: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

I will like to express my thanks of gratitude to Mr. Raja Banerjee who have
helped me to learn and study this topic from the very first day of my summer
training. I will also like to thank my H.O.D. Prof. Malay Kanti Naskar who
have helped me and have also advices me to take REFRIGERATION and AIR
CONDITIONING as my summer training topic.

I will also like to thank the director and the principal of my college that they
have organized this training program and have also helped us a lot to take
this training program. Special thanks to my parents and my friends for their
continuous support and help. Because of them I have been able to complete
this training successfully. Last but not the least; I will like to thank the whole
authority of the NSIC, Howrah as they have provided their machineries and
their valuable time for our training purpose.
 2

: BASIC LAWS:

The very basic law of refrigeration and air conditioning comes from the
statement given by Clausius in accordance to second law of
thermodynamics. According to that statement It is impossible to deliver heat
from sink to source without giving some work done to the system.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning system is only the application of that law.
There is a very thin line of difference in between a Heat Pump and one
Refrigeration Unit as they both have been constructed by not violating the
Clausius statement. The coefficient of performance is more in case of a Heat
Pump than a Refrigeration Unit working under same temperature difference.
They are different in respect of the purpose of use. Refrigeration unit is used
to cool down the system or to cool down some confined space by removing
heat from it and by giving away heat to the ambient where as heat pump is
used to heat that same confined space by adding heat into it from the
ambient. There is also one basic fundamental cycle is used to describe and
operate the refrigeration unit i.e. Simple Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Cycle and sometimes another cycle known as Simple Vapor Absorption
Refrigeration System is also used to operate the refrigeration plant. This
cycle is also used to operate the Air Conditioning System. The diagram given
below is clearly stating the working principle of the heat pump as well as the
working principle of the refrigeration system.
 3

: VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM:

The below given figure is a schematic diagram of a Vapor Compression

System. The main four components of this system are COMPRESSOR,
CONDENSER, EXPANSION VALVE and EVAPORATOR. The cycle starts
from the evaporator zone where the hot air of the room or of the system is
sucked into. Then that air goes inside of the compressor where the
temperature of that vapor is increased further by compressing it more. That
vapor goes into the expansion valve after going through the condenser and
in the condenser the heat exchange occurs successfully. That leads to the
complete exchange of the state of the refrigerants also. The state of the
refrigerants which carries heat is shown in the diagram for better
understanding. Expansion valves are used for the pressure drop purpose
where a mixture of phases is obtained and the pressure drop is isenthalpic
also in that device.
 4

The above figure is the cyclic representation of a Simple Vapor

Compression System. In this figure we can see the various state of the
refrigerants and also the entry and the exit point of the refrigerant in various
components. Point 1 is the entry point of the compressor and point 2 is the
exit point of the same. Point 2 can also be considered as the entry point of
the condenser. 2-4 is the zone where heat is rejected to the atmosphere by
the condenser and point 4 is the exit point of the condenser. After getting
into the evaporator that again goes to the compressor from point 1. 5-1 is the
zone of heat extraction from the system. In this zone is taken and 1-2 is the
zone of compression. Work is given to the system through this zone.
Evaporator and condenser are two heat exchangers and the whole cycle
starts from the evaporator and get finished in the expansion valve. 4-5 is the
isenthalpic expansion zone and the enthalpy of point 4 and point 5 is same.
Saturated vapor and saturated liquid line and zone has also been shown in
the T-s diagram.
 5

: REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENTS:

COMPRESSOR: -

Compressor is said to be the heart of the refrigeration system where the overall
compression process is being done. The temperature of refrigerant is being
increased to a certain level so that adequate amount of heat can be removed via
condenser. There are various kinds of compressors are there which are as
follows:-

a) Reciprocating Compressor
b) Rotary Compressor
c) Scroll Compressor
d) Centrifugal Compressor

The above diagram is of reciprocating compressors. It is one form of widely

used compressor where the amount of cooling effect needed is relatively very
high. If the cooling effect needed is low then rotary type of compressors are
 6

used. All these kinds of compressors are generally provided with mechanical
and electrical safety trips.

