Engineering Geology, 35 (1993) 229-235 229

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Geological prognosis ahead of a tunnel face

M a s a h i r o H a s e g a w a a, M a s a r u U s u ? a n d K e i n o s u k e G o t o h b
aTobishima Corporation, 2 Sanban-cho Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan
bGraduate School of Marine Science and Engineering, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852, Japan
(Revised manuscript accepted April 15, 1993)

ABSTRACT

Hasegawa, M., Usui, M. and Gotoh, K., 1993. Geological prognosis ahead of a tunnel face. In: M. Langer, K. Hoshino and
K. Aoki (Editors), Engineering Geology in the Utilizatiol~ of Underground Space. Eng. Geol., 35: 229-235.

The locations of a specific geological boundary and aquifer were predicted, prior to reaching them, by a reflection method
and the measurement of geothermic temperature. The determination was performed during tunnelling work which passed
through the Median Tectonic Line in central Japan. The reflection method procedure was as follows. A P-wave was produced
on the tunnel face by a small blasting. The location of the velocity layer boundary was predicted by the travel time of the
direct wave and the reflectedwave. The geothermic temperature was measured by a thermocouple which was set in the borehole
at the face. The location of the aquifer was predicted by the thermal deviation between the measured value and the theoretical
value that was determined from a mean geothermal gradient. Also, a water quality survey is performed, discussing the quality
of the fissure water. In addition, we were able to confirm, using the SeismicTomography method, that the sheared zone found,
was the layer including lens-shaped low-velocityzone. The methods considered proved to be simple and effectivefor geological
prognosis from within the tunnel.

Introduction to avoid collapse accidents and to select the most

During the stage of designing a tunnel, informa-
tion concerning the geological conditions is
obtained from the surface, by means of ground
survey, boring, borehole test and geophysical pros-
pecting. In the case of a thick overburden or of
complex geological conditions, these methods are
very costly and inaccurate. At rare exposures in a
mostly covered area, we have only information
about the geological condition by observation of
outcrops. This problem is extremely important
with faults, because in particular, the width, direc-
tion and quality of a fault zone are always variable
with depth. The dip and strike of strata (or geologi-
cal boundaries) also change with depth and along
strike (considering e.g., creep o f surfaces). During
the excavation stage, it is o f the utmost importance
for tunnel engineers to have accurate information
concerning the locations and properties o f frac-
tures or sheared zones, as well as the locations of
aquifers or boundaries at the depth o f the tunnel,
suitable support (Suzuki et al., 1984).
Pilot boring with coring, the use of borehole
cameras, and percussion drilling with drilling
machines have been applied to make predictions
ahead of tunnel faces. However, pilot boring with
coring and the use of borehole cameras are costly
and time-consuming,causing delays in the progress
of the tunnel. Percussion drilling can be performed
within a short period, but much experience is
required in judging a change in rock quality or
determining formation boundaries from the obser-
vation of the drilling progress and the drilling
slurry (Hasegawa and Usui, 1991).
The authors (Hasegawa et al., 1990; Hasegawa
and Usui, 1992) applied the reflection method to
predict a discontinuity, and the geothermal method
and water quality survey to predict an aquifer
ahead of the face of a tunnel, which passed through
the Median Tectonic Line in Japan. They also
applied the seismic t o m o g r a p h y method to exam-
ine the geological conditions within a sheared zone.

0013-7952/93/$06.00 O 1993 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

230 M. H A S E G A W A ET A L

All these methods proved to be simple and effective
as methods for geological prognosis from within
the tunnel.
Geological outline
The Kusaki tunnel (1307 m long) was con-
structed for the two-way road tunnel, about 60 km
north from Hamamatsu City, Central Japan
(Fig. 1). The main tunnel and pilot tunnel are
planned. The tunnel root intersects two tectonic
lines at roughly right angle, the Median Tectonic
Line and the Todai Tectonic Line (M.T.L. and
T.T.L., resp.). A number of borings in the design
phase confirmed that the M.T.L. was located
between the mylonite of the Ryoke belt and so
called greenstones consisting of basaltic rocks and
green clays, as it was not obvious whether they
belonged to the Chichibu terrain or the
Sambagawa. Figure 2 shows the geological cross
section parallel to the tunnel based on the excav-
ations. The M.T.L. has strike N 30-40E, and dip
60-80NW. Fresh and sheared mylonites are found
west of the M.T.L.; sheared greenstones, T.T.L.,
diorite and the Cretaceous Misakubo formation
(sandstone, conglomerate and shale) are found to
the east of the M.T.L. The fresh mylonite, with a
well banded structure, is white or greyish white in

