Cities, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp.

7785, 2001
Pergamon PII: S0264-2751(00)00059-7 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
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Kinmen: governing the culture

industry city in the changing global
context

Min-Chih Yang
Department of Urban Planning, National Taipei University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.; Department of
Architecture, Chaoyang University of Technology, Chaoyang, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Woan-Chiau Hsing
Department of Urban Planning, National Taipei University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Culture industry is now a significant local economic force of many urban areas, due primarily
to the effects of new local institutional dynamics and the revaluing of local space as a culture
and tourism commodity. In turn, this should be linked to high-quality space-governing insti-
tutions and the local mobilization strategies that are related to higher levels of local economic
efficiency. In this paper, the city of Kinmen will be examined. It has transformed the local
culture industries (especially the historical and war heritages) into the key economic and ident-
ity-revival power relying on appropriate local institutional structures. 2001 Elsevier Science
Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Culture industry, industrial restructuring, local institutional system, local mobilization

Introduction Recently, many researchers have begun to take

Culture and the city are mutually interrelated as the
local culture contributes to social, economic and
environmental development. In the 1990s, Kinmens
culture industry has been an important force of econ-
omic vitality but also to citizens identity and to local
revitalization, transforming its position from a war-
zone to a cultural tourism destination. The major
effect of its success is a result of the local government
and the public become consciously aware of the sig-
nificance of the culture industry. Local government
and local development organizations play the key role
in a planning process depending on collaborative
governance and local mobilization. In this context, the
central governments role shifts to an enabling, facilit-
ating, coordinating and mobilizing role. The major
aim of this paper will give greater weight to the parti-
cular character of Kinmens local milieu change and
its effect on local mobilization and urban governance.
*Corresponding author at: Department of Urban Planning, National
Taipei University, 6 F. No.86, Lane 99, Sec. 2, Fu-Hsing Road,
Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China.hin1133@kimo.com.tw
notice of the realm of Culture Industry, and its sig-
nificance in economic development (Harvey, 1989;
McGuigan, 1996; Zukin, 1995). It was in adapting to
new conditions of urban governance that local auth-
orities devote themselves to compete and cooperate
with each other in order to attract mobile investment
capital. As Harvey (1989) indicated, the task of urban
government has thus shifted from a managerial to an
entrepreneurial mode. He also noted the ideology of
locality, place and community has become central to
the political rhetoric of urban governance Harvey
(1989). Instead of providing cultural facilities directly
from the local government of Kinmen, the cultural
festivals, culture building, spectacular events
and civic boosterism have been progressively rep-
resented in terms of efforts made by local elite, local
development organizations, chambers of commerce
and residents to strengthen new forms of civic identity
and pride. The central issues to be addressed in this
paper concern such domination and control over
spaces, and in particular, the ways in which economic
revitalization was implemented through effective
local institutions and local mobilization.