CONDENSER:-

Condenser is the next important refrigeration equipment that comes in the

cycle after compressor. In this device the heat exchange occurs and the heat
rejection is also being done in this device. In case of split type of AC
condenser part is located outside of the house. There are the arrangements
of the aluminum fins are there for the heat exchange processes. Refrigerant
goes into it in the vapor form but when comes out of it, it is in the liquid
form. The diagram given below clearly states the position of the refrigerants

coming inside and outside of it via various lines. It is an image of the shell
and tube type condenser.

Evaporator:-

Evaporator is another important device in the whole refrigeration system in

which the heat exchange process is also being done but this time the heat is
taken from the system and is carried to the compressor for more heating
purpose. Evaporator coils are also made of coppers generally and there is a
 7

fin system there which is made of aluminum. The image given below is of
the evaporator coils which are used for the exchanging heat.

EXPANSION VALVE:-

Expansion valves, in the simple vapor compression system are used for the
isenthalpic expansion process and in this process the net work done is zero
always. Generally capillary tubes are used as an expansion device where a
little amount of refrigerant is need to be expanded but if the cooling
required is very high and the amount of refrigerant used is also very high
then expansion valves are used to meet the level of exact cooling required.
Expansion valves are sometimes self-operated which can be operated
electronically by using some kind of circuits and all.
 8

: REFRIGERANTS:

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of

absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:

Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change

(typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible
heat', the quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the
temperature change. They are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium
chloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose
of Class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from
Class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be
air-conditioned.
Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors
of liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function
by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a
cooling effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can also
be classified into many categories.

The R-# numbering system was developed by DuPont corporation (which

owns the Freon trademark) and systematically identifies the molecular
structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. The
meaning of the codes is as follows:

For saturated hydrocarbons, subtracting 90 from the concatenated

numbers of carbon, hydrogen and fluorine atoms, respectively gives
the assigned R#.
Remaining bonds not accounted for are occupied by chlorine atoms.
A suffix of a lower-case letter a, b, or c indicates increasingly
unsymmetrical isomers.

For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine
atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates
that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom, giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane.
R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular structure of 1,1,2,2-
Tetrafluoroethanea compound not especially effective as a refrigerant.
 9

The R-400 series is made up of zeotropic blends (those where the

boiling point of constituent compounds differs enough to lead to
changes in relative concentration because of fractional distillation) and
the R-500 series is made up of so-called azeotropic blends. The
rightmost digit is assigned arbitrarily by ASHRAE, an industry
organization.
The R-700 series is made up of non-organic refrigerants, also
designated by ASHRAE.

The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a
"Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a
propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds,
such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using HFC- for
hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for
hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences
among these groups.

Air has been used for residential, automobile, and turbine-powered aircraft
air-conditioning and/or cooling. The reason why air is not more widely used
as a general-purpose refrigerant is because there is no change of phase, and
is therefore too inefficient to be practical in most applications. It has been
suggested that with suitable compression and expansion technology, air can
be a practical (albeit not the most efficient) refrigerant, free of the possibility
of environmental contamination or damage, and almost completely harmless
to plants and animals. An explosion could result from refrigerant-type
compressor lubricating oils being compressed together with the air. Air is so
frequently used as a coolant that air cooling is seldom mentioned in this
context. Due to the low boiling point of its constituents, air is less often used
as a refrigerant. Water - natural, non toxic, low cost, environmentally
friendly, and widely available, is widely used in water cooling, and if
evaporated in the process may be called a "refrigerant". Water also
commonly serves as a heat transfer and storage material and in large systems
it may actually fill all of these roles. The simplest and lowest cost open-cycle
cooling systems, known as swamp coolers in the south-west United States,
do not even need power for a compressor, merely a blower fan - humidified
air is simply vented to the living space. Portable free standing units can be
obtained at discount stores for less than $200US. However, drawbacks of
these systems, if improperly implemented are multiple and severe.The total
 10

cooling power of the unit is limited by the fact that neither coolant nor air
can be recirculated. If the cooling unit does not have a supply of fresh dry air
and the waste air is not effectively vented, stagnant humid air will make the
space more uncomfortable than if it were merely ventilated. An additional
limitation of such systems would be that if the air outside is already humid,
cooling power is severely limited. This is why such units are not found in
areas of frequent and high humidity, such as the south-east United States.
 11

