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Econnect Ltd.
5 Cattle Market
Hexham
Northumberland
NE46 1LS
Tel: 01434 601545
Fax: 01434 609080
email: econnect@enterprise.net
ILEX Associates
King Charles House
Park End Street
Oxford
OX1 1JD
Tel: 01865 722660
Fax: 01865 722988
email: energy.consult@ilex.co.uk
1
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION 7
2
4.3. The Grid Codes 25
4.3.1. The Grid Code in England and Wales 25
4.3.2. The Grid Codes in Scotland 26
6. COMPETITION IN CONNECTIONS 32
3
8. PROTECTION, EARTHING AND SAFETY 41
8.2. Protection 41
8.2.1. Switchgear 41
8.2.2. Short circuit protection 42
8.2.3. G59 protection 42
8.2.4. G75 protection 43
8.2.5. Auxiliary supplies 43
9. GETTING CONNECTED 47
9.4. Documentation 51
9.4.1. Nomenclature 51
9.4.2. Health and Safety File 51
9.4.3. Responsibility schedule 51
9.4.4. Contact details 51
4
9.4.5. Protection settings 51
9.4.6. Site safety rules and safe working procedures 51
9.4.7. Hand-over certificates 51
9.4.8. Connection agreement 52
9.6. Operation 52
9.6.1. Provision of personnel 52
9.6.2. Posting of notices/information 52
9.6.3. Safe working procedures and personnel 53
9.6.4. Future modifications 53
11. INDEX 57
5
18.1. PESs 73
1.
6
Introduction
Developers planning to set up generation schemes in Scotland should note that the
Scottish regulatory framework for embedded generators differs in some respects from the
framework in England and Wales. Where these differences occur, information relating to
the Scottish system is highlighted in the Guide using underlined text - like this paragraph.
Every embedded generation scheme has a unique set of technical and commercial
circumstances, so it is not really possible to provide specific guidelines and solutions for
the design of connection arrangements. Instead, the Guide is intended to give the reader
a general understanding of the issues which affect the design and cost of connections for
embedded generators.
7
1.1.3. What is not covered in the Guide?
In addition to the problem of getting a network connection, the developer of an electricity
generation scheme has to address many other problems in order to get the scheme up
and running. Some of these other problems are listed here:
The part of the company which is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the
local distribution network is often referred to as the distribution business, or sometimes as
the wires business. This business is in a monopoly position with regard to the provision of
access to the distribution network in its region. To ensure that the PES does not abuse
this position, the distribution business is subject to regulation which is designed to provide
a level playing field for new and existing customers seeking to make use of the
distribution network. Note that PES distribution businesses often use the term customers
to refer to generators as well as consumers of electricity.
The other PES businesses operate in areas of activity where there are competitive
pressures, and they are therefore not subject to the same level of regulation as the
distribution business. Each PES has a supply business, which buys electricity from
generators and sells it on to consumers. Most PESs have generation businesses, which
may be involved in developing schemes for renewable electricity generation or CHP.
Some PESs have also set up seperate connection businesses, which act as contractors
for the installation of new connection infrastructure.
In some recent cases, there has been some confusion over the role of PES connection
businesses in relation to the provision of new connections for embedded generators. The
proper role of these businesses is quite straightforward (see figure 1.3). The provision of
8
the connection is the subject of a contractual agreement between the developer and the
PES distribution business. The distribution business may choose to contract with the
connection business for the installation of the connection infrastructure. However, there is
no direct contractual relationship between the developer and the connection business.
The physical infrastructure which connects an embedded generator to a PES network can
be divided into two sections: that owned by the developer, and that owned by the PES
(figure 1.4). The interface between these two parts is known as the ownership boundary,
or point of supply. The developer has sole responsibility for the design, installation and
operation of the equipment on their side of this interface, although the PES will want to
assure themselves that this equipment does not pose a hazard to their distribution
network. The PES will assume responsibility for operation and maintenance of all
infrastructure on their side of the interface, but the design and installation of any new
PES-owned infrastructure is a matter for dialogue and co-operation between the
developer and the PES. In this Guide, references to the connection, connection
schemes, connection costs and so on relate specifically to this PES-owned
infrastructure.
2.
9
Summary - The Quick Guide
The aim of this chapter is to provide a brief overview of the process of connecting a
generation scheme to the network. The main tasks are identified and described, and there
is a short discussion of costs and timescales. The reader is referred to other chapters of
the Guide where appropriate.
Appropriate agreements between the developer and the PES must be negotiated and
signed
Any new connection infrastructure must be installed, commissioned and signed off
Not all generation schemes require the installation of new PES-owned connection
infrastructure. Some schemes are installed at sites with existing PES connections, and in
some cases the existing connection infrastructure can accomodate the new generation
capacity. In other cases, the existing connection or other PES assets may have to be
reinforced in order to accomodate the new generation capacity.
The requirement for appropriate agreements to be set up between the developer and the
PES applies to all embedded generation schemes, regardless of whether new connection
infrastructure is needed.
The developer of the generation scheme must also enter into a connection agreement
with the PES or, if there is an existing connection agreement, the parties must modify this
agreement to include conditions relating to the new generation scheme. The connection
agreement sets out the terms and conditions under which the PES will provide a
connection to their system. More specifically, it specifies the rights and obligations of each
party with respect to the installation, use and operation of the connection, and details the
connection charges to be paid by the developer.
In addition to the connection agreement itself, the developer may be required to enter into
other agreements with the PES. Technical and operating agreements specify the
technical arrangements for carrying out operations such as de-energising the connection.
Maintenance agreements specify the charges to be paid by the developer for ongoing
maintenance of the PES-owned connection infrastructure.
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2.1.2.1. The design phase
The aim of the design phase is to explore different options for connecting the generation
scheme to the network, and to identify the most cost-effective option. Early discussions
between the developer and the PES can be useful to identify possible connection
schemes, and also network constraints which may limit the amount of new generation
capacity that can be connected without incurring extra costs. Chapter 4 describes the type
of network information which the PES is obliged to provide on request.
The developer may then wish to establish a budget estimate of the connection costs for
the purposes of project evaluation, financial assessment and project planning. Budget
estimates are often obtained from the PES, but they can also be provided by some
specialist consultants. Chapter 5 provides information about connection costs and
charges.
The next step is for the developer to make a formal application for a connection to the
PESs network. On receipt of this application, the PES reserves the network capacity to
be used by the generation scheme. Usually, the application would be made once the
project has overcome important hurdles such as the granting of financial backing and
local planning permission. However, in some cases it may be prudent to make an early
connection application so that the required network capacity can be reserved as soon as
possible. Chapter 5 provides more information about this type of situation.
It takes time to get a connection built. There are lead times for materials and items of
plant which need to be ordered, and timescales for installation and commissioning. Exact
timescales vary depending on project-specific factors. However, high-voltage connections
11
tend to take longer than connections to low-voltage systems. Table 2-1 provides some
rough guidelines for connection timescales.
3.
12
Overview of the UK Electricity Supply Industry
The aim of this chapter is to provide some background information about the UKs
Electricity Supply Industry (ESI). The chapter is divided into two main sections. The first
section contains information relating to commercial relationships and industry regulation.
The second section contains information about the technical operation of the electricity
system.
The transmission and distribution systems are owned and operated by regulated
monopoly businesses: the National Grid Company (NGC) owns the transmission system,
and the twelve Regional Electricity Companies (RECs) own the distribution networks.
These wires businesses recover the costs of operating and maintaining these systems by
levying use of system charges on all electricity trades between generators and suppliers.
The commercial structure of the ESI in Scotland is shown in figure 3.2. The Scottish
electricity market is split into two trading areas corresponding to the geographic areas of
the two Scottish electricity companies, ScottishPower and Hydro Electric. These
companies are responsible for the operation of the transmission and distribution networks
in their areas. They are also active in electricity generation, trading and supply. The
Scottish electricity market is also open to other suppliers, traders and independent
generators. There is no equivalent of the Pool in Scotland - trading takes place through
bilateral trades between generators and suppliers.
There are proposals to change the structure of the wholesale electricity market in England
and Wales, with the Pool being superseded by a system of bilateral trading between
suppliers and large generators. However, at the time of writing these changes appear to
be two or three years away.
13
Instead of selling their electricity through the Pool, non-Pooled generators trade directly
with suppliers. Most generators exporting less than 50MW choose to be non-Pooled, as
this option usually provides them with greater economic benefits. Direct trades between
non-Pooled generators and suppliers are not subject to many of the charges which are
levied on trades through the Pool. As a result, non-Pooled generators can often get a
better price for their output than they would if they traded through the Pool.