77
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing
In this paper, the first section will illustrate Kin-
mens past, present and future and its industrial, social
and consumptive structure over the past 40 years. The
second section will explore the theoretic debate and
classification of culture industry, and its significant
role in urban revitalization in Kinmen. In the third
section, the definitions, meaning and contents of cul-
ture industries of Kinmen will be illustrated. In the
conclusion, the local mobilization strategy and local
institutional system will be addressed.
Kinmens past, present and future
Kinmen, an outpost of Taiwan, is a county of Fukien
Province of the Republic of China. It covers an area
of 148 km2, consisting of 12 islands of different sizes
and with a total numbers of about 50 000 residents.
To the east, Kinmen is 150 nautical miles from Tai-
wan, 22 miles from Amoy, and only 2300 m from the
Mainland China held island of Chiao-Yu. It occupies
strategic importance between Taiwan and China. For
a long time Kinmen witnessed poverty, disaster and
chaos of war, and is now making great strides forward
to a cultural-tourism destination. Its culture industries
and war heritages have become the potential cultural-
consumption resources that have been applied in the
context of a long-term process of reconstruction and
regeneration since the abolition of martial law in
1992. This section seeks to illustrate this process of
change in industrial structure and urban regime (Table
1), and recent achievements in particular, by applying
conceptual frameworks for local institutions and local
mobilization to the Kinmens experience of econ-
omic revitalization.
During the Ching Dynasty and Japan invasion per-
Table 1 Kinmens change in industrial and consumptive structure
Period Consumptive style
Ching Dynasty Peripheral consumption
Martial law period (19491991) Military-reliance consumption
Self-sustainable consumption
Livelihood consumption
Open period (martial law abolition,
Tourism consumption
1992now)
Commodifing culture consumption Cultural tourism island
78
iod, sunk into the peripheral and colony economy,
Kinmen supplied the crops and local products such
as foodstuffs, salts and glass-sands for the Japanese
soldiers. Kinmen was a barren, windswept island,
lacking in natural resource and economically under-
developed.
Since 1949 when the government of Republic of
China moved to Taiwan, the local government
implemented martial law. Martial law was estab-
lished to control and forbid international visitors
entering the city tightly guarded as a war-zone. Mean-
while, this situation hindered the development of pro-
ductive forces. The garrison thus became the only
consumptive force of the local economy. The econ-
omy of the city was heavily dependent on small-scale
military service business such as the billiard stores,
laundries, groceries and book stores (Kinmen, 1998).
There are dual consequences in Kinmen caused by
war, one is the depression of local economic develop-
ment, the other is that strong community-based
organizations formed, which embedded a strong
ideology of locality-identity and security-defense to
resist invasion. And these strong community-rooted
organizations which represent solidarity and cohesion
will play the key potential role in the civic boosterism
and cultural festivals in the future.
Since 1992, the abolition of martial law, has
attracted plenty of Taiwans and international tourists
to this island. Kinmen has shifted from a battlefield
to a major tourism destination for local culture, rec-
reation and historical heritage. Its inherent cultural
resources that were not exploited under restrictive
policy have become the most important local econ-
omic force, including war heritages, antiques, native
products, historical heritages, cultural relics, cultural
Economic and industrial struc-
Image framework
ture
Ching peripheral area Crops (salts, glass-sands, crops)
Anti-communist outpost Crops
Small scale military-reliance busi-
Spirit fortress ness (billiard stores, laundries,
groceries, book stores)
Special products (statue of wind
Military blockhouse
god, kitchen knives)
Small scale industries (salt factor-
ies, ceramic factories, wine factor-
ies, granite factories)
Military cultural relics Tourism industries
Traditional cultural industries
(historical heritages, cultural festi-
vals, cultural relics, artifacts, tra-
ditional villages, folk music, mili-
tary relics)
Service economy (car-rent shops,
travel agencies, hotels)
Informal economy (street peddlers)
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing
festivals, folk villages, civic life custom, folk music,
artifacts and so on. These culture industries have
strengthened the cultural-tourism consumption and
have been a powerful means of reviving the local
economy primarily based on historic preservation or
cultural festivals. The local authority, in partnership
with local residents, other public and private sector
bodies, has been vigorously implementing a strategy
aimed at improving and enhancing Kinmens charac-
teristics and attractiveness as a place to live, work,
visit and a center for investment (Cultural Develop-
ment Committee, 1996). The historical nature of the
city inspires the increase of visitor numbers and cre-
ates employment for ca. 16% of the total work force
in the service sector (Chin, 1994).
These tendencies indicate a set of new dynamics
between the force of globalism and local culture. The
global and the local are no longer in a tragic tension
as before. In the new world context, they have
become dependent upon each others existence,
instead of mutually excluding one another. Kinmen
has responded to the challenges of global economic
change and now makes great strides to a cultural-tour-
ism island. These local culture characteristics and the
consumption of symbolic representations thus become
a significant economic force due particularly to the
effect of regional alliance and an efficient local insti-
tutional system. However, local economic develop-
ment also depends upon intensive interaction, infor-
mation and technology exchange and collaborative
partnerships between local actors. Appropriate local
institutions need to be established to face global chal-
lenges.
The definition and classification of culture
industry
The original concept of culture industry is derived
