Translating for dubbing from English to Italian

Introduction
The translation of audiovisual products began in the 1930s, when the first sound films were produced, so that they could
be shown in other countries.
A film is a complex semiotic system which acquires meaning through the use of words, gestures, facial
expressions, sounds, music and pictures.
Translating for dubbing is subject to technical constraints of lip synchronisation, synchronisation with gestures
and with the length of the characters utterances.

1. Audiovisual or screen translation

The terminology used to refer to the translation of dialogues of audiovisual products has changed through the years.
This indecision about terminology testifies to the changing attitudes towards it. Hesitation among translations scholar to
consider this type of linguistic transfer as translation proper, as it involves a high degree of manipulation on the part of
several people.

Oreo (2004) highlights the need to agree on a generic name to define the multiple and different modes of translation
when the audio (radio), the audio and the visual (screen), or the written, the audio and the visual (multimedia) channels
are the source text. She opts for the name audiovisual translation (AVT), which refers to film, radio, TV and video
media whose dialogues need to be translated.
The first studies devoted to the translation of audiovisual products called it film translation directly referred
to one specific object of study, leaving outside TV programmes etc.
The term Languages Transfer (LT) was introduced in the 1990s, on order to focus on the verbal part of such
products.
o LT describes how a film or television programme is made understandable to Target audiences who are
unfamiliar with the source language in which the original was produced.
o LT can be either visual, in which case the text is superimposed onto the picture (subtitling), or aural, in
which case the original voice track of the film or programme is replaced by a new one.
Luyken (1991) points out that LT is a form of translation. However, it differs from the types of translation:
o LT only affects one element of the original work (verbal part), not its entirely.
o The message is altered through omissions, and no explanatory footnotes can be added.
o LT usually shortens the source text, and sometimes it may add information which was not in the original
text.
Another term which was introduced by Hornby (1996) is Multimedia Translation (MT). She draws the terminology
from Reisss 1971 typology of texts. Reiss distinguished 4 text-types which would require different translation strategies:
informative, expressive, operative, audio-medial.
o Audio-medial texts are described as written to be spoken or sung, and with a varying degree dependent
to a non-linguistic/non-verbal form of expression.
o Reiss changed the term into multi-medial, stating that such texts do not constitute a 4th text-type, but
contain elements of the 3 main text types.
o Multi-medial text would be a sub-group of text written for the express purpose of being spoken (ex.
political speech, songs, lectures).
o Multi-medial texts could also include texts which have visual elements, but not acoustic ones (ex.
comics).

To consider dubbing and subtitling as types of translation depends on ones notion of translation. If by translation we
mean rewriting, taking into consideration both the source text and the target context and culture, the medium of
transmission, and the constraints that they impose in the translator, the dubbing and subtitling are to be considered
translations.
Gambier (2003) suggested to adopt a new term, Transadaptation:
o Subtitling is translating if translation is not viewed as a purely word-for-word transfer but as an
encompassing a set of strategies that might include summarizing, paraphrasing, etc.
o Screen translation, or versioning, can also be called Transadaptation, a term which might allow us to
go beyond the usual dichotomy and take target audiences into consideration more directly.
The translation of film dialogues involves evident manipulations and cuttings, necessary by technical constraints. The
term adaptation would be more appropriate (while the term translation would be restricted to source text).
This position can be criticised for various reasons. It is impossible to have interlingual translation without
considering the non-verbal elements that affect it.
o Translators choices are very often dictated by extra-linguistic reasons (ex. Translation of titles of films
are often based on commercial reasons).

In 1994, Gambier described 10 main types of audiovisual translation. In 2003 he revised them, reaching 14 types of
screen translation, which he divided into Dominant (the most common and most frequently used) and Challenging
(less common and more difficult types).
1. Dubbing 8. Simultaneous or sight translation
2. Interlingual subtitling 9. Multilingual production (dominant types)
3. Voice-over or revoicing 10. Scenario/script translation
4. Intralingual dubbing 11. Intralingual subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing
5. Consecutive interpreting 12. Live (or real time) subtitling
6. Simultaneous interpreting 13. Surtitling
7. Free commentary 14. Audio description (challenging types)