The Supplemental Agreements and the MCUSA set out the terms and conditions
applicable for use of the NGC transmission system. In particular, they set out the
customers obligations to:
The contractual framework of the MCUSA and Supplemental Agreement may not be
appropriate for some users of the transmission system, such as directly connected
customers and embedded generators. In these cases NGC will offer to enter into bilateral
agreements with the relevant parties.
the Secretary of States power, after consultation with the DGES, to grant licenses for
the generation, transmission and supply of electricity, and to authorise exemptions
from the requirement to hold a generation or supply licence.
the Secretary of State and the DGESs undertaking to perform their duties in a manner
that:
- best protects the interests of consumers
- promotes efficiency and economy in the supply and transmission of electricity, and
the efficient use of electricity
- promotes research and development activities
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- protects the public from dangers arising from the generation, transmission or supply
of electricity;
- secures the establishment and maintenance of procedures for promoting the health
and safety of those employed in such activities.
The Electricity Act 1989 is a form of enabling legislation. That is, it is legislation that
provides a framework which can be amended through the use of secondary legislation.
The secondary legislation that applies to the Electricity Act is encompassed within
Statutory Instruments issued by the Secretary of State.
The DGES also has regulatory jurisdiction over Scotland, although his statutory duties
with respect to the Scottish ESI are shared with the Secretary of State for Scotland. In
Scotland, the DGES is represented by the Deputy Director General for Scotland.
Under the Electricity Act, the Secretary of State has the power, after consultation with the
DGES, to grant licences for the generation, transmission or supply of electricity and to
authorise exemptions from the requirement to hold a generation or supply licence.
Licences granted under the Electricity Act have a number of regulatory functions:
3.1.5.1. Generation
Owners of large electricity generating plants are required to hold generation licences. This
requirement applies to large embedded generators, as well as to major power stations.
Owners of smaller generation schemes are exempted from the requirement to hold
generation licences. This exemption covers most embedded generators.
The criteria for exemption are based on a combination of the declared net capacity (DNC)
of the scheme, and the amount of power exported from the site into the public network. If
the DNC of the scheme is 100MW or more, it must export less than 10MW in order to
avoid the need for a generation licence. However, if the DNC of the scheme is less than
100MW, it can export up to 50MW without the need for a licence.
3.1.5.2. Transmission
NGC is the only holder of a transmission licence in England and Wales. NGCs
transmission licence prohibits it from purchasing or otherwise acquiring electricity on its
own account for the purpose of sale to third parties.
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3.1.5.3. Distribution
The twelve RECs of England and Wales hold Public Electricity Supply (PES) licences.
Under the terms of these licenses, each REC is allowed to distribute electricity within its
own geographical area. The PES licences differentiate between the businesses of supply
and distribution. To facilitate competition in supply, each PES is required under the terms
of its licence to allow other suppliers to use its distribution network for the purpose of
transferring electricity from the transmission system (and from embedded generators) to
customers.
3.1.5.4. Supply
Unless covered by an exemption, any person who supplies electricity to any premises is
required to hold a supply licence. Supply licences are of two kinds - Public Electricity
Supply (PES) Licences and Second Tier Supply Licences.
PES Licence. Each of the PESs holds a licence giving it rights and obligations relating
to supplies to customers within its authorised area. These licences are called Public
Electricity Supply (PES) licences.
Second Tier Supply Licence. Other companies can apply for Second Tier Supply
Licences. Such a licence enables the holder to sell electricity to customers in
competition with the local PES and other second tier suppliers. PESs holding such a
licence can supply customers outside their own authorised areas. Generators holding
Second Tier Supply Licences can supply customers directly.
A company can be exempted from the need to hold a Supply Licence if it supplies less
than 500kW in aggregate to customers across PES distribution systems, or if it supplies
customers across a private network.
3.1.5.6. Others
In addition to the main ESI activities of generation, transmission, distribution and supply,
there are also a range of other activities for which a form of licensing is required. These
other activities concern the management of data relating to transfers of electricity. They
include the provision of electricity meters, meter operation, data collection and data
aggregation.
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3.2. Technical description
The aim of this section is to provide a brief technical overview of the UKs electricity
system, particularly as it relates to the connection of embedded generators. There are
many good textbooks which provide more in-depth information (key words: electric power
systems; transmission and distribution systems). Some books are referenced in appendix
F.
Most of the electricity consumed in the UK is generated in large power stations running on
coal, natural gas and nuclear power. These large power stations are connected directly to
the transmission system. In general, the coal-fired stations are located on the coalfields of
Scotland, Wales and northern England. The gas-fired stations are less geographically
concentrated, but many are located close to the major North Sea gas terminals on the
east coast of England. The nuclear stations are sited around the coastline of England,
Wales and Scotland.
Whereas the UKs electricity generation capacity is located mainly in the north,
consumption is weighted towards the population centers of south-east England and the
midlands. Each region of the country is served by an electricity distribution network, which
is connected to the transmission system at one or more grid supply points. Power passes
through the distribution network, from the grid supply point to the final users.
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3.2.3.2. Standard nominal voltages
Figure 3.5 shows the standard nominal voltage levels used for the transmission and
distribution of electricity in the UK. The transmission system consists of systems operating
at nominal voltages of 400kV, 275kV and 132kV. Distribution networks include systems
operating at 132kV, 66kV, 33kV, 20kV, 11kV, 6.6kV and 400V. Engineers use the nominal
voltage to refer to a particular layer of the network. Thus, people talk about the 11kV
system or the 33kV system.
European Standard EN 50160 (BS EN 50160) defines standard or nominal voltages for
public electricity supply. According to this document, the standard nominal voltage for
public low-voltage supply is 230V, with a tolerance of +/-10%.
The terms HV (high voltage) and LV (low voltage) are often used, but they can mean
different things to different people. The Electricity Supply Regulations define HV to mean
anything above 1000V, with LV covering anything below 1000V. BS EN 50160 uses the
same definition for LV, but defines voltages from 1000V to 35kV as MV (medium voltage).
To achieve this isolation, the step-down transformers which transfer power from the
higher- to the lower-voltage systems are fitted with automatically controlled tap changers.
These tap changers automatically alter the transformer ratio to compensate for voltage
changes on the HV side. Some tap changer control schemes also compensate for voltage
changes in the lower-voltage system (line drop compensation), and some allow the use of
two or more transformers in parallel (negative reactance compounding).
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3.2.4.2. Protection systems
To protect people and distribution infrastructure from the effects of faults, fuses and circuit
breakers are fitted at strategic points in the network, together with systems which trip the
circuit breakers on detection of unusually high currents or other abnormal conditions.
These circuit breakers and tripping devices are known as protection systems.
The operation of protection systems following a fault often results in some electricity users
being disconnected from the supply. Most distribution networks are designed to ensure
that faults can be isolated with minimum disruption to users, as shown in figure 3.8.
However, networks in isolated rural areas are often less robust, with radial lines
supplying users along the length of valleys, roads and so on. If a fault occurs on a radial
line, it can only be isolated by disconnecting all the users beyond the fault, as shown in
figure 3.9.
Automatic re-closers are usually set to operate up to three or four times after a fault. If the
fault does not clear after this number of operations, the circuit breaker remains tripped
and must be re-set manually. The dead time between each sucessive reclosure is
important information for generators in order that generator protection can be designed to
avoid the auto-recloser closing with the generator and the grid out of synchronism.
The fault levels in a distribution network can change over time, due to changes in the
configuration of the network to allow routine maintenance or to isolate faults. Thus, it is
not very useful to give a single value for the fault level at a point in the network - whatever
the fault level is today, it may be different next week. Instead, maximum and minimum
values are usually specified for the fault level at a particular point. The actual fault level
will vary within the range specified by these values.
Changes to the network, such as the connection of new generators or loads, can result in
increases in fault levels. However, the rating of existing circuit breakers places an upper
limit on the range of fault levels which can be permitted in a particular part of the network.
This upper limit is sometimes referred to as the design fault level in that part of the
network. Design fault levels in distribution networks can sometimes be a limiting factor in
the connection of new generators or loads, as illustrated in figure 3.10.
Generally generators would not be permitted to push maximum fault levels beyond the
design fault levels. In some cases they may be required to contribute to the cost of new
switchgear to accomodate the increase in fault level.
19
Many PESs use common standards for the specification of circuit breakers to be fitted in
their networks. As a result, similar values are often specified for design fault levels in PES
networks. Table 3-1 shows typical design fault levels at some common UK distribution
voltages.
This type of operational flexibility is of growing importance, due to the emphasis the
DGES places on maintaining supplies to customers. It is also being aided by the
introduction of computer-based systems which enable the control and operation of
distribution networks to be automated. These systems carry out switching and re-
configuration operations using real-time data combined with knowledge about the
network.
4.
20
Statutory Framework for Connection of Embedded
Generators
Several statutory documents contain clauses relating to the connection of embedded
generators. The PES Licences, the Distribution Codes and the Grid Codes all contain
such clauses. These documents constitute the statutory framework for the connection of
embedded generators.
In England and Wales, the relevant documents are the PES Licences, the Distribution
Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of England and Wales, and the Grid Code
published by the National Grid Company.
The statutory provision for the connection of embedded generators in Scotland is similar
to that in England and Wales, but is set out in different documents. These are the Scottish
Composite Licences, the Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of Scotland,
and the Grid Codes published by ScottishPower and Hydro-Electric.
