aij ei e j
AT = Aji ei e j
Algebra of Tensors
Symmetric Second-order Tensor
A second-order tensor A is said to be symmetric if the following
relation holds,
A = AT
Using index notation, the Cartesian components of a symmetric
second-order tensor A satisfy,
A = Aij ei e j = Aji ei e j = AT , Aij = Aji
Using matrix notation, the matrix of components of a symmetric
second-order tensor A satisfies,
T
[ A ] = A T
= [ A ]
Algebra of Tensors
Dot Product
The dot product of two second-order tensors A and B, denoted
as AB , is a second-order tensor such that,
( AB ) u = A ( Bu ) u
Algebra of Tensors
Dot Product
The components of the dot product AB along an orthonormal
basis {ei } read,
Cij = ( AB )ij = ei ( AB ) e j = ei A ( Be j )
= ei A ( Bkj ek ) = ei Aek Bkj
= Aik Bkj
Algebra of Tensors
Dot Product
The dot product of second-order tensors has the following
properties,
( AB ) C = A ( BC) = ABC
A 2 = AA
AB BA
Algebra of Tensors
Trace
The trace of a dyad u v, denoted as tr ( u v ) , is a scalar
quantity given by,
tr ( u v ) = u v = ui vi
The trace of a second-order tensor A , denoted as tr A , is a scalar
quantity given by,
tr A = tr ( Aij ei e j ) = Aij tr ( ei e j )
= Aij ( ei e j ) = Aij ij
= Aii
= A11 + A22 + A33 = tr [ A ]
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Algebra of Tensors
Trace
The trace of a second-order tensor A, denoted as tr A , is a scalar
quantity given by,
Algebra of Tensors
Trace
The trace of a second-order tensor has the following properties,
tr A = tr AT
tr ( AB ) = tr ( BA )
tr ( A + B ) = tr A + tr B
tr ( A ) = tr ( A )
Algebra of Tensors
Double Dot Product
The double dot product of two second-order tensors A and B ,
denoted as A : B , is a scalar quantity defined as,
A : B = tr ( AT B ) = tr ( BT A )
= tr ( ABT ) = tr ( BAT )
= B:A
or using index notation,
Algebra of Tensors
Double Dot Product
The double dot product has the following properties,
A : 1 = 1 : A = tr A
A:B = B:A
A : ( BC ) = ( BT A ) : C = ( ACT ) : B
A : ( u v ) = u Av = ( u v ) : A
( u v ) : ( w x ) = ( u w )( v x )
( ei e j ) : ( ek el ) = ( ei ek ) ( e j el ) = ik jl
Algebra of Tensors
Euclidean Norm
The euclidean norm of a second-order tensor A is a non-
negative scalar quantity, denoted as A , given by,
12
= ( Aij Aij )
12
A = ( A : A) 0
Algebra of Tensors
Determinant
The determinant of a second-order tensor A is a scalar quantity,
denoted as det A , given by,
det A = det [ A ]
A11 A13
A12
= det A21 A22 A23
A31 A32 A33
1
= ijk A1i A2 j A3k = ijk pqr Api Aqj Ark
6
Algebra of Tensors
Determinant
The determinant of a second-order tensor has the following
properties,
det AT = det A
det ( A ) = 3 det A
det ( AB ) = det A det B
Algebra of Tensors
Singular Tensors
A second-order tensor A is said to be singular if and only if its
determinant is equal to zero, i.e.