from Adorno and Horkhemier (1979) who emphas-
ized criticism of the mass production of culture
industries that demolish the purity of the high cul-
ture (Adorno, 1991). Later, culture industry was
defined via broad perspectives such as the political-
economic dynamics especially regarding the peculi-
arities of the cultural commodity of western Marxism
(Anderson, 1979); the cultural populism pursuing
the essential goal of bringing culture to the mass,
especially the working-class (McGuigan, 1992); the
democratizing qualities of multiculturalism propos-
ing a theory of the democratizing qualities of modern
communications media, arguing that multiple repro-
duction destroys the aura of the work of art
(Benjamin, 1973); the economic restructuring and
city gentrification of Harvey proposing the possible
benefit from cultural industries that can bring back
predominantly the suburban upper middle class into
the city center (Harvey, 1989a). The above arguments
are focused more on the social and cultural-com-
modity issues than the economic issues.
Furthermore, from the mid-1980s, the concept of
culture industry was intertwined increasingly with
various social-democratic projects of urban regener-
ation throughout British and American cities. During
the late-1980s, in North America and Western Eur-
ope, a series of urban regeneration projects emerged
that were frequently led by cultural flagship projects
including arts, leisure and museum complexes, festi-
vals and spectacular events (Bassett, 1993; Bianchini
and Parkinson, 1993; Bianchini and Schwengel,
1991).
Meanwhile, the culture industrial strategy was
manifested in terms of local economic development,
usually in the form of an industrial district or cultural
quarter. Furthermore, it played a leading role in urban
redevelopment strategies based on historic presen-
tation or local heritage. From the economic point of
view, culture industry has become the citys sym-
bolic economy for its symbol of images and products
(Zukin, 1995).
In this paper, we collect and extend these special
debates attempting to establish the significance of the
culture industry, especially in its economic, cultural,
and social importance. Culture industry has been an
economic force in its own rights, a growth industry
and source of wealth. It also is a powerful means of
controlling cities as a source of images, identities and
memories (Kotler, 1993; Law, 1992; Meethan, 1997).
Next, three categories of culture industry will be
identified according to their characteristics and dis-
tinctive consumptive styles. The first of these is
popular consumptive culture industry which is rep-
resenting spatial central-specialized and economic
agglomeration. They are consumers routine com-
modities, strongly relying upon public media com-
munications, such as books, videos, cinemas,
designed clothesand so on. These culture industries
deeply rely on a large-scale city center that possessed
an agglomerated economic structure and information
and technology exchange networks. The second is
local culture industry which is strongly territorially
based rooted in strong civic coherence, identity and
historical memory. It produces global flows of cul-
tural-tourism that creates a significant economic
effect, via antiques, historical heritages, local scenic
spots, natural landscape, cultural festivals and folk
music. The local culture industries, especially the cul-
tural festivals and historical heritages that promoted
new forms of civic pride and local affiliation (Boyle,
1997), have become the significant economic force in
resisting global economic imperialism in the context
of economic globalization. The third is Cultural
facility industry, such as convention centers, infor-
mation centers, recreational districts, the Olympics
district, museums, galleries, cultural flagship develop-
mentand so on, is strongly associated with urban
enterprise coalitions and stimulates the vigorous
development of real estate.
In conclusion, each particular culture industry has
its unique spatial pattern and characteristics which
needs a specific development strategy. Its success
79
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing
deeply relies upon the mobilization of concepts of
community and local identity by local coalitions
and the symbolic representations of place through
governing and marketing strategy (the categories of
culture industry are shown in Table 2).
Kinmens culture industries
Kinmens culture industries consist of three different
types, including the natural resources, craft resources
and human resources (Table 3). In the natural content,
a mountain landscape which played the defensive for-
tress within the war period is the main resource rep-
resenting the spectacle of landscape and historic
memory. The native products which belonging to
craft resources have become the significant export
economic force supplying for tourist and Taiwans
residents, consisting of granite industries, rice wine,
ceramics, peanut candy, kitchen knives, and teapots,
representing the local image and civil life memory
of Kinmen. The human resources include the military
landscape, historical heritages, folk villages, archae-
ology relics, antiques, civil life and folk custom. The
military landscape is the most famous and representa-
tive culture industry in Kinmen, such as the battle his-
tory, old trenches, the military blockhouse, the war-
history museum and the battle monument, recording
martyrs and the battle history and representing a
unique military landscape. The most renowned his-
torical representations of Kinmen include 198
temples, 162 ancestral halls, 163 traditional villages
and about 14 000 antiques (Kinmen, 1998), identified
the most valuable culture heritages by the central
government and now a leisure commodity and tour-
ism destination. The folk music, custom, and temple
fair, which inherit the Min-South culture and express
civil life and local custom, are strongly associated
with cultural festivals as the main local economic
resources. Above all, culture industries represent
unique local characteristics and create significant
economic effect (Fig. 1).
Development trends of culture industry
There are significant signs to forecast the develop-
ment trends of Kinmens culture industries through
the distribution of tourists, growth of hotels, and the
growth of tourists. The analysis is as follows:

Table 2 Categories and characteristics of culture industry

Spatial patterns and character-

Culture industry Category Context
istics

1. Popular consumptive Popular culture products Designed clothes Central-specialized development

Culture industry
Media culture industry
Culture business industry
Popular fashion Flexible specialization
Designed products Global cultural-imperialism
Music, audio-visual Routine commodity
Cinema, film production
Records, television
Exhibition, advertising
Books, publishing
Magazines
Printing and bookbinding

2. Local recreational culture

Local traditional culture industry
industry
Cultural activities industry
Local tourist culture industry
Antique Local-dispersed development
Local cohesion and historical
Historical heritage
memory
Native cultural product Embedded in local territory
Local folk and custom
Traditional village
Local cultural festivals
Folk culture activities
Local scene spots
Natural landscape
Historical scenery
Tourism industry

3. Cultural facility industry
Convention culture industry
Entertainment culture industry
Sports culture industry
Cultural facility
Convention center Spatial centralized development
Important elements for property-
Information center
led initiatives
Hotel, retails
Potential roles in mixed-use devel-
Recreational district
opment in central city
The Olympics, hotels
Contestant village
Museum, gallery
Music hall, culture center

80
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing
Table 3 The contents of Kinmens culture-industry

Classification Resource attribute Cultural products and activities Characteristics

It presents a spectacle and unique

Natural resources Distinct geography resources
Craft resources Special and native product
Human resources Military landscape
Historical heritage
Folk village
Archaeology relic
Antique
Civil life and custom
Mountain landscape
landscape
It is possessed of local image and
Rice wine
civil life memory
Ceramic
Granite industry
Peanut candy
Kitchen knives
It records martyrs and battle
Natural war-history park history, presents a military
landscape heritage
Old trench
Battle history and monument
Military blockhouse
War-history museum
It contains 198 temples and 162
ancestral halls that have been
Carved rock
recorded as the most valuable
culture heritages
Memorial stone arch
Temple and ancestral hall
Chinese-style pavilion
There are 163 traditional villages
Chung-Li village, San-Wi village,
that inherit Min-South architecture
Chu-San village
culture
It records the ancestral traces that
Shells joong(grave) possess historic culture and
research value
Po-Beng traces
Ceramic, flower vase, ornaments,
incense burner, copper mirror, These antiques of the Sung, Ming
porcelain, painted pottery (Tang and Ching Dynasty
Dynasty), pottery bowl, axe sword
Folk art, religion activities, folk
It inherits Min-South culture and
music, cultural festivals ,statue of
expresses civil life and custom
wind god