In the PES Licences covering England and Wales, these provisions are contained in
conditions 8, 8A, 8B and 8C of part II. In the Scottish Composite Licences, these
provisions are contained in conditions 2, 2A, 2B and 2C of part VI.
The first schedule outlines the basis of the charges made, and the principal terms and
conditions for connection to the network.
The second schedule lists items of significant cost required for connection to the
network, together with indicative charges for each item.
The third schedule provides an illustrative list of abnormal services which may be
reflected in the connection charge.
The fourth schedule outlines the principles for the calculation of tariff support
allowances.
21
The statement also includes an annex covering the operation of competition in connection
(see chapter 6).
The PES can charge the developer for reasonable costs incurred in the preparation of
the statement. An estimate of these costs must be provided to the developer within ten
days of receiving the original request. If the developer undertakes to meet these costs, the
PES must provide the statement itself within a further 28 days. If the request involves a lot
of work, the DGES may allow the PES a longer period to prepare the statement.
The PES can refuse to offer terms for connection if the developer fails to provide the
necessary information with their application, or if the developer refuses to be bound by the
terms of the appropriate Distribution Code or Grid Code, as applicable. The PES can also
refuse if providing the connection would be likely to breach any of their duties and
obligations under their licence, the Electricity Act, the Electricity Supply Regulations, the
Grid Code or the Distribution Code. In practice, this means that the PES can refuse to
provide a connection if they are not satisfied that the applicant is competent to manage
the planned generator installation.
PESs are obliged to offer connection terms as soon as practicable, but within three
months of receiving an application with all the necessary information. This time limit can
be extended with the permission of the DGES.
22
4.2. The Distribution Codes
There are two Distribution Codes: one applying to England and Wales, and the other
applying to Scotland. The Distribution Codes specify standards for the design and
operation of PES-owned distribution networks. To meet these standards, PESs need to
be forewarned about the connection of large loads and generator installations to their
networks. The Distribution Codes therefore require users of distribution networks, such as
electricity consumers and generators, to provide certain information about new loads and
generator installations. They also specify arrangements for the design of connections to
PES networks, and certain requirements for the control and protection of embedded
generators.
In the Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of England and Wales, these
requirements are contained in DPC5, DPC6 and DPC7. In the Distribution Code of the
Public Electricity Suppliers of Scotland, these requirements are contained in DPC
appendix B, DCC6 and DCC7.
Generator
- generator type (synchronous, asynchronous, etc.)
- terminal voltage (kV)
- rated kVA
- rated kW
- maximum active power sent out (kW)
- reactive power requirements (kVAr)
Interface arrangements
- means of synchronisation
- earthing arrangements
- switching arrangements
The following additional data must be provided if the capacity of the generator installation
is greater than 5MW, or if the connection voltage is higher than 20kV. It should be noted
that most of the specified data is only applicable to synchronous generators.
Generator
- MW/MVAr capability chart
- type of excitation system
23
- inertia constant (MWs/MVA) for the whole machine
- stator resistance
- direct axis reactances (sub-transient, transient and synchronous)
- quadrature axis reactances (sub-transient and synchronous)
- direct axis time constants (sub-transient and transient)
- quadrature axis time constant (sub-transient)
- zero sequence resistance and reactance
- negative sequence resistance and reactance
Generator transformer
- resistance and reactance
- MVA rating
- tap arrangement
- vector group
- earthing arrangement
If the capacity of the generator installation is greater than 50MW, additional data specified
in the appropriate Grid Code must also be provided. In Scotland, this additional data must
be provided for installations over 30MW.
24
4.2.2.3. Protection co-ordination
The protection systems installed with the generator installation must co-ordinate properly
with the protection systems on the PESs network. To ensure that this is achieved, the
generator protection must satisfy the following requirements:
4.2.2.4. Islanding
The PES should specify whether they want the embedded generator to remain connected
in the event that the section of the PES network to which it is connected becomes isolated
from the rest of the network (see section 8.2.3.1). If so, arrangements must be put in
place to ensure that the generator is disconnected before the islanded section of network
is reconnected to the rest of the network.
In the Grid Code published by the National Grid Company, the requirements for the
connection of embedded generators are contained in PC.A.3, PC.A.5 and CC.6.3.
In the Grid Code published by ScottishPower, the requirements for the connection of
embedded generators are contained in section 3 of appendix B of the planning code, and
sections 4.2 and 4.3 of the connection conditions. In the Grid Code published by Hydro-
Electric, the same requirements are contained in section 3 of appendix 2 of the planning
code, and sections 4.2 and 4.3 of the connection conditions.
25
At the time of writing, OFFER is considering a proposed change to the MCUSA which
would have the effect of extending the scope of the connection conditions to include all
embedded generators with a registered capacity of 10MW or more. Owners of these
generation schemes would be required to sign up to the MCUSA and enter into
Supplemental Agreements with NGC.
Where the Grid Code requirements apply, the developer must provide technical details of
the generation scheme to NGC. These details must include all the information required
under the Distribution Code, plus some additional information. Developers who are
required to comply with this requirement should consult the Grid Code itself.
Where the Grid Code requirements do apply, they cover a number of aspects of the
performance and control of the generating plant. Again, some of the requirements mirror
those in the Distribution Code, but the Grid Code includes some additional requirements.
Developers who are required to comply with these requirements should consult the Grid
Code itself.
In Scotland, local distribution networks include fewer high-voltage circuits than those in
England and Wales, and there is less scope for the connection of large embedded
generation schemes. As a result, some generation schemes which would be embedded
if they were located in England and Wales may have to be connected to the transmission
system in Scotland. Developers of such schemes must comply with all the Scottish Grid
Code requirements for the connection of generators.
5.
26
Connection Applications, Costs and Charges
When a developer makes a connection application, the PES is obliged to offer terms for
providing a suitable connection for the proposed generation scheme. These terms will
include charges to the developer, to cover the PESs costs in providing the connection.
The aim of this chapter is to describe the main components of these costs, and the basis
on which these costs are charged to the developer. The chapter also outlines some of the
other charges which the developer may have to pay. Finally, there are sections
concerning the allocation of connection costs in situations where two or more connection
applications are received by the PES, and also concerning connection applications linked
to renewables order contracts.
Finally, connection schemes proposed by the PES or by others may involve requirements
or assumptions regarding the provision of equipment on the developers side of the point
of supply. These assumptions are not always obvious to the developer, and this can lead
to misunderstandings and under-budgeting. Technical assistance can help developers to
avoid these situations.
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5.2. Basis of PES connection charges
The PES will also incur costs associated with the operation, maintenance repair and
replacement of the new or modified connection infrastructure. These operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs must be considered in addition to the initial costs. O&M costs
are often capitalised and charged to the developer up-front as part of the connection
charge. Alternatively, it may be possible for the developer to pay an annual service charge
to cover these costs.
O&M charges are normally capitalised at 19-30% of the value of the assets, depending on
the PES and the assets involved. Where connection costs involve reinforcement and
engineering costs it may be that no O&M charges should be applied to some of these
items.
Reinforcement work is usually required to increase the electrical capacity of those parts of
the network which form part of the electrical path from the generator into the network.
However, some network reinforcements do not fit this pattern. For example, it may be
necessary to upgrade the switchgear at a substation some distance from the proposed
generation scheme, due to the increase in fault level caused by the connection of the
generator.
28
Condition 8B of the PES licence specifies that any benefit obtained by the PES or by third
parties, including possible future benefits, should be taken into account when determining
the appropriate proportion of the connection costs to be charged to the developer. It also
specifies that the PES should not charge the developer for network reinforcement costs:
on circuits where the new or increased load requirement is 25% or less of the existing
capacity.
on circuits more than one voltage level above the voltage of the connection.
These guidelines are designed to ensure that the developer is only charged for the costs
of network reinforcement works which are clearly occasioned by the need to provide the
connection.
Top-up and stand-by supplies can be purchased from the host PES. Alternatively, they
can be purchased from other electricity suppliers, other embedded generators, or directly
from the Pool.
29
enter into a bilateral agreement with NGC. Connection may be delayed until the NGC
work has been carried out. NGC will charge their connected customer - the PES - for the
work it carries out. Whether the PES chooses to recover this charge from the embedded
generator is another matter, and the policy will vary depending on the PES.
OFFER is presently considering a change to the MCUSA which would have the effect of
extending this requirement to embedded generators of 10MW or more.
Problems inevitably arise when two or more developers want to connect their generation
schemes into the same circuit. The developers may design their schemes such that each
scheme could, on its own, be accomodated without reinforcement. However, the circuit
has to be reinforced in order to accomodate more than one scheme. The question is, who
pays for this reinforcement?
At present, most PESs operate a first come, first served policy with regard to the use of
spare circuit capacity. The developer who makes the first connection application has the
option to use the spare capacity for their scheme without any liability for reinforcement
costs. The spare capacity to be used by this scheme is deemed to be reserved from the
date when the PES receives the formal application. Subsequent connection applications
are treated as though this capacity is not available, and are therefore offered terms for
connection which include charges for reinforcement work.