A is singular det A = 0
Algebra of Tensors
Inverse of a Second-order Tensor
For a non-singular second-order tensor A , i.e. det A 0, there
exist a unique non-singular inverse second-order tensor,
denoted as A 1 , satisfying,
( ) ( A ) u = 1u = u u
AA 1
u = A 1
yielding,
Algebra of Tensors
Inverse of a Second-order Tensor
The inverse second-order tensor satisfies the following
properties,
1 1
(A ) =A
1 1 T
(A ) T
= (A ) = A T
1
( )
A = 1 1
A
1
( AB ) = B 1A 1
A 2 = A 1A 1
1
det A = ( det A )
1
Algebra of Tensors
Orthogonal Second Order Tensor
An orthogonal second-order tensor Q is a linear operator that
preserves the norms and the angles between two vectors,
12
Qu = ( u Q Qu )
12
T
= (u u) = u u
Qu Qv = u QT Qv = u v
T u, v
Qv Qu = v Q Qu = v u
and the following relations hold,
QT Q = QQT = 1, Q 1 = QT , det Q = 1
Algebra of Tensors
Rotation Second Order Tensor
A rotation tensor R is a proper orthogonal second-order tensor,
i.e., is a linear operator that preserves the lengths (norms) and
the angles between two vectors,
12
Ru = ( u R Ru )
12
T
= (u u) = u u
Ru Rv = u RT Rv = u v
T u, v
Rv Ru = v R Ru = v u
and satisfies the following expressions,
RT R = RRT = 1, R 1 = RT , det R = 1
Algebra of Tensors
Symmetric/Skew-symmetric Additive Split
A second-order tensor A can be uniquely additively split into a
symmetric second-order tensor S and a skew-symmetric
second-order tensor W, such that,
1 1
W=
2
( A A ) = W
T T
, Wij =
2
( A
ij Aji ) = W ji
Algebra of Tensors
Symmetric/Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensors
The matrices of components of a symmetric second-order
tensor S and a skew-symmetric second-order tensor W, are
given by,
Algebra of Tensors
Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensors
The double dot product of a symmetric second-order tensor S
and a skew-symmetric second-order tensor W gives,
S : W = SijWij
= S12W12 + S13W13 + S23W23 S12W12 S13W13 S23W23
=0
Algebra of Tensors
Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensor
A skew-symmetric second-order tensor W can be defined by
means of an axial (or dual) vector , such that,
Wu = u u
W = 2
and using index notation the following relations hold,
W = Wij ei e j = ijk k ei e j , Wij = ijk k
1 1
= k ek = ijkWij ek , k = ijkWij
2 2
Algebra of Tensors
Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensor
Using matrix notation and index notation the following relations
hold,
0 W12 W13 0 3 2
[ W] = W12 0 W23 = 3 0 1
W13 W23 0 2 1 0
T T
[ ] = [1 , 2 , 3 ] = [ W23 , W13 , W12 ]
Algebra of Tensors
Spherical Second-order Tensor
A spherical second-order tensor A is defined as,
A = 1, Aij = ij
and has the following properties,
tr A = tr 1 = 3 , Aii = ii = 3
0 0
0 0
[ ]
A =
0 0
Algebra of Tensors
Deviatoric Second-order Tensor
A second-order tensor A is said to be deviatoric if the following
condition holds,
tr A = 0, Aii = 0
Algebra of Tensors
Spherical/Deviatoric Additive Split
A second-order tensor A can be uniquely additively split into a
spherical second-order tensor Aesf and a deviatoric second-
order tensor dev A, such that,
Algebra of Tensors
Eigenvalues/Eigenvectors
Given a symmetric second-order tensor A , its eigenvalues
i and associated eigenvectors ni, which define an
orthonormal basis along the principal directions, satisfy the
following equation (Einstein notation does not apply here),
Ani = i ni , ( A i 1) ni = 0
In order to get a non-trivial solution, the tensor A i 1 has to
be singular, i.e., its determinant, defining the characteristic
polynomial, has to be equal to zero, yielding,
p ( i ) = det ( A i 1) = 0
Algebra of Tensors
Eigenvalues/Eigenvectors
Given a symmetric second-order tensor A , its eigenvalues
i and associated eigenvectors ni, which define an
orthonormal basis along the principal directions, characterize
the physical nature of the tensor.