Distribution of tourists ownership in the community is the ultimate goal of

Analysis from Table 4 shows that temples and historic
heritages have become the most attractive tourist des-
tinations in Taiwan now, attracting about 17 million
tourists every year. The historical representation of
place also has a great effect on the local economic
development depending on historical heritages bring-
ing about 8 million tourists every year.
Growth of hotels
From 1961 to 1980, on account of the martial law,
there was no hotels in Kinmen. After 1992, hotel
industries suddenly grew and made enormous profits
by virtue of the great number of tourists (Table 5).
Growth of tourists
Since the abolition of martial law, tourists have rap-
idly increased from 247 265 of 1993 to 480 113 of
1996, intensifying the local economy (Table 6).
Local institutional system and local
mobilization
The shift in the governments role in providing all
functions and services, to empowering citizens to take
the local institutions theory. Through
empowerment, local citizens may well lead the way
to an economically and environmentally sustainable
city. The term local institution is based on the
empowerment and participation of citizens in the
planning process and the collaborative partnerships of
local actors (Blakely, 1989; Cooke, 1989). Kinmens
culture industry development is a result of numbers
of local actors and residents actively involving in the
cultural festivals and cultural activities embedded in
historical representation and symbolic image. The
Local Development Association, which consists of
35 local commerce organizations, 24 local art organi-
zations, and 260 local community-based organiza-
tions, has become significant in the cultural activities
and local mobilization to face future challenges. In
the case of ascending local mobilization, they seek to
activate the residents to challenge established values
and norms. They assemble individuals into groups to
pursue common objectives. The local government has
another significant role in the planning process, in
providing services and subsidies for the local devel-
opment association. The central government has
shifted its role to enabling, facilitating, and mobiliz-

81
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing

Figure 1 Kinmens culture industries

ation role. It empowers a local government and pro-

Table 4 The distribution of tourists of Taiwan in 1996 a vides Incentive Funding which was established for
Taiwans peripheral islands.
Type of tourist district Numbers of tourists Rank In brief, Kinmens Culture industries should be
involved in a comprehension of the local institutional
National park 6286499 6 system (Fig. 2). The reality is that the following four
National scenic district 1960171 8 developmental institutions are essential to the
County scenic district 7892286 5
Province scenic district 11407134 3 involvement and empowerment of the citizen in
Temple 116933525 1 addressing future challenges.
Historic heritage 7989402 4
Forest recreational area 2033624 7
Private recreational district 13024512 2
Local-dynamics institution
National tourist district 1863090 9 It is only when a strong local-dynamics institution
is established that it will have a significant economic
a
Source: Bureau of tourism in Taiwan, 1996. effect on culture industry development. Local-

82
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing
Table 5 The growth of hotels in Kinmena

Period 19611980 19811985 19861991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Number 0 1 1 8 11 17 19 21

a
Source: Kinmens statistical report.

Table 6 Number of tourists in Kinmen from 1993 to 1996a

Period 1993 1994 1995 1996

Number of tourists 247265 359918 464782 480113

a
Source: Kinmens statistical report. Note: There is no any tourist record before 1993 because tourist was restricted in that period.