1. Dubbing or lip synchronisation: is a translation which replaces the spoken dialogue of the original characters with a
spoken dialogue in the target language. It also requires matching the target text to the lips and body movements of the
original actor.
2. Interlingual subtitling: adds a written translation of the dialogues to the original spoken dialogue, which remains
unchanged.
3. Voice over or half dubbing: is a type of screen translation which is often used especially for documentaries or
interviews. It consists in turning down the volume of the original language, and adding its translation spoken by an actor.
The translated text starts after and finishes before the original one. No need for lip synchronisation.
4. Intralingual dubbing: consists in replacing the voices of the original dialogue with other voices in the same language,
but with different accents and vocabulary, if the original is difficult to understand.
7. Free commentary: is defined as an adaptation for a new audience, with additions, omissions, clarifications, and
comments. Synchronisation is done with on screen images rather than with the soundtrack. This mode is used for
childrens programmes, documentaries, or corporate videos.
8. Simultaneous or sight translation: uses as a source text not the original dialogue or speech but a script or subtitles
already prepared in another foreign language (called pivot language). In this type of translation, the input is visual
(written) rather than oral (spoken). This technique is adopted in film festivals and for breaking news.
11. Intralingual subtitles: explain in writing, in the same language, what the characters are saying.
13. Surtitles: written translation of what the actors say usually on a theatre or opera stage. One-line subtitling placed
above a theatre stage or in the back of the seats, and displayed non-stop throughout a performance.
14. Audio description: defined as a double dubbing in interlingual transfer for the blind and visually impaired. It involves
the reading of information describing what is going on on the screen.

Gottlieb (1992) defined subtitling and dubbing according specific features.

Subtitling is defined as a written1, additive2, immediate3, synchronous4 and polymedial5 translation.
Dubbing is defined as a spoken, non-additive, immediate, synchronous and polymedial translation.
1 4
Written signs on the screen Subtitles are presented simultaneously with the original film
2 5
It adds verbal material to the original film It uses more than one channel to convey the total message
3
It is received by the audience in a flowing manner
Subtitling is affected by formal, or quantitative factors. The time and space factors impose a certain reduction of the
source text, which may result in cutting up to 30% of the original dialogue.
Space factor: the size of a television/cinema screen limits the number of characters that can be contained.
Time factor: the reading speed of an average viewer limits the amount of text that can be presented on the
screen and determines for how long it needs to stay. Average reading speed (25 CPS) is lower than the talking
speed.
In contrast, dubbing is affected by the constraints of lip and body movements of the actors.

Gottlieb also stressed the fact that film and TV shows are polysemiotic texts, as they contain different semiotic systems,
and they force the translator to pay attention to such 4 channels:
1. The verbal audio channel (dialogue, voices, songs)
2. The non-verbal audio channel (noises, music, sounds effects)
3. The verbal visual channel (captions and written signs)
4. The non-verbal visual channel (images, picture composition)
In dubbing, the balance of the 4 semiotic channels is maintained (1-2-3-4). In subtitling, however, the balance is shifted
(3-2-1-4).

Gottlieb further describes the differences between the 2 types of screen translation.
1. They differ in semiotic terms. Dubbing uses the spoken mode and a substitutional mode, while subtitling uses the
written mode and a supplementary mode.
2. Dubbing and subtitling differ in wording, as subtitling usually condenses, reduces the original dialogue
considerably.

Paolinelli and Di Fortunato support the dubbing and criticise subtitling for several reasons.
o Subtitling implies a reduction of the original dialogue (40%/70%)
o Subtitles are placed at the bottom of the screen, and therefore hide part of the image from viewers
o Audience spends half of the time reading the subtitles, therefore not watching half of the film and not
getting completely into it.
o People who know the source language are bothered by the presence of subtitles, while those who dont,
are not going to learn it in this way.
Theyre talking some serious bullshit right here. Scandinavians and Greek for example, have a better knowledge
and pronunciation of English than Italians because they are used to watching and listening English shows since a
young age and without dubbing.