Algebra of Tensors
Characteristic Polynomial and Principal Invariants
The characteristic polynomial of a second-order tensor A takes
the form,
p ( ) = det ( A 1) = 3 + I1 2 I 2 + I 3 = 0
where the coefficients of the polynomial are the principal scalar
invariants of the tensor (invariants in front of an arbitrary
rotation of the orthonormal basis) given by,
I1 ( A ) = tr A = 1 + 2 + 3
1
I2 ( A) =
2
( tr 2
A tr A 2
) = 12 + 23 + 31
I 3 ( A ) = det A = 123
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 83
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
Eigenvalues/Eigenvectors
Given a deviatoric part of a symmetric second-order tensor
dev A , its eigenvalues i and asociated eigenvectors ni ,
which define an orthonormal basis along the principal directions,
satisfy the following equation (Einstein notation does not apply
here),
dev Ani = ini , ( dev A i1) ni = 0
In order to get a non-trivial solution, the tensor dev A i1 has
to be singular, i.e., its determinant, defining the characteristic
polynomial, has to be equal to zero, yielding,
p ( i) = det ( dev A i1) = 0
Algebra of Tensors
Characteristic Polynomial and Principal Invariants
The characteristic polynomial of the deviatoric part of a second-
order tensor dev A takes the form,
p ( ) = det ( dev A 1) = 3 + I1 2 I 2 + I 3 = 0
where the coefficients of the polynomial are the pincipal scalar
invariants of the deviatoric part of the tensor (invariants in front
of an arbitrary rotation of the orthonormal basis) given by,
I1 ( dev A ) = tr dev A = 0
1 2 1
I 2 ( dev A ) = tr ( dev A ) = ( 11 + 22 + 33 )
2 2
I 3 ( dev A ) = det dev A = 123
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 85
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
Eigenvalues/Eigenvectors
The eigenvalues/eigenvectors problem for a symmetric second-
order tensor A and its the deviatoric part dev A satisfy the
following relations (Einstein notation does not apply here),
Ani = i ni , ( A i 1) ni = 0
dev Ani = ini , ( dev A i1) ni = 0
Then,
1
( dev A i1) ni = A i + ( tr A ) 1 ni = ( A i 1) ni = 0
3
yielding,
1
i = i + ( tr A ) , ni = ni
3
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 86
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
Spectral Decomposition
The spectral decomposition of the secod-order unit tensor takes
the form,
1 = ij ei e j = ei ei
For a second-order unit tensor, all three eigenvalues are equal to
one, 1 = 2 = 3 = 1, and any direction is a principal direction.
Then we may take any orthonormal basis as principal directions
and the spectral decomposition can be written,
1 = i=1,3 ni ni = ni ni
Algebra of Tensors
Spectral Decomposition
The spectral decomposition of a symmetric second-order tensor A
takes the form (Einstein notation does not apply here),
A = i =1,3 i ni ni
If there are two equal eigenvalues = 1 = 2 , the spectral
decomposition takes the form,
A = (1 n3 n3 ) + 3n3 n3
If the three eigenvalues are equal = 1 = 2 = 3 , the spectral
decomposition takes the form,
A = 1 = i =1,3 ni ni = ni ni
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 88
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Higher-order Tensors
Third-order Tensors
Third-order Tensors
A third-order tensor, denoted as A , may be written as a linear
combination of tensor products of three orthonormal basis
vectors, denoted as ei e j e k , such that,
A = i =1 j =1 k =1 Aijk ei e j e k = Aijk ei e j e k
3 3 3
Fourth-order Tensors
Fourth-order Tensors
A fourth-order tensor, denoted as C , may be written as a linear
combination of tensor products of four orthonormal basis
vectors, denoted as ei e j e k el , such that,
Fourth-order Tensors
Double Dot Product with Second-order Tensors
The double dot product of a fourth-order tensor C with a
second-order tensor A is another second-order tensor B given
by,
B = C : A = C ijkl Akl ei e j = Bij ei e j , Bij = C ijkl Akl
Fourth-order Tensors
Transpose of a Fourth-order Tensor
The transpose of a fourth-order tensor C is uniquely defined as
a fourth-order tensor CT such that for arbitrary second-order
tensors A and B the following relationship holds,
Fourth-order Tensors
Tensor Product of two Second-order Tensors
The tensor product of two second-order tensors A and B is a
fourth order tensor C given by,