: PARTS IDENTIFICATION:

DIAGRAM OF A DOUBLE DOOR FROST FREE REFRIGERATOR

 12

: EXPLANATION OF PARTS:

Parts of the Domestic Refrigerator and how they Work

The domestic refrigerator is one found in almost all the homes for storing
food, vegetables, fruits, beverages, and much more. This article describes the
important parts of the domestic refrigerator and also their working. The
parts of domestic refrigerator can be categorized into two categories:
internal and external. Let see these in details along with their images.
Parts of the Domestic Refrigerator

Internal Parts of the Domestic Refrigerator

The internal parts of the refrigerator are ones that carry out actual working
of the refrigerator. Some of the internal parts are located at the back of the
refrigerator, and some inside the main compartment of the refrigerator.
Some internal parts of the domestic refrigerator are (please refer the figure
above):
1) Refrigerant: The refrigerant flows through all the internal parts of the
refrigerator. It is the refrigerant that carries out the cooling effect in the
evaporator. It absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled in the
evaporator (chiller or freezer) and throws it to the atmosphere via
condenser. The refrigerant keeps on recirculating through all the internal
parts of the refrigerator in cycle.
 13

2) Compressor: The compressor is located at the back of the refrigerator

and in the bottom area. The compressor sucks the refrigerant from the
evaporator and discharges it at high pressure and temperature. The
compressor is driven by the electric motor and it is the major power
consuming devise of the refrigerator.

3) Condenser: The condenser is the thin coil of copper tubing located at the
back of the refrigerator. The refrigerant from the compressor enters the
condenser where it is cooled by the atmospheric air thus losing heat
absorbed by it in the evaporator and the compressor. To increase the heat
transfer rate of the condenser, it is finned externally.

4) Expansive valve or the capillary

The refrigerant leaving the condenser enters the expansion devise, which is
the capillary tube in case of the domestic refrigerators. The capillary is the
thin copper tubing made up of number of turns of the copper coil. When the
refrigerant is passed through the capillary its pressure and temperature
drops down suddenly.

5) Evaporator or chiller or freezer: The refrigerant at very low pressure

and temperature enters the evaporator or the freezer. The evaporator is the
heat exchanger made up of several turns of copper or aluminum tubing. In
domestic refrigerators the plate types of evaporator is used as shown in the
figure above. The refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance to be
cooled in the evaporator, gets evaporated and it then sucked by the
compressor. This cycle keeps on repeating.

6) Temperature control devise or thermostat: To control the

temperature inside the refrigerator there is thermostat, whose sensor is
connected to the evaporator. The thermostat setting can be done by the
round knob inside the refrigerator compartment. When the set temperature
is reached inside the refrigerator the thermostat stops the electric supply to
the compressor and compressor stops and when the temperature falls below
certain level it restarts the supply to the compressor.
 14

7) Defrost system: The defrost system of the refrigerator helps removing

the excess ice from the surface of the evaporator. The defrost system can be
operated manually by the thermostat button or there is automatic system
comprising of the electric heater and the timer.
Those were the some internal parts of the domestic refrigerator; now let us
see the external parts of the refrigerator.
The external parts of the refrigerator are: freezer compartment, thermostat
control, refrigerator compartment, crisper, refrigerator door compartment,
light switch etc.