For obvious reasons, this system results in the practice of capacity bagging . Some
developers make connection applications for schemes in the very early stages of
development, in order to bag spare network capacity before someone else makes an
application for connection to the same circuit. There is nothing to stop developers from
doing this, apart from any up-front charges the PESs may make for connection
quotations. It is up to individual developers to judge for themselves whether it is worth
paying this charge earlier than necessary in order to avoid the risk of losing the free
access to network capacity.
Sometimes, network capacity is reserved for a generation scheme which is never built,
perhaps due to problems with financing or planning issues. To ensure that capacity is not
tied up indefinitely by failed schemes, PESs only reserve capacity for twelve months from
the developers acceptance of the connection offer (see figure 5.2). If work on the
generation scheme does not start in earnest by the end of this period, the capacity is
made available to other schemes.
30
itself or to third parties. Thus, if connection work carried out for one generation scheme is
of direct benefit to a second scheme, the PES should allocate the cost of this work
appropriately between the two projects.
This obligation also applies to cases where the second project is developed some time
after the connection work has been carried out. If the developer of the first project met all
the cost of the connection work, they may be able to obtain a refund or rebate from the
PES, corresponding to an appropriate fraction of these costs. The PES, in turn, will
charge this cost to the developer of the second project.
If it appears likely that connection infrastructure will be of benefit to future projects, the
developer should ensure that provisions for refunds are written into the PESs connection
quotation. If some of the connection work is to be carried out by a third party, it may be
necessary to include clauses for refunds in the adoption agreement.
There have been cases of cost sharing when connection applications for generation
schemes have coincided with applications for new or increased demand from nearby load
customers. These cost sharing arrangements have been to the benefit of all the parties
concerned.
Another possible mechanism for sharing connection costs between generation projects is
for the developers to make a joint application for connection works. At the time of writing,
no connections have been constructed under this type of arrangement. However, this type
of consortium connection may become increasingly attractive, particularly in areas where
there is a combination of high potential for embedded generation on the one hand, and
insufficient distribution infrastructure on the other.
The price offered by the PES should be on the basis that the project in question is the only
project to be connected. It should ignore other projects even if these already have
contracts under a previous order, unless the grid connection construction contract has
been placed (ie. the scheme is under construction). Some PESs helpfully indicate what
might be the range of connection prices assuming a proportion of other projects go
ahead. Costs may rise with the number of projects getting the go-ahead, due to the need
for major reinforcements. However, they can sometimes fall, reflecting the wider sharing
of the cost of reinforcements which would have been necessary even for a single project.
The price indicated during the renewables order process gives no guarantee that this
price will be applicable when the project is built some one to six years later. Discussions
with the PES to understand network constraints may allow developers to consider what if
scenarios if other generation schemes are developed in the area. Information on other
schemes may be in the public domain due to planning applications or renewables order
contracts.
6.
31
Competition in Connections
In getting a connection built, the developer has two options:
To ask the PES to undertake all the necessary works to provide the connection, and to
pay the corresponding charges.
To contract with a third party to provide and install the connection infrastructure, and to
obtain the PESs agreement to adopt this infrastructure.
These two options both involve a contractual relationship between the developer and the
PES, as shown in figure 6.1. However, the third party connection option involves the
developer in an additional relationship, with the third party contractor. By choosing the
third party connection option the developer gains access to a wider range of potential
contractors, and this can result in lower costs. However, this benefit must be weighed
against the time and effort involved in managing this additional relationship.
Competition in connection is fairly new, having been introduced in early 1995. Before that,
PESs effectively had a monopoly of connection work. Each PES specifies their
arrangements for competition in connection in an annex to their condition 8 statement.
However, many PES personnel are unfamiliar with these arrangements.
As the PESs have to take over the ownership, operation and maintenance of connection
infrastructure installed by third parties, they are keen to ensure that work is carried out to
an acceptable standard. For this reason, connection work done by third parties is subject
to inspection and approval by the PES.
The costs incurred by the PES in carrying out the non-contestable works are charged to
the developer. These charges are governed by the conditions of the PES licence, as in
the case of an all-in PES connection. Thus, the developer must pay some charges to the
PES, in addition to paying the third party contractor for carrying out the contestable works.
32
Each PES provides its own definition of contestable and non-contestable works in its
condition 8 statement. The various PESs definitions are broadly similar. Table 6-1 shows
which activities are typically non-contestable and which are contestable. Note that all
activities to do with the existing network are non-contestable.
Some PESs subscribe to a contractor evaluation scheme which is run by Lloyds Register.
Under this scheme, Lloyds Register evaluates contractors on behalf of individual PESs.
However, it is the PES that decides whether or not to grant approval. If approval is
granted, the contractor is issued with a certificate jointly by Lloyds Register and the PES in
question. Developers should note that a contractor with a Lloyds Register certificate may
not be approved by all the PESs who subscribe to the scheme.
33
details of approved contractors
It is up to the PES to define the scope of the contestable work, although they may be open
to negotiation on some points. Formal notification of the scope of the contestable work is
normally provided in the PESs connection quotation. The PES will also have preferred
design standards, and preferred specifications for materials and equipment. However
developers should be aware that the statutory requirements for connection works are set
out in the Distribution Codes, and that these requirements may be less demanding than
the PESs preferred standards.
On making the request for a connection quotation, the developer should inform the PES
of their interest in obtaining third party bids for contestable work, and ask for the quotation
to show charges for contestable work and non-contestable work seperately. The
developer can also take this opportunity to ask the PES for details of approved
contractors, and for their preferred design standards and equipment specifications.
The PES is obliged to provide the quotation within three months of the request, but will
usually respond within one month. The quotation should specify the contestable activities
and scope of supply. The developer can then invite the approved contractors to bid for
these activities.
If the developer decides to contract with a third party for contestable work, it is the
developers responsibility to ensure that the contractors work is acceptable to the PES
under the terms of the adoption agreement. So, before contracting with a third party, the
developer should ensure that the contractors bid covers all the necessary items of work,
and provides for materials and equipment which comply with the requirements of the
adoption agreement. The developer should keep the PES fully informed of the source and
specification of equipment to be procured and installed as part of the third party contract.
It may be prudent to set up a design review to enable the PES to formally review and
approve the contractors proposed scope of supply.
7.
34
Embedded Generators and their effects on Distribution
Networks
The aim of this chapter is to describe some of the key technical characteristics of
electricity generating plants, and the effects embedded generators have on distribution
networks. There are many references to technical issues which are covered in chapter 3.
The Declared Net Capacity (DNC) of a generation scheme is a key parameter in the
renewables order process. The DNC is a measure of the expected average power output
of a generation scheme. It is calculated by multiplying the rated power output by a
specified capacity factor. The value of this capacity factor is 0.33 for wave energy
schemes, 0.43 for wind energy schemes, and 1.00 for other types of generation schemes.
In some cases the normal on-site demand is greater than the rated output of the
generation scheme, so no power is exported. Even if this is the case, operation of the
generation scheme can have consequences for safe operation of the network under fault
conditions. Fault levels in the network will be increased, and there is a danger of islanded
operation. For this reason, the statutory requirements apply to all embedded generators,
regardless of whether they export power or not.
35
- spark ignition engines
- large water turbines
This section provides an overview of the main technical issues relating to the connection
of generators to electricity distribution networks. An appreciation of these issues will help
the developer to understand some of the PESs concerns about the design of the
connection scheme.
Due to the complexity of the networks and the amount of data involved, system studies
are invariably carried out using specialised computer software packages known as load
flow software. Some commercially available load flow software packages are listed below:
36
ERACS, from ERA Technology
DINIS, from International Computers Ltd.
Using one of these packages, a user can create a model of the network in question,
specifying the networks topology and the electrical parameters of its components. This
model can be stored as a file. The user can then specify the loading on the network and
any fault conditions or transient events, and store this data as a seperate file. Once all this
data has been entered, the user can invoke a part of the software package which carries
out the analysis and stores the results in one or more output files.
In addition the studies may consider the effects of prposed generation on the existing
protection schemes, assessing whether discrimination can be acheived and whether
changes will be needed.
The PES engineers may carry out the system studies themselves, or they may contract
the work out to a third party. Either way, the cost of the studies will be charged to the
developer. The developer is therefore the customer in this situation, and should be
provided with a full set of results from the studies. If the PES offers unreasonable terms
for providing the connection, the developer may be able to use the study results to
challenge the basis of the offer.
Connecting a generator to a distribution system has the effect of changing the current
flows in the system. With a suitable choice of site and connection scheme, connecting a
generator can have an entirely beneficial effect, with no increases in current levels and
some significant reductions. Although this is clearly a desirable outcome, it is not always
possible or cost-effective. In many cases, the most convenient connection design results
in higher current levels in parts of the system. These new current levels may exceed the
thermal ratings of existing cables or lines. If so, the developer may opt to pay for these
existing assets to be reinforced or up-rated. However, if the cost of this reinforcement is
very high, it may be worth considering an alternative connection arrangement, possibly at
a higher voltage level. The connection of generation to high voltage systems is less likely
to be constrained by thermal ratings than connection to lower voltage systems.