C = A B = Aij Bkl ei e j e k el = C ijkl ei e j e k el ,
C ijkl = ( A B )ijkl = Aij Bkl
T
= C ijkl ei e j e k el ,
T
T
C
ijkl = ( A B )ijkl = ( B A )ijkl = Bij Akl
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 93
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Higher-order Tensors
Fourth-order Tensors
Fourth-order Identity Tensors
Let us consider the following fourth-order identity tensors,
I = ik jl ei e j ek el
I = il jk ei e j ek el
I = 1 ( I + I ) = 1 ( + ) e e e e
ik jl il jk i j k l
2 2
Fourth-order Tensors
Fourth-order Identity Tensors
The fourth-order identity tensor I satisfies the following
expressions,
I : A = ik jl Akl ei e j = Aij ei e j = A,
A : I = Aij ik jl ek el = Akl ek el = A
A:I:B = B:I :A
Fourth-order Tensors
Fourth-order Identity Tensors
The fourth-order identity tensor I satisfies the following
expressions,
I : A = il jk Akl ei e j = Aji ei e j = AT
A : I = Aij il jk Akl ek el = Alk ek el = AT
A: I :B = B: I :A
Fourth-order Tensors
Fourth-order Identity Tensors
The fourth-order identity tensor I satisfies the following
expressions,
I : A = 1 ( I + I ) : A = 1 ( A + AT )
2 2
1 1
A : I = A : ( I + I ) = ( A + AT )
2 2
The fourth-order identity tensor I is symmetric, satisfying,
1 1
A : I : B = A : ( B + B ) = B : ( A + AT ) = B : I : A
T
2 2
I =
I T
A : I : B = B : I T : A
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 97
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Higher-order Tensors
Fourth-order Tensors
Fourth-order Deviatoric Projection Operator Tensor
The fourth-order deviatoric projection operator tensor Pdev is
defined as,
1 1
Pdev = I 1 1,
3
(P ) dev ijkl = ik jl ij kl
3
The deviatoric part of a second-order tensor A can be obtained
as,
1 1
dev A = Pdev : A = I 1 1 : A = A ( tr A ) 1,
3 3
1 1
( dev A )ij = ( Pdev )ijkl Akl = ik jl ij kl Akl = Aij ( Akk ) ij
3 3
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 98
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
a = u v = ui vi , a = ui vi
w = u v = ijk u j vk ei , wi = ijk u j vk
a = u ( v w ) = ijk ui v j wk , a = ijk ui v j wk
A = u v = ui v j ei e j , Aij = ui v j
v = Au = Aij u j ei , vi = Aij u j
C = AB = Aik Bkj ei e j , Cij = Aik Bkj
a = A : B = Aij Bij , a = Aij Bij
B = C : A = C ijkl Akl ei e j , Bij = C ijkl Akl
C = A B = Aij Bkl ei e j ek el , C ijkl = Aij Bkl
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 99
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Nabla
The nabla vector differential operator, denoted as , is defined
as,
= ei
xi
Laplacian
The laplacian scalar differential operator, denoted as , is
defined as,
2
= 2
xi
Differential Operators
Hessian
The hessian symmetric second-order tensor differential
operator, denoted as , is defined as,
2
= ei e j
xi x j
Differential Operators
Divergence, Curl and Gradient
The divergence differential operator div () is defined as,
(i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The curl differential operator curl () is defined as,
( i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The gradient differential operator grad () is defined as,
(i) ( i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 102
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Laplacian
The laplacian scalar differential operator can be expressed as the
div (grad ()) operator,
2
( i ) = ( i ) = 2 ( i ) = div grad ( i )
xi
Hessian
The hessian symmetric second order-tensor differential operator
can be expressed as the grad (grad ()) operator,
2 (i)
( i) = ei e j = grad grad ( i )
xi x j
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 103
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Gradient of a Scalar Field
The gradient differential operator grad () is defined as,
(i) ( i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field defined as,
grad = = ei = ,i ei
xi
Differential Operators
Laplacian of a Scalar Field
The laplacian differential operator ( i ) is defined as,
2 ( i)
( i ) = div grad ( i ) = ( i ) =
xi2
The laplacian of a scalar field is a scalar field defined as,
2
= div grad = = 2 = ,ii
xi
Differential Operators
Hessian of a Scalar Field
The hessian differential operator ( i ) is defined as,
2 (i)
(i) = ei e j
xi x j
The hessian of a scalar field is a symmetric second-order tensor
field defined as,