External Visible Parts of the Refrigerator

The external parts of the compressor are the parts that are visible externally
and used for the various purposes. The figure below shows the common
parts of the domestic refrigerator and some them are described below:
1) Freezer compartment: The food items that are to be kept at the freezing
temperature are stored in the freezer compartment. The temperature here is
below zero degrees Celsius so the water and many other fluids freeze in this
compartment. If you want to make ice cream, ice, freeze the food etc. they
have to be kept in the freezer compartment.
2) Thermostat control: The thermostat control comprises of the round
knob with the temperature scale that help setting the required temperature
inside the refrigerator. Proper setting of the thermostat as per the
requirements can help saving lots of refrigerator electricity bills.
3) Refrigerator compartment: The refrigerator compartment is the biggest
part of the refrigerator. Here all the food items that are to be maintained at
temperature above zero degree Celsius but in cooled condition are kept. The
refrigerator compartment can be divided into number of smaller shelves like
meat keeper, and others as per the requirement.
4) Crisper: The highest temperature in the refrigerator compartment is
maintained in the crisper. Here one can keep the food items that can remain
fresh even at the medium temperature like fruits, vegetables, etc
5) Refrigerator door compartment: There are number of smaller
subsections in the refrigerator main door compartment. Some of these are
egg compartment, butter, dairy, etc.
6) Switch: This is the small button that operates the small light inside the
refrigerator. As soon the door of the refrigerator opens, this switch supplies
 15

electricity to the bulb and it starts, while when the door is closed the light
from the bulb stops. This helps in starting the internal bulb only when
required.

: DIRECT COOLING REFRIGERATOR:

IMAGE OF A SINGLE DOOR REFRIGERATOR

 16

The above diagram is a representation of the working of a single door direct

cooling refrigeration system. In the above diagram we can see that locations
of the equipments are different for different kind of cooling purposes. When
the system is being cooled with the help of natural means then the system
should be designed as per the diagram shown in the left side but if we want
to design the system for forced convection usage then it must follow the
design system shown in the right side figure.

Freezer
-Compressing equipment: Compressor, Oil
-Condensing equipment: Condenser
-Cooling equipment: Capillary tube, Evaporator
-Refrigerant : R12(CFC), R134a(CFC FREE)
-Auxiliary equipment: Suction pipe, Drier, Drain condenser, Hot line

Power equipment
-FAN MOTOR for cool air circulation
-FAN MOTOR for condensation

Cabinet
-Main body, door
 17

-Outter case
-Inner case, Door liner
-Insulation material

Temperature control equipment

-Theromstat
-Damper control

Operation control equipment

-Operation equipment: Starter, Starting and running capacitor
-Safety equipment: OLP(Over Load Protector)

Defrosting equipment
-Defroster: Timer, Defroster thermostat, Heater
-Safety equipment: Temperature fuse

Safety equipment
-Current fuse
 18

: REFRIGERATOR ACCESSORIES:

Overload Protector: -

1) Define:-

The overload protector is attached to the compressor and protects the motor
by opening the circuit to the motor if the temperature rises and activating
the bimetal strip in the OLP.
When the current flows to the compressor motor, the Bimetal works by
heating the heater inside the OLP, the OLP protects the motor by cutting off
the current flowing through the motor.

2) Role:-

The OLP is attached to the sealed compressor for the refrigerator. It prevents
the motor coil from being started in the compressor.
For normal operation of the OLP, do not turn the adjustment screw of the
OLP in any way.
 19

Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) - Starter:-

COMPOSITION:-

Positive temperature coefficient is a no-contact semiconductor starting

device which uses ceramic material consisting of BaTiO3.
The higher the temperature is the higher the resistance value. These features
are used as a starting device for the motor.

ROLE:-

The PTC is attached to the sealed compressor and is used for starting the
compressor motor. The compressor is a single phase induction motor. For
starting operation PTC allows current flow to both the start winding and
main winding.

MOTOR RESTARTING AND PTC COOLING:-

It requires approximately five minutes for the pressure to equalize before the
compressor can restart. The PTC device generates heat during operation.
Therefore it must be cool before the compressor can restart.

RELATION OF PTC-STARTER AND OLP:-

 20

If the compressor attempts to restart before the PTC device is cooled, the
PTC device will allow the current to flow only to the main winding. The OLP
will open because of the over current condition. This same process will
continue when the compressor attempts to restart until the PTC device is
cooled. The correct OLP must be properly attached to prevent damage to the
compressor. Parts may appear physically identical but could have different
electrical ratings. Replace the parts by part number and model number.