/
(km) /
/
0 10 20 30 40

/ossa magna
Ryoke belt

}(yoto Location of tests

nylonite , ~. - shi=anto belt. ~,

..... i /
ol

..d I
135 E
I
145 Saubagawa ...........
i i !" ' . ~ j '

~ ~ ; u ' i ~ , t ......~ ~"<
: " i ~~> "

~" "~"":i"i::i~~" :~"i". "

"... :.." ..': "..:i":.Tenryu r i vet .:.i:.?"": h:::...;.'\'. !:~!:i~: !.

, , . , . . ". .

Fig. 1. Location and geology of the Kusaki tunnel.

G E O L O G I C A L PROGNOSIS A H E A D O F A T U N N E L FACE 231

~est ~ East

. .::":. i.":". : :;..:..: "2sak

Creen rock/)~ The T.T.L
../ t V,)
Tunnel advance ~ ~ loo 3oo
Fig. 2. Geological section of the tunnel.

color and relatively hard. The sheared mylonite rocks. They are found at a distance from the
zone is about 200 m wide, and can be divided into M.T.L., and are accompanied by many fault clays
a strongly sheared zone (to the west) and a rela- 5-10 cm in thickness.
tively hard zone (to the east). The strongly sheared The greenstones are 25 m thick. The rocks are
zone is about 100 m wide and is in contact with intercalated with a dark green clay 1 m thick in
the fresh mylonite. The sheared mylonite zone can maximum including basalt fragments along the
be divided into five subzones as shown in Fig. 3. M.T.L. The rocks towards the T.T.L. are also
Subzone 2, in direct contact with the M.T.L., is strongly sheared in a zone 9-12 m wide. This zone
composed of an aggregate of lenticular rock frag- is composed of brecciated rocks intercalated with
ments with a cataclastic texture. Each fragment, many fault clays, several cm to several tens of cm
however, is so hard that a fairly heavy hit by a thick. The greenstones between both faults (M.T.L
hammer is needed to break the fragments into and T.T.L) are 13 m thick and can be easily split
smaller pieces. Subzones 3-5 consist of very brittle into fragments smaller than 5 cm with a light hit

Tile t~.T.L. The T.T.L

.... :-:/i

~ ~ Diolite Cretaceous
.' ":. "'. " '.','"'.",'~" Green rock blisakubo for~ation
...." ; .:.: ,:':..,.
~ ~ : ~ ! i ~ ~ \ subzone sys/~l condition of in-situ r ~ k .Lss
~,.~i~..~.?.~.~.,.~.~ ....~.~ ~ .- , . ! B l a c k - - l r u i s h black,verx l i t t l e is crcshed.

-:, ,',,i.;:, ~).,.~" ~" ~ '~ ,' ' ~" ; i ~ 81sck~srayish black, frequent several i i thick black cray. t M t is

:: : :; BIRck~lrsyish black, several c~ thick trayishblack~ra:~ crxy is

i!::ii se~,ltched, ro~k ,s herd.
I i I 1! Blsek~ltrsyish blsck, incl~linl i h i t e fracture ares *hitch is lens

I /
Location of seismic tomography
O:Prospecting point of Reflection method
4 ! l ! i ! shal~d, several c . thick irayish black~sray tray Is sand.itched, rock
is very b r i t t l e end reduced to s slmll piece by l i g h t healer.
Stratus is white sad very b r i t t l e , rock is reduced to a sssll piece

A:Geotheraal measureing point

Fig. 3. Geological profile through the M.T.L. and the T.T.L.
232 M. HASEGAWA ET AL.