2
= ei e j = ,ij ei e j
xi x j
Differential Operators
Gradient of a Vector Field
The gradient differential operator grad () is defined as,
(i) ( i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a vector field is a second-order tensor field
defined as,
u ui
grad u = u = ej = ei e j = ui , j ei e j
x j x j
Differential Operators
Curl of a Vector Field
The curl differential operator curl () is defined as,
( i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The curl of a vector field is a vector field defined as,
u uk uk
curl u = u = e j = ej ek = ijk ei = ijk uk , j ei
x j x j x j
If the curl of a vector field is zero, the vector field is said to be
curl-free and there is a scalar field such that,
curl u = 0 | u = grad
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 108
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Curl of the Gradient of a Scalar Field
The curl differential operator curl () and gradient differential
operator grad () are defined, respectively, as,
( i) ( i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei , grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field defined as,
grad = = ei = ,i ei
xi
The curl of the gradient of a vector field is a null vector,
curl grad = = ijk,kj ei = 0
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 109
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Divergence of a Vector Field
The divergence differential operator div () is defined as,
(i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field defined as,
u ui ui ui
div u = u = e j = ei e j = ij = = ui ,i
x j x j x j xi
If the divergence of a vector field is zero, the vector field is said
to be solenoidal or div-free and there is a vector field such that,
div u = 0 v | u = curl v
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 110
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Divergence of the Curl of a Vector Field
The divergence differential operator div () and curl differential
operator curl () are defined, respectively, as,
(i) (i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei , curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The curl of a vector field is a vector field defined as,
u uk uk
curl u = u = e j = ej ek = ijk ei = ijk uk , j ei
x j x j x j
The divergence of a curl of a vector field is a null scalar,
Differential Operators
Laplacian of a Vector Field
The laplacian differential operator ( i ) is defined as,
2 ( i)
( i ) = ( i ) =
xi2
The laplacian of a vector field is a vector field defined as,
2ui
u = u = 2 ei = ui , jj ei
x j
Differential Operators
Divergence of a Second Order Tensor Field
The divergence differential operator div () is defined as,
(i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The divergence of a second-order tensor field is a vector field
defined as,
div A = A
A Aik Aik
= e j = ei e k e j = kj ei
x j x j x j
Aij
= ei = Aij , j ei
x j
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 113
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Curl of a Second-order Tensor Field
The curl differential operator curl () is defined as,
(i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The curl of a second-order tensor field is a second-order tensor
field defined as,
curl A = A
A Akj
= el = el ek e j
xl xl
Akj
= lki ei e j = lki Akj ,l ei e j
xl
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 114
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Gradient of a Second-order Tensor Field
The gradient differential operator grad () is defined as,
(i) (i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a second-order tensor field is a third-order
tensor field defined as,
grad A = A
A
= ek
xk
Aij
= ei e j ek = Aij ,k ei e j ek
xk
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 115
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Differential Operators
grad = = ,i ei , = = ,ii , = ,ij ei e j
div u = u = ui ,i
grad u = u = ui , j ei e j ,
curl u = u = ijk uk , j ei
u = u = ui , jj ei
div A = A = Aij , j ei
grad A = A = Aij ,k ei e j e k
curl A = A = lki Akj ,l ei e j
Assignments
Assignment 1.3
Establish the following identities involving a smooth scalar field
and a smooth vector field v,
(1) div ( v ) = div v + v grad
(2) grad ( v ) = v grad + grad v
Assignments