Figure 2 Kinmens Local institutional system

dynamics is based on following local actors, such as
local art organizations, community-based organiza-
tions, local development associations, and local citi-
zens, playing a key role for social mobilization and
political intervention in the process of economic
restructuring. Every local dynamic in the process
should be empowered to take up their respective
responsibility to enhance the solidarity and coherence
of the community.
Economic institution
Economic Institution is meant for the economic
power of local economic organizations, chambers of
commerce, local development corporations, banks,
private enterprises and international marketing
organizations. They contribute as initiators, sponsors,
and patronage in the culture industry projects by
means of local coalitions. The international marketing
organizations have the critical duty to market local
characteristics that will contribute the competitive
advantages to intensify a global economic effect.
Political institution
Political institution is the key to local economic
development. The central government becomes a
supervisor and coordinator of the planning process
and utilizes its powers to enhance the culture industry
development. Among the most important policy mea-
sures adopted are: legislation, public subsidy, and tax
abatement to culture industries. They are decentraliz-
ing power to the regional and local levels in order
to stimulate more local economic growth. The local
government (consisting of a powerful Arts and Cul-
ture Committee) will be empowered more than before
in this era of local autonomy and global competition.

83
 Kinmen: governing the culture industry city: M -C Yang and W -C Hsing
Educational and promotional institution
The goal of the Educational and Promotional Insti-
tution is to promote the ideology of local solidarity
and cultural identity of local residents and to publicize
cultural values by use of conferences, educational
classes, training programs, community-based activi-
ties, media and information networks. The contents
of Kinmens educational institutions are provided by
the local non-profit organizations and subsidized by
central government
In conclusion these four local institutional systems
will be the key means of governing Kinmens culture
industries. It is understood that it is through their
interdependence upon each other that the successful
economic revitalization of the future is possible.
Conclusion
In recent years, Kinmens culture industry has been
an incubator for local coalition, cooperation and com-
petition that is contributing to local economic revi-
talization. It has successfully become a cultural-tour-
ism island. The basic economic dynamics are
articulated by the potential of culture industry and
urban governing strategy, particularly by the collec-
tive efforts of local government, local development
organizations and residents. Central government has
moved away from being the key player defining the
direction and implementation of policy initiatives into
an enabling, facilitating and mobilization force. Our
revaluing Kinmens culture industry development
stresses the profound conception of local insti-
tutional system such that Kinmen can trigger its
economic vitality in the changing global context. The
emphasis, moreover, is put on establishing the effec-
tive institutions, strongly embedded in the formulation
of basic four parts consisting of local-dynamics, econ-
omic, political, and educational institutions, to
enhance the coherence and solidarity of local resi-
dents and create global competitive advantages.
Recently, Kinmens citizens, from all walks of life,
are increasingly aware of the manner in which Tai-
wans business enterprises and international tourists
reach into their local community. The tourists indeed
create economic wealth but also are in conflict with
their lifestyle and living environment. The dilemma
of conservation and development becomes the key
issue in the community decision-making process. In
the future, it should be our responsibility to enable
local residents to cope with the challenge to their
well-being posed by this involvement in the world, to
enlighten local communities to project their concerns
into the world, to retain authentic quality and cultural
memory, and to respect historical roots (Wei and
Yang, 1999). To achieve this, it still needs to explore
the future issues of sustaining native culture, and sus-
tainable development strategies.
In the global context, the global and the local are
no longer in a tragic tension as before. They have
become dependent upon each others existence,
84
instead of mutually excluding one another. The local
must takes advantage of its unique local resources to
attract global economic capital. Kinmen, as a culture
industry site of significance, is indeed at the forefront
for planners in Taiwan to deal seriously with the
issues of local institutional system, to retain its own
cultural memory and manifest its own uniqueness. In
the global economy, every local place can cooperate
with other places by the strong crossover links
between the different sectors of the culture industry
(Wynne, 1992). Regional alliances and partnerships
are crucial in planning process. The relative Culture
Industry Chains should cross territory to construct
international culture-tourism networks and create an
agglomerate economic effect. Kinmen and Mainland
China, which have different political regimes but have
a strong relationship in culture and possess similar
culture industry resources (temples, folk music, tra-
ditional villages), and should establish culture indus-
try chains as a governing strategy gives rise to new
political and economic alliances. This will be a new
milestone for the future.
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