of a hammer. The diorite was not known in the
design phase; it is discovered during the construc-
tion of the tunnel. The rock is very hard, but has
many fissures. A large quantity of ground water
was found in the diorite, sandstone and
conglomerate.
Prediction ahead of the tunnel face
Prospecting offormation boundaries using the
reflection method
The reflection method was applied to indicate
the location of the M.T.L. ahead of the tunnel.
Figure 4 shows the concept of the reflection
method. A P-wave is generated by a small explo-
sion at the tunnel face. The P-wave shows a
reflection at any formation boundary ahead of the
tunnel. The greater the change in rock quality, the
clearer the reflection is. The direct waves and the
reflections are monitored with a geophone at
the arrival time of the direct waves and the reflec-
tions waves; and d is the distance from tunnel face
to the geophone position.
The geophone was set in a hole drilled into the
pilot tunnel face, so as to eliminate the influence
of surface waves from within the tunnel.
Prospecting was carried out at distances of 70 and
30 m from the M.T.L.
Figure 5 shows the waveforms obtained. At 70
m from the Line, the geophone was placed in a
hole drilled 1.5 m deep. The reflection wave was
not identified, due to surface wave noise. At 30 m
from the line, a hole was drilled 2.4 m deep. A
good reflection wave was received with practically
no noise due to surface waves. T h e distance
i i i i I
, ~ ! ! i
70m from the M.T.L d=l.Tm !

the tunnel face. The distance from the tunnel face 0.0 I0.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
travel time ( msec )
and the formation boundary is calculated from the
Direct Wave i Reflected Wave
difference in the arrival time of the two waves. ' i i i

vt
L=-~+d (1)
i - t=ml.8 =sec~ i,
30m from the I M.T.L: d=2 4m L=~+2.4'v'~, = 20.4 (m)
where: L is the distance from tunnel face to 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
travel time ( rnsec )
formation boundary; v is the elastic wave velocity
lip of the in situ rock mass; t is the difference in Fig. 5. Sample of wave forms obtained.

Small Blasting Direct W a v e Reflected W a v e

Geophone Borehole

Fault etc
L

vt
L= -- +d
2
where v ; t h e elastic wave v e l o c i t y Vp o f the i n - s i t u rock mass.
t;the difference in the a r r i v a l time of the d i r e c t waves and the r e f l e c t i o n s waves.

Fig. 4. Concept of the reflection method.