37
7.2.3. Voltage control issues
The acceptable level and frequency of step voltage changes are specified in the Electricity
Associations Engineering Recommendation P28.
Where induction generators are used, such as in fixed speed wind turbines, they are
normally fitted with soft starters. These devices limit inrush currents to roughly the same
level as the normal rated current. This reduces the magnitude of the step voltage changes
which occur on starting.
This problem may be tackled in a number of ways. It may be possible to use a different
type of electrical source with an inherently lower fault contribution. If the connection
scheme includes step-up transformers, it may be possible to specify high impedance
transformers. Alternatively, a reactor can be included in the connection scheme.
The possibility of reverse power flows in transformers can sometimes present a problem
with the operation of automatically controlled tap changers which are fitted to the
transformers to provide voltage regulation on the low voltage side of the transformer (see
38
section 3.2.3.3). The critical issue is the type of voltage control scheme which is used to
operate these tap changers. Most of the commonly-used voltage control schemes operate
perfectly well with reverse power flows, but there are problems with certain schemes.
The issue of voltage flicker is often raised in connection with wind energy schemes. This
is because one or two early wind turbine projects caused voltage flicker on the distribution
systems to which they were connected. As a result, many people in the electricity industry
still associate wind energy schemes with voltage flicker. In fact, the vast majority of wind
energy schemes have not caused problems with flicker.
The classic danger situation for voltage flicker is when one or two fixed-speed wind
turbines are connected to a weak rural network with low fault levels. The power output of
wind turbines varies rapidly due to wind turbulence, and on a system with low fault level
this can result in voltage fluctuations. A wind farm with several turbines is less likely to
cause flicker, as the variations in the power outputs of the different turbines tend to cancel
out. Furthermore, a system with healthy fault levels is unlikely to suffer from flicker as a
result of the connection of one or two of wind turbines.
The potential to cause voltage flicker is peculiar to fixed-speed wind turbines, and is due
to the electrical characteristics of induction generators. Variable-speed wind turbines are
less likely to cause flicker. Gensets and other types of generators operating at constant
power output do not cause flicker.
7.2.7. Harmonics
Ideally, the voltage at any point in a distribution system should have a perfectly sinusoidal,
50Hz waveform. However, this is rarely achieved in practice. Rectified power supplies,
compact flourescent lights, variable speed motor drives and other switched loads
introduce harmonic components, which distort the waveform as shown in figure 7.1.
Harmonics can also be introduced by inverter-coupled embedded generation schemes
using technologies such as fuel cells and photo-voltaics.
Limits on the level of harmonic currents that generators and loads are permitted to inject
into distribution networks are specified in the Electricity Associations Engineering
Recommendation G5/3. This document also specifies permitted limits on the level of
harmonic voltage distortion at any point in a distribution network.
39
8.
40
Protection, Earthing and Safety
The aim of this chapter is to describe the normal arrangements for protection and earthing
of embedded generators and the connected distribution system, focusing particularly on
the division of responsibilities regarding switchgear and other assets at the point of
supply. Other issues relating to site safety are also discussed.
The best way to obtain this agreement is to arrange a meeting with the PES. At this
meeting, the developer can table a single line diagram describing their proposed design.
This provides a useful focus for the meeting, enabling the PES to understand the
developers proposals and to make concrete suggestions for changes. Scope of supply
issues can also be clarified at the meeting. Written confirmation of the agreed design and
scopes of supply should be obtained after the meeting.
8.2. Protection
8.2.1. Switchgear
One or more circuit breakers must be installed at the point of supply to the generator
installation, to allow isolation of the generator from the PESs distribution network. As a
minimum, the PES will require that a circuit breaker is installed on their side of the point of
supply, to allow them to disconnect the generation plant from the distribution system if
necessary. However, it is not uncommon for a second circuit breaker to be installed on
the developers side of the point of supply (see figure 8.1). This second breaker is
commonly referred to as the customers circuit breaker. It provides a back-up to the PESs
breaker, and also allows the developer to provide their own isolation and earthing for
maintenance of the generator installation.
In some cases it may be possible to make cost savings by omitting the second circuit
breaker. However, if there is only one breaker, PES engineers have to be called out to
provide isolation and earthing of the generator installation, and the PES will charge for this
service. Thus, the initial cost saving must be weighed against these ongoing costs.
The generator installation may include additional circuit breakers, isolators or other
switchgear, to allow isolation of individual machines or transformers.
41
8.2.1.1. Protection of customer assets by PES circuit breaker and protection
Under all circumstances the PESs circuit breaker will protect some customer assets,
even if this is just a short section of busbar between the PESs circuit breaker and the
customers circuit breaker. If there is no customers circuit breaker, the PESs circuit
breaker may protect transformer cables (tails) and transformer windings. These
arrangements must be agreed with the PES. Furthermore, it is the customers
responsibility to ensure that their assets are adequately protected, and that they satisfy
the Electricity Supply Regulations.
over-current
earth fault
G59 protection includes systems for the detection of the following conditions at the
generator installation:
over-voltage
under-voltage
over-frequency
under-frequency
loss of mains
and possibly:
neutral voltage displacement (NVD)
reverse power
A set of relays must be installed at the point of supply to detect these conditions.
Indicative settings for these relays are specified in Engineering Recommendation G59/1.
However, the document is a recommendation rather than a standard, and it may be
appropriate to apply different settings to suit the specific circumstances.
The relays which form the G59 protection are normally within the developers scope of
supply, and are used to trip the customers circuit breaker or the generator circuit
breakers.
42
one or more embedded generators are connected to this part of the network, it is possible
that these generators could continue to operate, supplying power to loads which are
connected to the same section of the network. This scenario, illustrated in figure 8.2, is
referred to as islanding.
Although some PESs deliberately use islanded generators to maintain supplies to users
during network outages, unplanned islanded operation of embedded generators is
generally regarded as unsafe and undesirable. To prevent unplanned islanding, all
embedded generators must be fitted with loss of mains protection, which aims to detect
when the generator is islanded and to disconnect it from the network.
Although loss of mains protection systems will detect islanding in most cases, there is no
system which can guarantee to detect it in all cases. Problems can arise when the
islanded part of the network includes loads which closely match the output of the
embedded generator. It is extremely difficult for loss of mains protection systems to detect
islanding in this situation. The only way to guarantee loss of mains protection is to provide
inter-tripping with the PESs circuit breaker at the primary sub-station. This arrangement
means that the generator is automatically disconnected from the PESs network if the
local network becomes disconnected from the grid.
It should be noted that some of the recommendations in G75 may not be applicable to
embedded generation projects in Scotland.
This decision has implications for metering in the case of renewable generation schemes
selling their output under the NFFO or SRO orders. If a separate PES supply is used to
provide power to the site for battery top-up or any other purpose, this power may have to
be netted off the power exported from the site for the purpose of calculating payments to
the generator under the renewable order scheme.
43
8.3. Site earthing
The PES may supply an earth electrode connection through a cable sheath. However, the
continuity of a single sheath cannot be assumed, so the requirement to install a site earth
electrode still applies. The cable sheath should be bonded to this electrode.
The reader should refer to the Electricity Supply Regulations and BS 7671 for guidance on
earthing systems and terminology.
Solidly earthed - The neutral point is solidly bonded to earth. This can result in high
earth fault currents.
Resistance earthed - The neutral point is bonded to earth through a resistance to limit
earth fault currents. Most PES networks are earthed using this method.
Arc suppression coil earthed - The neutral point is connected to earth through
inductive coils which are tuned to match the network capacitance. This limits the fault
current that flows in the event of an earth fault. These systems are designed to operate
for extensive periods with an earth fault in place. This displacement of the neutral point
places a higher stress on any components (especailly cables and transformers)
connected to it. The design of any such components on the customers system should
be checked against this scenario. Alternatively customers may wish to fit their own
neutral voltage displacement protection and alarm or trip in such circumstances.
44
Provide two separate earth electrodes for the HV and LV systems.
Provide a common earth electrode (or bond HV and LV electrodes together)
In generation projects with individual generation units of less than 2MW, it is often cost-
effective to use a common earthing system for the customers LV and HV systems. In
such cases, it is especially important to ensure that the requirements of the Electricity
Supply Regulations are met. (The relevant section is Part II, 5d(i).) In particular, the
overall resistance of the common earth electrode must be no greater than 1 ohm.
The PES and the customer should jointly determine whether the site will be hot. This is
done by calculating the local earth potential which would occur in the event of an earth
fault. This is a function of the earth fault current and the earth electrode resistance. The
earth fault current is determined by the PES method of neutral earth connection at the
primary substation, and the earth electrode resistance is normally measured by the
customer.
The emergency stop button is normally located in the substation where the PESs circuit
breaker is installed. The button must be located in an area of the substation which can be
accessed by the developers personnel. Sometimes it is appropriate to relay duplicates of
this stop button function to other parts of the generation site such as the generator control
rooms or cubicles.