Assignment 1.3
Establish the following identities involving a smooth scalar field
and a smooth vector field v,
(1) div ( v ) = div v + v grad
(2) grad ( v ) = v grad + grad v
Assignments
Assignment 1.4 [Classwork]
Establish the following identities involving the smooth scalar
fields and , smooth vector fields u and v , and a smooth
second order tensor field A,
(1) div ( A ) = div A + A grad
(2) div ( AT v ) = ( div A ) v + A : grad v
(3) div ( u v ) = v curl u u curl v
(4) div ( u v ) = ( grad u ) v + u div v
(5) grad ( ) = ( grad ) + ( grad )
Assignments
Assignment 1.4 [Classwork]
Establish the following identities involving the smooth scalar
fields and , smooth vector fields u and v , and a smooth
second order tensor field A,
(1) div ( A ) = div A + A grad
( div ( A ) ) = ( A )
i ij , j = Aij , j + Aij, j = ( div A )i + ( A grad )i
= ( div A ) v + A : grad v
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 120
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Assignments
(3) div ( u v ) = v curl u u curl v
div ( u v ) = ijk ( u j vk ) = ijk u j ,i vk + ijk u j vk ,i
,i
( grad ( ) ) = ( )
i ,i
= ,i + ,i = ( grad )i + ( grad )i
Assignments
Assignment 1.5 [Homework]
Establish the following identities involving the smooth scalar
field , and smooth vector fields u and v,
(
(1) grad ( u v ) = gradT u v + gradT v u ) ( )
(2) curl ( v ) = grad v + curl v
(3) curl ( u v ) = u div v v div u + ( grad u ) v ( grad v ) u
(4) v = grad ( div v ) curl ( curl v )
(5) ( u v ) = ( u ) v + 2 grad u : grad v + u v
Assignments
Assignment 1.5 [Homework]
Establish the following identities involving the smooth scalar
field , and smooth vector fields u and v,
(1) grad ( u v ) = ( gradT u ) v + ( gradT v ) u
grad ( u v )i = ( u j v j ) = u j ,i v j + u j v j ,i
,i
= ( grad u ) ji v j + ( grad v ) ji u j
= ( gradT u ) v j + ( gradT v ) u j
ij ij
(
= ( gradT u ) v + ( gradT v ) u ) i
Assignments
(2) curl ( v ) = grad v + curl v
( curl ( v ) ) i
= ijk ( vk ), j = ijk, j vk + ijk vk , j
= ( grad v + curl v )i
(3) curl ( u v ) = u div v v div u + ( grad u ) v ( grad v ) u
( curl ( u v ) ) i
= ijk ( u v )k , j = ijk ( klmul vm ), j
= ijk klmul , j vm + ijk klmul vm, j
= ( il jm im jl ) ul , j vm + ( il jm im jl ) ul vm, j
= ui , j v j u j , j vi + ui v j , j u j vi , j
= ( ( grad u ) v )i vi div u + ui div v ( ( grad v ) u )i
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 124
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Assignments
(4) v = grad ( div v ) curl ( curl v )
( v )i = vi = vi , jj , ( grad ( div v ) )i = v j , ji
( curl ( curl v ) )i = ijk ( curl v )k , j = ijk ( klmvm,l ), j = ijk klmvm,lj
= ( il jm im jl ) vm,lj = v j ,ij vi , jj = v j , ji vi , jj
= ui , jj vi + 2ui , j vi , j + ui vi , jj
= ( u ) v + 2 grad u : grad v + u v
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 125
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Assignments
Assignment 1.6 [Classwork]
Given the vector v = v ( x ) = x1 x2 x3e1 + x1 x2e2 + x1e3 determine
div v, curl v, grad v, v.
Assignments
Assignment 1.6 [Classwork]
Given the vector v = v ( x ) = x1 x2 x3e1 + x1 x2e2 + x1e3 determine
div v, curl v, grad v, v.
div v = vi ,i = v1,1 + v2,2 + v3,3 = x2 x3 + x1
e1 e2 e3
curl v = det 1 2 3
v1 v2 v3
= ( v3,2 v2,3 ) e1 + ( v1,3 v3,1 ) e2 + ( v2,1 v1,2 ) e3
= ( x1 x2 1) e2 + ( x2 x1 x3 ) e3
Assignments
Assignment 1.6 [Classwork]
Given the vector v = v ( x ) = x1 x2 x3e1 + x1 x2e2 + x1e3 determine
div v, curl v, grad v, v.
grad v = vi , j ei e j
v1,1 v1,2 v1,3 x2 x3 x1 x3 x1 x2
[grad v ] = v2,1 v2,2 v2,3 = x2 x1 0
v3,1 v3,2 v3,3 1 0 0
v = vi ei = vi , jj ei = 0
Integral Theorems
Divergence or Gauss Theorem
Given a vector field u in a volume V with closed boundary
surface V and outward unit normal to the boundary n, the
divergence (or Gauss) theorem reads,
V
div u dV = u dV = u n dS
V V
V
div A dV = A dV = An dS
V V
Integral Theorems
Curl or Stokes Theorem
Given a vector field u in a surface S with closed boundary S
and outward unit normal to the surface n , the curl (or Stokes)
theorem reads,
( curl u ) n dS = ( u ) n dS =
S S S
u dr
where the curve of the line integral must have positive
orientation, such that dr points counter-clockwise when the unit
normal points to the viewer, following the right-hand rule.