GEOLOGICAL PROGNOSIS AHEAD OF A TUNNEL FACE
obtained from the reflection analysis was slightly
shorter than the actual distance confirmed on
subsequent excavation. The reason is that the
Tectonic Line intersects the tunnel axis at 30-40 .
Also, the elastic wave velocity Vo of the in situ
rock mass used in the calculation, estimated from
Fig. 7 using the analysis of the velocity distribution
by Seismic Tomography, was slightly smaller than
the actual value. Using the reflection method, the
measuring apparatus can be easily placed, and the
method scarcely affects tunneling work.
Prediction of the location of an aquifer by
geothermal method (the procedure for measuring
geothermic temperature)
When a fracture or a sheared zone is imperme-
able, a spout of ground water from the aquifer
ahead can be anticipated when passing through
that zone. It is considered that the ground temper-
ature in the aquifer is lower than the theoretical
ground temperature, due to water seepages.
The nearer the aquifer is, the lower the ground
temperature should be. Consequently, a nearby
aquifer can be predicted by the measurement of
the ground temperature. With this method, the
location of an aquifer is predicted by calculating
the theoretical temperature of the ground at the
depth of tunneling and comparing the theoretical
with the measured temperature. Takeuchi (1983)
calculated the temperature of the ground below a
constant-thermal layer:
0z = 0o + ~z(Z- zi) (2)
where: 0z is the theoretical ground temperature; 0o
is the mean temperature at the boundary of the
constant thermal layer; ~'z is the mean geothermal
gradient; Z is depth from the surface; and Zi is
the depth of the constant-thermal layer.
To calculate the theoretical ground temperature
by Eq. 2, the thermal constants (thermal conductiv-
ity, heat flow, etc.,) of each stratum and rocktype,
as well as annual variations of the ground surface
temperature are required. However, it is difficult
to completely obtain such information.
Consequently, the vertical distribution of the
ground temperature was obtained by using
T-thermocouples in boreholes above the tunnel.
233
The theoretical ground temperature was then esti-
mated by obtaining the geothermal gradient from
the vertical distribution. The temperature of the
pilot tunnel face was measured placing a
T-thermocouple in a hole drilled 2 m deep into the
face, to minimize the influence of the air temper-
ature in the tunnel. The differences of the theoreti-
cal values and measured values are plotted in
Fig. 6. It can be noticed that the closer the aquifer
is, the greater the decrements of the measured
temperature from the theoretical temperature. Very
close to the aquifer, the difference was 1.0-1.5C,
which gave a good indication that the tunnel was
near the aquifer. This geothermal method is simple,
with minimal interference to the tunnelling work.
Quality survey of the fissure water
Rock minerals gradually dissolve into the
ground water. In a rock of low hydraulic conduc-
tivity, ground water is retained for a long period,
leading to a high mineral ion potency. On the
other hand, the mineral ion potency of ground
water is low in a rock of high hydraulic conductiv-
ity. In the latter case, the composition of the
ground water resembles that of the ground water
at its source. The higher the mineral ion potency
in ground water, the higher its electrical conductiv-
ity. When an aquifer is fed by rainwater, then the
closer the ground water is to the aquifer, the lower
the electrical conductivity of the ground water.
Thus the approach of an aquifer is predicted by
measuring the electrical conductivity E of the
fissure water from the tunnel face.
Table 1 shows the results of a survey of the
quality of the fissure water. The water in the
Sheared ii1onite zone
M e d i a n T e c t o n i c Line
/ Misakubo f 0 r a a t i o n
0.0
o ~'~- ""i Aquifer
-0.5
o i
~i_,o o
o :
~ -,.5 o
o
o
g
i ':~ -2.o o
I I I I
-2.5 -50 50 100 15o 200 250
Distmace ( m )
Fig. 6. Result of geothermal analysis.
234 M. HASEGAWA E l AI.

TABLE 1

Analyses of water quality

Location of sample from M.T.L. 200 m west 70 m west 100 m east Method
Sheared mylonite Sheared mylonite Misakubo
zone zone formation
(aquifer)

Hydrogen-ion concentration [pH (C)] 8.2 (19.0) 8.5 (16.0) 7.6 (18.0) JIS K 0102 12.1
Electric conductivity (p.s/cm) 620 764 149 JIS K 0102 13
Si (mg/l) 22.6 6.64 21.3 JIS K 0101 44.3
Ca (epm) 0.068 0.101 0.449 JIS K 0102 50.2
Mg (epm) 0.063 0.082 0.014 JIS K 0102 51.2
Fe (epm) 0.006 0.042 0.005 JIS K 0102 57.2
Na (epm) 7.09 7.395 0.792 atomic absorption
K (epm) 0.063 0.112 0.008 atomic absorption
C1 (epm) 0.028 0.113 0.023 Mohr's method
SO4 (epm) 0.290 0.370 0.370 Turbidimetric analysis
Sulfide (mg/l) < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0. l Methylenblue absorption
Hardness (mg/l) 13 10 29