: TYPE OF AIR-CONDITIONERS:

SPLIT TYPE AC:-

WINDOW AC:-
 21

PACKAGE TYPE AC:-

CENTRAL AC:-
 22

: TYPES OF REFRIGERATORS:
 23

: PIPE BENDING:

DIAGRAM OF A PIPE BENDER

Tube bending is the umbrella term for metal forming processes used to
permanently form pipes or tubing. One has to differentiate between form-
bound and freeform-bending procedures, as well as between heat supported
and cold forming procedures.

Form bound bending procedures like press bending or rotary draw

bending are used to form the work piece into the shape of a die. Straight
tube stock can be formed using a bending machine to create a variety of
single or multiple bends and to shape the piece into the desired form. These
processes can be used to form complex shapes out of different types of
ductile metal tubing.Freeform-bending processes, like three-roll-
pushbending, shape the workpiece kinematically, thus the bending contour is
not dependent on the tool geometry.Generally, round stock is what is used
in tube bending. However, square and rectangular tubes and pipes may also
be bent to meet job specifications. Other factors involved in the tube
bending process is the wall thickness, tooling and lubricants needed by the
pipe and tube bender to best shape the material and it is also used in
different ways e.g.( tube, pipe wires). A tube can be bent in multiple
directions and angles. Common simple bends consist of forming elbows,
which are bends that range from 2 to 90, and U-bends, which are 180 bends.
 24

More complex geometries include multiple two-dimensional (2D) bends and

three-dimensional (3D) bends. A 2D tube has the openings on the same
plane; a 3D has openings on different planes. A two plane bend or compound
bend is defined as a compound bend that has a bend in the plan view and a
bend in the elevation. When calculating a 2 plane bend you must know the
bend angle and rotation (dihedral angle). One side effect of bending the
workpiece is the wall thickness changes; the wall along the inner radius of
the tube becomes thicker and the outer wall becomes thinner. To reduce this
the tube may be supported internally and or externally to preserve the cross
section. Depending on the bend angle, wall thickness, and bending process
the inside of the wall may wrinkle. Tube bending as a process starts with
loading a tube into a pipe bender and clamping it into place between two
dies, the clamping block and the forming die. The tube is also loosely held by
two other dies, the wiper die and the pressure die.

The process of tube bending involves using mechanical force to push stock
material pipe or tubing against a die, forcing the pipe or tube to conform to
the shape of the die. Often, stock tubing is held firmly in place while the end
is rotated and rolled around the die. Other forms of processing including
pushing stock through rollers that bend it into a simple curve.[2] For some
tube bending processing, a mandrel is placed inside the tube to prevent
collapsing. The tube is also held in tension by a wiper die to prevent any
creasing during stress. A wiper die is usually made of a softer alloy i.e.
aluminum, brass to avoid scratching or damaging the material being bent.

Much of the tooling is made of hardened steel or tool steel to maintain and
prolong the tools life. However wherever there is a concern of scratching or
gouging the work piece, a softer material such as aluminum or bronze is
utilized. For example, the clamping block, rotating form block and pressure
die are often formed from the hardened steel because the tubing is not
moving past these parts of the machine. On the other hand, the pressure die
and the wiping die are formed from aluminum or bronze to maintain the
shape and surface of the work piece as it slides by.Pipe bending machines are
typically human powered, pneumatic powered, hydraulic assisted, hydraulic
driven or electric servomotor.

Compression bending
 25

Probably will be the first bending process used on cold pipes and tubing. In
this process a die in the shape of the bend is pressed against the pipe forcing
the pipe to fit the shape of the bend. Because the pipe is not supported
internally there is some deformation of the shape of the pipe giving an oval
cross section. This process is used where a consistent cross section of the
pipe is not required. Although a single die can produce various shapes, it
only works for one size tube and radius. Rotary draw bending

Full tooling for rotary draw bending

Rotary draw bending (RDB) is a precise technology, since it bends using

tooling or "die sets" which have a constant center line radius (CLR),
alternatively indicated as Mean Bending Radius (Rm). Rotary draw benders
can be programmable to store multiple bend jobs with varying degrees of
bending. Often a positioning index table (IDX) is attached to the bender
allowing the operator to reproduce complex bends which can have multiple
bends and differing planes.