45
earthing, and may not be able to provide this service on demand. However, some
developers choose to accept these drawbacks in order to avoid the initial cost of the extra
circuit breaker.
9.
46
Getting Connected
The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive list of the activities which are
involved in connecting an embedded generator to the PESs network. This list is
structured using the three phases (design, build, and testing and commissioning) which
were outlined in chapter 2. Figure 9.1 shows how these phases are related in time. The
timing of some other activities, such as wayleaving and documentation, are also indicated.
The activities described in this chapter apply to a new connection involving an extension
to the PES system and the provision of a new point of supply. Most of these activities are
not needed if the generation scheme is to be connected to the network via an existing
point of supply.
At this stage, it may be worth discussing the PESs own plans for developing their
network. They may have plans to upgrade the local distribution infrastructure, in which
case it may be possible to accommodate the proposed generation scheme at very little
extra cost. Even if no major works of this kind are planned, the PES may be willing to
consider re-configuring the network in order to accommodate the scheme.
47
the type of generation involved. However, the PES may ask the developer to provide all
the data which is specified in the Distribution Code.
If the developer is considering a third party connection, the scope of the contestable and
non-contestable works should be agreed with the PES. To enable the PESs offer to be
compared with third party connection offers, the developer may request that the PESs
connection offer includes separate costs for contestable and non contestable works.
9.2.1. Planning
Developers should be aware of the planning implications of the grid connection when they
are advancing the planning application for their generation project. In addition to planning
permission for the generation plant itself, permission will also need to be obtained for
overhead lines and new substations which may be off-site.
The procedure for obtaining a section 37 consent is described in a Joint Circular titled
Electricity Generating Stations and Overhead Lines, issued in 1990. This Joint Circular
can be obtained from HMSO. It contains models for forms which the developer must
48
prepare and submit to the local planning authority. The planning authority will complete
another part of the form (this can take up to two months) before returning it. The
developer then submits the form to the Energy Section of the DTI (previously the
Department of Energy) for their consideration.
9.2.2. Wayleaving
Negotiating wayleaves for connection infrastructure can be a delicate matter, and it is
often difficult to forecast how long it will take. To make matters worse, this process is
often on the critical path for the whole project. If new wayleaves are needed, the
developer should try to ensure that discussions with landowners get under way as soon
as possible.
It is normal practice for the PES to obtain the necessary wayleaves or easements for the
PES-owned connection assets, even if these assets are to be installed by a third party.
The PES will usually aim to obtain these wayleaves at standard rates. Negotiations
between the PES and the landowner can take a long time. If progress is slow, there may
be opportunities for the developer to work with the PES in order to secure a deal with the
landowner.
49
It should be noted that the PES is a contractor to the project, and they should therefore
fulfill the same requirements as any other contractor with respect to the CD&M
Regulations.
Under the CD&M Regulations the designer is responsible for ensuring that the project
can be operated safely. The developer should ensure that this responsibility is assigned
to, and accepted by, an organisation with the appropriate skills and expertise. This
organisation may be the developer themselves, a contractor or a consulting engineer.
The PES may want to inspect the civil works at completion, or at several stages
throughout construction in the case of large foundations.
9.3.4. Earthing
Responsibility for provision of earth electrodes, bonding and main earth terminals should
have been agreed during the design phase. However, further detail will inevitably emerge
as the project progresses, and this may require further discussion of solutions and
responsibilities between the developer and the PES.
9.3.5. Telecommunications
Telephone lines will normally be required at the site of the generation scheme for
purposes of metering, communications (substation phone to call PES control and
operation centre) and possibly for protection. Getting these lines installed is normally the
developers responsibility. This process can take a long time, especially if the site is in a
remote location.
If the site is a hot site, the developer should inform the provider of the telephone lines
(usually British Telecom). This is because special precautions are required to ensure that
high local earth potentials do not interfere with the operation of the telecommunications
system.
50
9.3.6. Metering
The developer is responsible for appointing a meter operator to install and maintain
metering equipment at the point of supply. Other metering functions - such as data
collection and aggregation - are outside the scope of this Guide, but developers should
ensure that they understand their responsibilities with regard to these functions.
9.4. Documentation
Documentation relating to the generation scheme and connection arrangement should be
compiled as the project progresses. Some documents are needed to record agreements
between the developer and the PES on issues such as the settings for protection relays.
Other documents are needed to provide useful information such as nomenclature and
contact details.
9.4.1. Nomenclature
The naming and numbering of all equipment should be agreed between the developer
and the PES at an early stage in the project. This ensures that references to items of
equipment in correspondence, drawings and safety documentation are unambiguous and
clear. This nomenclature should also be used for labelling of equipment at site.
51
9.4.8. Connection agreement
The connection agreement is normally signed during the build phase of the project. Early
agreement and signing has the advantage that the terms of the connection are defined.
However, signing can sometimes be delayed due to protracted negotiations over terms.
The PES will not normally energise the connection until the connection agreement has
been signed by both parties.
9.5.4. Energisation
The connection will be energised by the PES using their safety rules.
9.5.5. Commissioning
Following energisation, the developer is in a position to commission his plant. If the
generation scheme uses synchronous machines, the PES may wish to witness the first
synchronisation of these machines. The PES may want to perform some protection tests,
including G59 tests, with the generation operating at various power levels.
9.6. Operation
52
It is also recommended that site safety rules and operational procedures are posted with
these.
It is the responsibility of the owner of the system to follow these procedures, and to
provide, designate and train the necessary competent personnel and define their
operational responsibilities and capabilities.
10.
53
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
active power - combination of alternating currents and voltages which result in a transfer
of energy across an electrical system.
approved contractor - a contractor which has been approved by the PES for carrying out
third party connection work.
condition 8 statement - document published by a PES outlining the basis of charges for
connection to the PESs distribution system.
connection agreement - an agreement setting out terms relating to a connection with the
PES Distribution System (excluding any such agreement with NGC).
DNC - the maximum power available for export on a continuous basis minus any power
imported by the station from the network to run its own plant.
determination (of disputes) - Any dispute arising under certain sections of the Electricity
Act 1989 between a PES and a person requiring a supply of electricity, can be referred to
the DGES for determination. These determinations are then published as a matter of
public record, and then forms case law on the subject.
54
G75 - The name of the Electricity Associations Engineering Recommendation which
specifies certain protection requirements for larger embedded generating plants,
specifically those with outputs of over 5MW or connected above 20kV
hot site - a site where an earth fault can result in a local earth potential exceeding
specified levels (normally 430V, or 650V if the fault clearance time is less than 200
milliseconds).
islanding - islands of supply are discrete parts of a distribution system which are capable
of generating and maintaining a stable supply of electricity to the customers within those
discrete parts without any connections to the rest of the system.
line drop compensation - a voltage control scheme (used for the control of voltage levels
in distribution networks) which compensates for the change in voltage drop in a long line
as the current in the line changes.
mains paralleling - the operation of an electrical generator while connected in parallel with
the main grid supply.
negative reactance compounding - a voltage control scheme (used for the control of
voltage levels in distribution networks) which allows the voltage-regulated system to be
fed from two or more transformers in parallel.
non-pooled generator - a generator which does not trade electricity through the Pool.
P&SA - Pooling and Settlement Agreement: signed by the market participants, it sets out,
inter alia, the rules and procedures for the operation of the electricity Pool of England and
Wales and for the operation of a settlement system.
PES - Public Electricity Supplier, the holder of a public electricity supply licence.
point of common coupling - the point in the distribution network where the lines or cables
which are used solely to provide the supply to one customer (eg. a generation scheme)
are connected to infrastructure which is also used to provide supplies to other customers.
Pool - the electricity trading market, the rules and procedures of which are contained in
the Pooling and Settlement Agreement.
pooled generator - A generator which trades through the Pool. Includes all generators with
a DNC less than 100MW but with an export greater than 50MW, and those with a DNC
greater than 100MW and an export greater than 10MW.
protection system - the provisions for detecting abnormal conditions in a system and
initiating fault clearance or actuating signals or indications.
reactive power - combination of alternating currents and voltages which does not result in
any transfer of energy across an electrical system.
55
reinforcement - Reinforcement work is usually required to increase the electrical capacity
of those parts of the network which form part of the electrical path from the generator into
the network. Other work might include upgrading the switchgear at a substation some
distance from the proposed generation scheme, due to the increase in fault level caused
by the connection of the generator.
supplier - a person or company providing a supply of electricity. This could be the local
PES, a second tier supplier or an exempt supplier.
thermal rating - the current-carrying capacity of a cable, an overhead line or any other
electrical infrastructure, which is determined by the heating effect arising from electrical
losses.
third party connection - connection provided by a contractor other than the local PES.
11.