sheared mylonite zone has a high electrical conduc- sequentially, so as to minimize the differences
tivity, while the water in an aquifer shows a low between the measured and the theoretical travel
electrical conductivity. The electrical conductivity time. The SIRT (Simultaneous Iterative
E of the surface water is approximately 150/ts/cm. Reconstruction Technique) method was applied to
It is considered that the water seeping from the modify the velocity section. The initial velocity
ground surface is retained in the aquifer. In this section was determined considering the loosening
case, the measurement of the electrical conductivity area and the elastic wave velocity of the in situ
of the fissure water is an effective method to predict rock mass Vp, obtained from the preliminary
an aquifer ahead of the tunnel face. This method seismic prospecting in the tunnel. The analysis area
is simple and requires little cost. was divided into 120 rectangular elements, 1 2 m
on the side walls and 2 x 2 m on the other parts.
Prospecting of geological conditions by seismic Figure 7 shows the results of the analysis of
tomography the velocity distribution. Using the Seismic
Tomography method we were able to confirm that
Exploration by seismic tomography was con- the sheared zone was the layer including a lens
ducted, in order to study the geological conditions shaped low velocity zone extending parallel to the
between the pilot tunnel and the main tunnel in shear direction.
the sheared zone. The test area is shown in Fig. 3.
Twelve measuring points were laid out on a side
P wave Velocity, (kin/see)
wall of the main tunnel and the pilot tunnel. A
3.4
P-wave was generated by a hammer at each of the 3.2
3.0
measuring points, and the signal was received at 2.8
2.6
the measuring points of the other tunnel. 2.4
Geophones were used for receiving the waves. The 2.2
2.0
average travel time of the P-waves to reach the t.0

other tunnel was used for the analysis. In the

analysis, first a velocity section was assumed, from
which the theoretical wave path and travel time
were calculated, and then the section was modified Fig. 7. Results of the analysis of the velocity destribution.
GEOLOGICALPROGNOSISAHEADOF A TUNNEL FACE
Conclusion
An example is reported of prospecting a forma-
tion boundary and an aquifer ahead of a tunnel
face. The formation boundary is determined by a
reflection method and the aquifer is determined by
a geothermal method and a water quality survey.
The results of prospecting geological structures by
seismic tomography is reported as well. These
methods can be carried out during tunnelling work.
The examples revealed:
(1) The formation boundary between the sheared
mylonite zone and a greenstone about 30 m ahead
of the tunnel face was successfully predicted by
the reflection method. It was confirmed that the
reflection method is effective in predicting forma-
tion boundaries ahead of tunnel faces. The dip
and strike of boundaries can be studied by increas-
ing the number of prospecting bore holes. It is
possible to extend the prospecting distance by
drilling deeper holes to place receivers and by such
signal processing such as T.V.G. (Time Variable
Gain).
(2) An aquifer was successfully predicted by the
geothermal method. This method is simple and
scarcely affects tunneling work. It is considered to
be effective when a spout of ground water is
anticipated.
(3) A sudden spout of water is also predictable by
frequent measurements of the electrical conductiv-
ity of fissure water at tunnel faces. However,
preliminary measurements of the electrical conduc-
tivity of the water in the aquifer is necessary.
(4) It was confirmed that seismic tomography is
235
effective as a method of prospecting a range of
complex geological condition, such as a sheared
zone.
The methods discussed above for prognoses
ahead of tunnel faces proved effective in preventing
fatal accidents due to tunnel face collapses and
spouts of ground water, saving costs of investiga-
tion, and preventing delays in tunneling progress.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the advice
of Dr. Mamoru Suzuki (Union Consultant Co.
Ltd.) during this research. Thanks are extended to
the staff of the Kusaki-Tunnel project office of the
TOBISHIMA Corporation.
References
Hasegawa, M. and Usui, M., 1992. A study of prediction of
geological structure in fracture zone. Proc. Syrup.
Engineering Property about Fracture Zone. Jpn. Soc. Soil
Mech. Found. Eng., pp. 103-106.
Hasegawa, M., Usui, M., Ueno, H. and Minetani, A., 1990. A
case study of geological prediction ahead of the tunnel face
in fracture zone. Annu. Conf. Jpn. Soc. Eng. Geol.,
pp. 149-152.
Hasegawa, M. and Usui, M., 1991. Geological prediction
method ahead of tunnel faces. New Technology on
Tunnelling. Doboku Kougaku-Sha, pp. 27-28.
Suzuki, M., Tomita, H. and Hasegawa, M., 1984. Some prob-
lems and future prospects on rock mass quality classification
in view of some tunnel works performance. In: Rock
Classification. J. Jpn. Soc. Eng. Geol., pp. 71-81.
Takeuchi, A., 1983. Ground water investigation method using
geothermal measuring on a land slide areas. Yoshii Book-
Publisher, pp. 81-82.