Rotary draw benders are the most popular machines for use in bending tube,
pipe and solids for applications like: handrails, frames, motor vehicle roll
cages, handles, lines and much more. Rotary draw benders create
aesthetically pleasing bends when the right tooling is matched to the
application. CNC rotary draw bending machines can be very complex and
use sophisticated tooling to produce severe bends with high quality
requirements. The complete tooling is required only for high-precision
bending of difficult-to-bend tubes with relatively large OD/t
(diameter/thickness) ratio and relatively small ratio between the mean
bending radius Rm and OD.[3] The use of axial boosting either on the tube
free end or on the pressure die is useful to prevent excessive thinning and
collapse of the extrados of the tube. The mandrel, with or without ball with
spherical links, is mostly used to prevent wrinkles and ovalization. For
relatively easy bending processes (that is, as the difficulty factor BF
decreases), the tooling can be progressively simplified, eliminating the need
for the axial assist, the mandrel, and the wiper die (which mostly prevents
wrinkling). Furthermore, in some particular cases, the standard tooling must
be modified in order to meet specific requirements of the products.

Roll bending
 26

Main article: Roll bending

During the roll bending process the pipe, extrusion, or solid is passed
through a series of rollers (typically 3) that apply pressure to the pipe
gradually changing the bend radius in the pipe. The pyramid style roll
benders have one moving roll, usually the top roll. Double pinch type roll
benders have two adjustable rolls, usually the bottom rolls, and a fixed top
roll. This method of bending causes very little deformation in the cross
section of the pipe. This process is suited to producing coils of pipe as well as
long gentle bends like those used in truss systems.

Three-Roll Push Bending

The Three-Roll Push Bending (TRPB) is the most commonly used freeform-
bending process to manufacture bending geometries consisting of several
plane bending curves. Nevertheless, a 3D-shaping is possible. The profile is
guided between bending-roll and supporting-roll(s), while being pushed
through the tools. The position of the forming-roll defines the bending
radius. The bending point is the tangent-point between tube and bending-
roll. To change the bending plane, the pusher rotates the tube around its
longitudinal axis. Generally, a TRPB tool kit can be applied on a
conventional rotary draw bending machine. The process is very flexible since
with a unique tool set, several bending radii values Rm can be obtained,
although the geometrical precision of the process is not comparable to rotary
draw bending. Bending contours defined as spline- or polynomial-functions
can be manufactured.

Simple Three-Roll Bending

Three roll bending of tubes and open profiles can also be performed with
simpler machines, often semi-automatic and non CNC controlled, able to
feed the tube into the bending zone by friction. These machines have often a
vertical layout, i.e. the three rolls lie on a vertical plane.

Heat-induction
 27

An induction coil is placed around a small section of the pipe at the bend
point. It is then heated to between 800 and 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (430
and 1,200 C). While the pipe is hot, pressure is placed on the pipe to bend it.
The pipe is then quenched with either air or water spray. Heat-Induction
bending is used on large pipes such as freeway signs, power plants, and
petroleum pipe lines.

Sand-packing/hot-slab forming

In the sand packing process the pipe is filled with fine sand and the ends are
capped. The filled pipe is heated in a furnace to 1,600 F (870 C) or higher.
Then it is placed on a slab with pins set in it, and bent around the pins using
a winch, crane, or some other mechanical force. The sand in the pipe
minimizes distortion in the pipe cross section.

Bending springs

These are strong but flexible springs inserted into a pipe to support the pipe
walls during manual bending. They have diameters only slightly less than the
internal diameter of the pipe to be bent. They are only suitable for bending
15-and-22 mm (0.6-and-0.9 in) soft copper pipe (typically used in household
plumbing) or PVC pipe.The spring is pushed into the pipe until its center is
roughly where the bend is to be. A length of flexible wire can be attached to
the end of the spring to facilitate its removal. The pipe is generally held
against the flexed knee, and the ends of the pipe are pulled up to create the
bend. To make it easier to retrieve the spring from the pipe, it is a good idea
to bend the pipe slightly more than required, and then slacken it off a little.
They are less cumbersome than rotary benders, but are not suitable for
bending short lengths of piping when it is difficult to get the required
leverage on the pipe ends. Bending springs for smaller diameter pipes
(10mm copper pipe) slide over the pipe instead of inside.