56
Index
Generation business, 4
Adoption agreements, 31 Generator, 9
Approved contractors, 31 Generator technologies, 33
Auxiliary supplies, 41 Grid Codes, 22
Grid supply point, 13
Budget estimate, 7
Harmonics, 37
Capacity bagging, 27 Health and Safety File, 49
CD&M Regulations, 48 High voltage. See Voltage:HV
Civil works, 48 Hot site, 43
Clearance certificates, 50 Hydro-Electric, 4
Competition in connection, 7, 19, 30
Condition 8 statement, 18 Islanding, 41
Connection agreement, 6, 19 Isolation and earthing, 44
Connection business, 5
Connection charges Licenses, 11
allocation of costs, 26 Load flow software, 35
initial costs, 25 Loss of mains protection, 41
multiple generation schemes, 27 Low voltage. See Voltage:LV
O&M costs, 25
refunds, 28 Mains paralleling, 4
sharing, 28 Maintenance agreement, 6
Connection costs, 24 Master Connection and Use of System
Contestable work, 7 Agreement. See MCUSA
Contestable works, 30 MCUSA, 10
Customer assets, 39 medium voltage. See Voltage:MV
customer's circuit breaker, 39 Metering, 27
protection by PES circuit breaker, 40 Metering Codes of Practice, 13
57
Pooling and Settlement Agreement. See Tap changers, 15, 37
P&SA Tariff support allowances, 18
Protection systems, 15 Technical and operating agreement, 6
Public Electricity Supplier. See PES Telephone lines, 49
Thermal rating, 35
Rated power output, 33 Third party connection, 7
Reactive power, 33 Third party connections, 30
Re-closers, 15 Timescales, 8
RECs, 9 Top-up supplies, 26
Regional Electricity Companies. See RECs
Regulator, 10 Use of system charges, 9
Responsibility schedule, 49 Use-of-system charges, 26
Reverse power flows, 36
Voltage
ScottishPower, 4 HV, 14
Second tier supplier, 12 LV, 14
Secretary of State, 10 MV, 14
Section 37 consent, 47 standard nominal voltage levels, 14
Site safety rules, 50 steady-state voltage rise, 36
SRO, 28 step voltage change, 36
Stand-by supplies, 26 voltage regulation, 14
Statement of system capacity and loading, Voltage flicker, 37
19 Voltage unbalance, 38
Supplemental Agreement, 10
Supplier, 9 Wayleaves, 47
Supply business, 4 Wires business, 4
System studies, 34 Wires businesses, 9
12.
58
Appendix A - Typical Network Information from a PES
This appendix describes the information which should be provided by a PES, in a
statement of system capacity and loading (see section 4.2.1.2). The content and
presentation of these statements varies from one PES to the next. The example shown
here is representative of good practice.
Thus, the PESs statement would normally contain information relating solely to the
system in question. Incoming and outgoing feeds to other systems and MVA ratings of
transformers might be indicated in diagrams, but it is not normal for more detailed
information about these feeds to be provided.
Physical map - This map shows the geographical location of the assets in the
schematic diagram.
Table of circuit data - This table specifies the key parameters of each line in the
system. These parameters include line length, resistance, reactance, conductor
specification and ratings (possibly differentiated into normal, summer and winter
ratings).This data may be provided in the form of output from the PESs load flow
software system, as shown in figure A2. It may be accompanied by a schematic
diagram generated by the same software, such as the one shown in figure A3. This
can be useful to help identify the nodes and lines described in the table.
Table of loads - This table specifies the location and magnitude of the loads on the
system. It should specify the active and reactive loads at conditions of maximum
demand, and should enable some estimate to be made of the minimum demand
levels.
Short circuit data - This should include, as a minimum, the three pahse fault level at
the infeed to the system.
13.
59
Appendix B - Checklists
This appendix contains checklists for the various phases of the connection process, as
outlined in chapter 9. These checklists are intended as a memory-jogger for the
developer, rather than as something to be followed slavishly. Some of the actions may not
be relevant or appropriate to some projects, and the order in which they are carried out
may vary from one project to another.
Design phase
Done Date
Data gathering
Maps obtained
Site visited / surveyed
Informal contacts with the PES
Initial phone call
Meeting held
Request for network data
Formal request made
Data received
Provide data on generation scheme
Data to be provided agreed with PES
Data sent
Agree connection scheme and budget
Route and connection voltage agreed
Formal request for budget made
Budget received
Make connection application
Formal application made
Application acknowledged by PES
Up-front payment made
Connection quotation received
Connection quotation accepted
Agree single line diagram
Proposed SLD issued to PES
Comments received / meeting held
Amended SLD issued and agreed
Detail design
Customer system
PES system
Earthing System
Protection Studies
60
Negotiations started
Negotiations concluded
Application made for section 37 consent
Section 37 consent granted / witheld
Build phase
Done Date
CD&M Regulations
Health and Safety Plan completed
Principal Contractor appointed
Planning Supervisor appointed
First site meeting held
Health and Safety File(s) completed
Place orders
Civil works
Miscellaneous site work (fencing, roads etc)
Generation plant and equipment
Third party connection work
Metering equipment and services
Earth electrode(s)
Telecommunications connection
Documentation
Done Date
Issues to be agreed with the PES
Nomenclature agreed
Responsibility schedule agreed
Protection settings agreed
Connection agreement signed
Technical & operating agreement signed
Information to be posted at point of supply
Contact details posted
Responsibility schedule posted
Protection settings posted
Single line diagram posted
Site safety rules posted
Completion and hand-over documentation
Hand-over certificates received
Health and safety file received
61
G59 tests completed & witnessed
Connection energised
First synchronisation witnessed
Meters commissioned
14.
62
Appendix C - PES Networks
The following table provides some general information about the distribution networks of
the fourteen Public Electricity Suppliers in England, Wales and Scotland.
Source: OFFER
15.
63
Appendix D - Power Factor and Reactive Power
The aim of this appendix is to provide a brief introduction to the concepts of power factor
and reactive power. These concepts are important in the design and operation of
electricity systems based on alternating current (AC). The two concepts are closely
related, together with the concepts of active power and apparent power.
Active power
Active power is a measure of the rate of energy transfer in AC circuits (see figure D1). It
has units of watts (W, kW or MW).
At any interface between two parts of a circuit, there is a transfer of active power from one
part to the other. The circuit shown in figure D1 consists of three components - the
generator, the transmission line and the load. Point A represents the generator terminals,
and point B represents the terminals of the load. Thus, the active power transferred at A is
equal to the active power fed into the transmission line by the generator. Similarly, the
active power transferred at B is equal to the active power drawn from the transmission line
by the load. Some active power is consumed in the line itself, so the active power
transferred at B is slightly less than that transferred at A.
Apparent power
Apparent power is a measure of the electrical stress placed on circuit components such
as transformers and transmission lines. The electrical capacity of circuit components is
usually given in units of volt-amperes (VA, kVA or MVA).
64
VA = sqrt3 x Vrms x Irms
Unlike active power, apparent power has no directional characteristics. It is not generated
or consumed, and it is not transferred from one part of a circuit to another. For this
reason, its value is always positive or zero.
Power factor
Power factor is a measure of the effectiveness of energy transfer in AC circuits. It is a
dimensionless parameter, equal to the ratio of active power to apparent power at a
particular point in a circuit:
pf = P / VA
and P = VA x pf
At any point in an AC circuit, the magnitude of the active power transferred is always less
than or equal to the apparent power at that point (see next section). For this reason, the
power factor always lies between -1 and +1. However, power factors in practical power
systems are usually kept as close to unity (+1) as possible. This maximises the amount of
energy which can be transferred using circuit components with a given volt-ampere
capacity. It also minimises energy losses in these components.
If the load in figure D1 is purely resistive, the voltage and current waveforms at point B are
in phase, as shown in figure D2. However, if the load is purely inductive, the current
waveform at B lags the voltage waveform by a quarter of a cycle, or 90, as shown in
figure D3. Note that the peak values of the voltage and current waveforms are equal to
root 2 times the corresponding r.m.s. values.
Figures D2 and D3 also show how the instantaneous rate of energy transfer at B varies
with time. This instantaneous power is simply the product of the instantaneous current
and voltage at B:
In the case of the purely resistive load, the instantaneous rate of energy transfer varies
from a minimum value of zero (when both the voltage and the current are zero) to a
maximum value equal to twice the apparent power (when the current and voltage are both
at a positive peak, or both at a negative peak). Therefore, the average rate of energy
transfer (the active power) is equal to the apparent power, and so the power factor is
equal to +1.
In the case of the purely reactive load, the instantaneous rate of energy transfer varies
about an average value of zero, with positive and negative peak values equal to the
apparent power. The active power is zero, even though the apparent power is non-zero.
Thus, the power factor is zero in this case.
It can be shown that the power factor is equal to the cosine of the phase angle between
the voltage and current waveforms:
pf = P / VA = cos
65
Leading and lagging power factors
The words leading and lagging are often used to describe phase relationships in AC
circuits. Where the current waveform leads the voltage waveform, for example when
supplying a capacitative load, the power factor is said to be leading. Conversely, where
the current waveform lags the voltage waveform, the power factor is said to be lagging.
Phase relationships in AC circuits are often specified by stating the power factor followed
by the word leading or lagging. This is because the power factor, on its own, does not
indicate whether the phase angle between the voltage and current waveforms is positive
or negative. In other words, it does not indicate whether the voltage waveform leads the
current waveform, or vice versa.