: FLARING AND FLARING TOOL:

 28

Flare fittings are a type of compression fitting used with metal tubing,
usually soft steel, ductile (soft) copper and aluminum, though other
materials are also used. Tube flaring is considered to be a type of forging
operation, and is usually a cold working procedure. During assembly, a flare
nut is used to secure the flared tubing's tapered end to the also tapered
fitting, producing a pressure-resistant, leak-tight seal. Flared connections
offer a high degree of long-term reliability and for this reason are often used
in mission-critical and inaccessible locations. The tool used to flare tubing
consists of a die that grips the tube and a mandrel that is forced into the end
of the tube to form the flare by cold working. The most common flare fitting
standards in use today are the 45-degree SAE style, and the 37-degree AN
style, also used with the JIC system. The AN/JIC style generally has a higher
pressure rating for a given size tubing. SAE and AN/JIC fittings are
completely incompatible due to the different flare angle. Further, AN fittings
(or those complying with subsequent standards) and JIC fittings are not
interchangeable for design-controlled applications due to differing quality
standards. The refrigeration and air conditioning industry usually uses 45
flare connections while hydraulic hoses are usually 37-1/2 flare connections.
 29

Flared fittings are appropriate alternatives to solder-type joints when the use
of an open flame is either not desired or impractical. Copper tube used for
propane, LP, or natural gas may use flared brass fittings of single 45-flare
type, according to NFPA 54/ANSI. Z223.1 National Fuel Gas Code. The
copper tube types used for water service applications commonly uses a flare
to iron pipe connection when connecting to the main or the meter. Many
plumbing codes, towns, and water companies require type L copper tubing
or HDPE pipe in order to provide water service. All National Model Codes
permit the use of flare fitting joints, however, the authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ) should be consulted to determine acceptance for a specific
application. Flared connectors should not be confused with compression
connectors, with which they are generally not interchangeable. Flared
connectors lack a compression ring, but do use a threaded nut. A special
flaring tool is used to enlarge tubing into a tapered "bellmouth" shape that
matches the tapered projecting conical shape of the flare fitting. The flare
nut, which has previously been installed over the tubing, is then tightened
onto the fitting. Fittings are typically made of brass or plastic, but stainless
steel or other materials may be used. Flare connections are a labor-intensive
method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the course of
many years. Flared fittings are sometimes thought to be more secure against
leaks and sudden failures, and are often preferred for safety-critical
connections, such as in hydraulic brake systems.

: SWAGING:
 30

Swaging is a forging process in which the dimensions of an item are altered

using dies into which the item is forced. Swaging is usually a cold working
process; however, it is sometimes done as a hot working process.The term
swage can apply to the process of swaging, or to a die or tool used for
swaging. As a general manufacturing process swaging may be broken up into
two categories. The first category of swaging involves extrusion of the
workpiece, forcing it through a confining die to reduce its diameter, similar
to the process of drawing wire. This may also be referred to as "tube
swaging". The second category involves two or more dies used to hammer a
round workpiece into a smaller diameter. This process is usually called
"rotary swaging" or "radial forging".

Tubes may be tagged (reduced in diameter to enable the tube to be initially

fed through the die to then be pulled from the other side) using a rotary
swager, which allows them to be drawn on a draw bench. Swaging is
normally the method of choice for precious metals since there is no loss of
material in the process.

Rotary swaging

Rotary swaging process is usually a cold working process, used to reduce the
diameter, produce a taper, or add a point to a round workpiece. It can also
impart internal shapes in hollow workpieces through the use of a mandrel
(the shape must have a constant cross-section). Swaging a bearing into a
housing means either flaring its groove's lips onto the chamfer of the
housing, or flaring the housing's material over the edge of the bearing. The
flaring is done with a pair of rolls that travel around the hole and are fed
down into the part, deforming the metal in a controlled, predicted way.
Grease is often used to lubricate this swaging process, which is also called
roller swaging. A swaging machine works by using two or four split dies
which separate and close up to 2000 times a minute. This action is achieved
by mounting the dies into the machine's spindle which is rotated by a motor.
The spindle is mounted inside a cage containing rollers (looks like a roller
bearing). The rollers are larger than the cage so as the spindle spins the dies
are pushed out to ride on the cage by centrifugal force, as the dies cross over
the rollers they push the dies together because of their larger size. On a four-
die machine, the number of rollers cause all dies to close at a time; if the
number of rollers do not cause all pairs of dies to close at the same time then
 31

the machine is called a rotary forging machine, even though it is still a

swaging process. A variation of the rotary swager is the creeping spindle
swaging machine where both the spindle and cage revolve in opposite
directions, this prevents the production of fins between the dies where the
material being swaged grows up the gap between the dies. There are two
basic types of rotary swaging machine, the standard (also known as a tagging
machine), and the butt swaging machine. A butt swaging machine works by
having sets of wedges that close the dies onto the work piece by inserting
them between the annular rollers and the dies, normally by the use of a foot
pedal. A butt swaging machine can allow a work piece to be inserted without
the dies closing on it, for example a three-foot work piece can be inserted
12 inches and then the dies closed, drawn through until 12 inches remain and
the dies are then released, the finished work piece would then, for example,
be four feet long but still of its initial diameter for a foot at each end.

: BRAZING:
 32

Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are

joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler
metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal. Brazing differs
from welding in that it does not involve melting the work pieces and from
soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar process, while also
requiring much more closely fitted parts than when soldering. The filler
metal flows into the gap between close-fitting parts by capillary action. The
filler metal is brought slightly above its melting (liquidus) temperature while
protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the base
metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work pieces
together. It is similar to soldering, except for the use of higher temperatures.
A major advantage of brazing is the ability to join the same or different
metals with considerable strength. High-quality brazed joints require that
parts be closely fitted, and the base metals exceptionally clean and free of
oxides. In most cases, joint clearances of 0.03 to 0.08 mm (0.0012 to
0.0031 in) are recommended for the best capillary action and joint strength.
However, in some brazing operations it is not uncommon to have joint
clearances around 0.6 mm (0.024 in). Cleanliness of the brazing surfaces is
also important, as any contamination can cause poor wetting (flow). The two
main methods for cleaning parts, prior to brazing, are chemical cleaning and
abrasive or mechanical cleaning. In the case of mechanical cleaning, it is
important to maintain the proper surface roughness as wetting on a rough
surface occurs much more readily than on a smooth surface of the same
geometry. Unless brazing operations are contained within an inert or
reducing atmosphere environment (i.e. a vacuum furnace), a flux such as
borax is required to prevent oxides from forming while the metal is heated.
The flux also serves the purpose of cleaning any contamination left on the
brazing surfaces. Flux can be applied in any number of forms including flux
paste, liquid, powder or pre-made brazing pastes that combine flux with
filler metal powder. Flux can also be applied using brazing rods with a
coating of flux, or a flux core. In either case, the flux flows into the joint
when applied to the heated joint and is displaced by the molten filler metal
entering the joint. Excess flux should be removed when the cycle is
completed because flux left in the joint can lead to corrosion, impede joint
inspection, and prevent further surface finishing operations. Phosphorus-
containing brazing alloys can be self-fluxing when joining copper to copper.
A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing depending on the
 33

intended use or application method. In general, braze alloys are made up of 3

or more metals to form an alloy with the desired properties. The filler metal
for a particular application is chosen based on its ability to: wet the base
metals, withstand the service conditions required, and melt at a lower
temperature than the base metals or at a very specific temperature.

Braze alloy is generally available as rod, ribbon, powder, paste, cream, wire
and preforms (such as stamped washers). Depending on the application, the
filler material can be pre-placed at the desired location or applied during the
heating cycle. For manual brazing, wire and rod forms are generally used as
they are the easiest to apply while heating. In the case of furnace brazing,
alloy is usually placed beforehand since the process is usually highly
automated. Some of the more common types of filler metals used are

Aluminum-silicon
Copper
Copper-silver
Copper-zinc (brass)
Copper-tin (bronze)
Gold-silver
Nickel alloy
Silver[1][6]
Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon, boron,
phosphorus, etc
34