Reactive power
Reactive power is analogous to active power in many ways. It is generated in some circuit
components, and consumed in others. The generation and consumption of reactive power
in a circuit must balance, in the same way as the generation and consumption of active
power. And reactive power is transferred from one part of a circuit to another, in the same
way as active power.
However, reactive power does not represent the rate of energy transfer, as active power
does. Whereas active power is a measure of the in-phase component of the current and
voltage waveforms at a particular point, reactive power is a measure of the out-of-phase
component. This out-of-phase component does not contribute to the transfer of energy,
but it does contribute to the electrical stress on circuit components.
The mathematical expression for reactive power is similar to that for active power.
However, whereas active power is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle between
the voltage and current waveforms, reactive power is proportional to the sine of the phase
angle:
P = VA x cos
and Q = VA x sin
Thus, in the case of the purely resistive load (figure D2) there is a positive transfer of
active power at B, but no reactive power transfer. Conversely, in the case of the purely
inductive load (figure D3) there is a positive transfer of reactive power at B, but no active
power transfer. Most real electrical loads have a resistive component and an inductive
component, so they consume a mixture of active power and reactive power. Figure D4
shows the relationship between voltage, current and power in this type of situation.
Quadrant diagrams
The relationship between active power, reactive power, apparent power and phase angle
can be illustrated using a quadrant diagram, as shown in figure D5. This is simply a graph
with real power plotted along the x-axis and reactive power plotted along the y-axis. A
point (X) can be plotted on this chart, corresponding to the transfer of real and reactive
power at the terminals of a black box. The length of the vector OX corresponds to the
apparent power at the terminals. The angle between the x-axis and the vector OX,
corresponds to the phase angle between the voltage and current waveforms.
In figure D5, the point is plotted in quadrant 2 of the diagram. This indicates that the black
box is generating active power, but consuming reactive power. Each quadrant represents
a different combination of generation and consumption:
66
Quadrant 1: Consumption of both active and reactive power
Quadrant 2: Generation of active power, consumption of reactive power
Quadrant 3: Generation of both active and reactive power
Quadrant 4: Consumption of active power, generation of reactive power
16.
67
Appendix E - Fault Levels
The aim of this appendix is to provide a brief introduction to fault analysis and fault levels.
These analytical tools are used in the design of electrical power systems, to calculate the
magnitude of fault currents and ensure that circuit breakers are rated to handle these
currents.
Types of faults
Three types of faults occur in three-phase electricity systems (see figure E2). Single
phase to earth faults and phase to phase faults are relatively common in distribution
networks with overhead lines, as they can be caused by objects falling onto lines or by line
breakages. Three-phase faults can be caused by accidental damage to cables or other
equipment, but this is very rare.
Three-phase faults result in higher fault currents than other types of fault. For this reason,
switchgear and other network components are usually rated to withstand the calculated
three-phase fault currents. Fortunately, three-phase faults are the easiest type of fault to
model and calculate the corresponding fault currents. Although it is often necessary to
model other types of faults as well, most fault calculations relate to three-phase faults.
F = sqrt3 x Vn x If
where
F = fault level volt-amperes
Vn = nominal voltage at the fault location volts
If = fault current amps
Thus, fault levels are expressed in units of apparent power (VA, kVA or MVA).
Each electrical source in the network contributes to the current which flows at the fault
itself. These contributions to the fault level are known as fault contributions, or fault
infeeds. These fault infeeds can also be expressed in units of apparent power. The
magnitude of the fault infeed from a particular source depends on two things: the
characteristics of the source itself, and the impedances of the network components which
form the pathway from the source to the fault.
The main grid supply into a distribution network can be regarded as an electrical source.
Thus, if a fault occurs in the distribution network, there is fault infeed from the grid (see
figure E3). There may be additional fault infeeds, due to embedded generators which are
connected to the network. In case (a) of figure E3, the fault infeed from the embedded
generator comes from the same side of the fault as the infeed from the grid. In this case,
the circuit breaker at point A sees the fault infeeds from both the grid and the generator.
In case (b) the two fault infeeds come from opposite sides of the fault, and the circuit
68
breaker at A only sees the infeed from the grid. In both cases, the fault infeed from the
embedded generator contributes to the total fault level at point B.
17.
69
Appendix F - Standards and other Documents
BS EN 50160 : 1995
Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution systems.
70
Code of practice for the metering of circuits with a rated capacity not exceeding 10MVA
for settlement purposes.
The Distribution Code of the Public Electricity Suppliers of England and Wales
Available from any of the twelve Public Electricity Suppliers in England and Wales
Managing construction for health and safety: Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 1994 (Approved Code of Practice L54)
Contains both the CDM Regulations and the Approved Code of Practice.
71
The Electricity Supply Regulations 1988
Specifies legal requirements for earthing, protection and other safety-related measures.
Bayliss
Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering
1996, Butterworth-Heinemann
Davies
Protection of Industrial Power Systems
1984, Pergamon Press Ltd.
Gonen
Electric Power Transmission System Engineering
1988, John Wiley and Sons
Pete
Electric Power Systems Manual
1992, McGraw-Hill
18.
72
Appendix G - Contact Details for Organisations
18.1. PESs
East Midlands Electricity
Mr. G. Mather - Power System Planning Manager
East Midlands Electricity
Great Northern Road
Derby
DE1 1QF
tel. 01332 226226
fax. 01332 226833
Eastern Electricity
Mr. Mez Joarder
Networks Projects Department
Eastern Electricity - Stowmarket Office
Needham Road
Stowmarket
Suffolk
IP14 2AH
tel. 01449 772389
fax. 01449 772396
London Electricity
Mr. Trevor Lloyd
Asset Management
London Electricity
261 City Road
London
EC1B 1LE
tel. 0171 865 7737
fax. 0171 865 7889
Manweb
Mr. Bob Sheedy - Commercial Operations
Power Systems Department
Manweb
Prenton Way
Birkenhead
L43 3ET
tel. 0151 609 2096
fax. 0151 609 2098
email bob.sheedy@manweb.co.uk
Midlands Electricity
Mr. D. Harrison - Network Development Engineer
Network Development Department
Midlands Electricity
P.O. Box 9
Toll End Road
Tipton
West Midlands
DY4 0HH
tel. 0121 557 2811
fax. 0121 522 6175
73
Northern Electric
Mr. Colin Ray - Commercial Engineer
Commercial Section
Northern Electric Distribution Ltd.
Carliol House
Market Street
Newcastle upon Tyne
NE1 6NE
tel. 0191 210 2588
fax. 0191 210 1121
email colin.ray@northern-electric.co.uk
Norweb
Mr. Howard Smith - Third Party Connections Manager
Norweb Distribution
Hathersage Road
Manchester
M13 0EH
tel. 0161 257 4646
fax. 0161 257 4494
Scottish Hydro-Electric
Ms. Eve Milne - Core Connections Manager
Scottish Hydro-Electric plc.
South Inch Business Centre
Shore Road
Perth
PH2 8BN
tel. 01738 455972
fax. 01738 455709
email eve.milne@hydro.co.uk
ScottishPower
Mr. Phil Gordon
Commercial Operations Department
ScottishPower Power Systems
Cathcart Business Park
Spean Street
Glasgow
G44 4BE
tel. 0141 568 3740
fax. 0141 568 3559
email phil.gordon@scottishpower.plc.uk
Seeboard
Mr. Steve Willis - Network Strategy Manager
Distribution Department
SEEBOARD
Russell Way
Crawley
West Sussex
RH10 1UL
tel. 01293 656475
fax. 01293 656402
74
South Western Electricity
New Connections Department
South Western Electricity plc.
Osprey Road
Sowton Industrial Estate
Exeter
EX2 7HZ
tel. 0345 650650
fax. 01392 444497
Southern Electric
Mr. Richard Roe - Project Leader (Major Works Planning)
Strategic Planning Department
Southern Electric plc.
Westacott Way
Littlewick Green
Maidenhead
Berkshire
SL6 3QB
tel. 01628 584123
fax. 01628 584523
email richard.roe@southernelectric.co.uk
Swalec
Mr. Ivor Rogers - Generation Connections Manager
Swalec
Newport Road
St. Mellons
Cardiff
CF3 9XW
tel. 01222 771279
fax. 01222 777759
Yorkshire Electricity
Mr. Alan Creighton - Distribution Utilisation Engineer
Yorkshire Electricity plc.
P.O. Box 161
161 Gelderd Road
Leeds
LS1 1QZ
tel. 0113 241 5476
fax. 0113 241 5594
75
W4 4AL
tel. 0181 996 9000
HMSO
HMSO Publications Centre
PO Box 726
London
SW8 5DT
tel. 0171 873 9090
fax. 0171 873 8200
HSE Books
PO Box 1999
Sudbury
Suffolk
CO10 6FS
tel. 01787 881165
fax. 01787 313995
76
Stoneleigh Deer Park
Stareton
Kenilworth
Warwickshire
CV8 2LY
tel. 01203 537777
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112