Diaz Cintas (2001):

Dubbing
- Expensive
- Loss of the original dialogue
- Time-consuming
- Pretends to be a domestic product, as it hides the
foreignness of the film
- The voices of the dubbing actors may be
repetitive (same actors for several films)
- Respects the image and polysemiotic nature of
the original
- More suitable for less educated people and
younger children
- Minor reduction of the dialogue
- Allows multiple actors speaking at the same time
- Viewers can follow the story even if they get
distracted from the image
Subtitling
- Cheap
- Respects the original dialogue
- Procedure is quite fast
- Favours foreign language learning
- Original voices are retained and less repetitive
- Doesnt respect the image and the polysemiotic
nature of the original
- More suitable for deaf, hard of hearing,
immigrants
- Implies a major reduction of the original dialogue
- Audience attention is divide between images,
written words, and original dialogue
- Viewers cannot follow the story if they do not read
the subtitles
- Time and space limits

Traditionally Europe has been divided into groups, according to the mode of audiovisual translation that they preferred.
However, according to Gambier (2003), dividing Europe into dubbing countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain,
Austria, Switzerland, etc.) and subtitling country (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Norway, Swede,
Portugal, etc.) has become too simplistic given that technology allows flexible solutions. Nowadays one can choose how
to watch audiovisual products and dubbing and subtitling may coexist (firstly, because subtitling is cheaper than the
other).
Dries (1995) points out that dubbing countries are gradually introducing some non-dubbed programmes. The
acceptance of subtitling in dubbing countries can have a positive impact, as they would be able to spend less
money on audiovisual translation.
o The emerging multilingual international satellite channels in Europe can save time and money by opting
for subtitling. However, the majority of the audience in dubbing countries has grown up with dubbing
and does not want to see this changed. Broadcaster and film distributors do not want to take the risk of
losing viewers.
Great Britain position is ambiguous. It seems that GB prefers dubbing, but the translation issue is not significant there
since the majority of imported movies are American and do not require any translation.
GB, as it belongs to the large Anglophone market, does not place itself either among the dubbing or subtitling countries,
but chooses the translation mode according to different factors and in a mixed manner.
In recent years, British TV channels have shown very few or no foreign programmes or films at all, and when
they do they are late at night, with subtitles. In cinemas, on the other hand, foreign films are always subtitled.

From an historical point of view, the adoption of dubbing or subtitling has depended upon different factors, economic
and political reasons playing an important role.
o Smaller country (with a high number of imported products, a small number of internal ones and a small
audience, have tended to opt for subtitling, because its cheaper.
o Bigger country (large internal productions, great audience) have opted for dubbing, because theres an
expectation of high box office receipts.
Preference for one translation method can be and has been strongly affected by political and historical factors (ex. Italy,
Germany, Spain during the 1930s).

The first sound film, which contained spoken dialogue and songs, was The Jazz Singer (1927). Shown in Italy in 1929 in
Rome, in English with the addition of captions with explanations in Italians (Per facilitarne la comprensione, nelle scene
dialogate vennero inseriti cartelli con didascalie in italiano). Other solutions were adopted: some film producers asked
American actors to speak to other languages as well, and some American film companies opted for producing multiples
language versions of the same film (too expensive, soon abandoned).
The cinema market was dominated by American products. Smaller, and less wealthy country with a small home
production were invaded by American films, and opted for subtitles, while larger countries managed to continue
producing their own films, but they had to compete with the US.
Larger country such as Italy, France, Spain, and Germany attempted to defend themselves against the American
invasion of the film industry, by passing protectionist laws which would limit the number of foreign films that
could be admitted to the country. Moreover, those countries promoted domestic film production through
government support.
o In Fascist Italy, law against foreign languages in film (1930) and introduction of dubbing (1932).
o The three fascist, nationalistic governments of Italy, Germany and Spain has similar language policies:
they all insisted on having one standardized national language for the sake of national unity, and forbade
minority group to speak their own dialects or languages.
o Dubbing is an attempt to hide the foreign nature of a film by creating the illusion that actors are
speaking the viewers language. In short, is an assertion of the supremacy of the national language.
Dubbing results from a dominant nationalistic system in which a nationalistic film rhetoric and language
policy are promoted equally.
o Subtitling can be seen as an example of highly source-oriented translation, as it retains the original film
and its linguistic features. Subtitles promote the spread and use of a foreign language, together with an
interest in the foreign culture. Subtitling corresponds to a weaker system open to foreign influences.

Domestication: means adapting the text to the target language and culture, eliminating elements characteristic of the
source text. The term has negative connotations. Examples of domestication can be found in film adaptations of literary
texts which set the story in contemporary times.
 o Baz Luhrmanns Romeo + Juliet
o Translation of titles Se mi lasci ti cancello (Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind)
o Characteristic of the characters The Nanny, Jewish Fran Fine became Francesca Cacace from
Frosinone.
Dubbing can be seen as a domesticating approach through which the foreign film is partially de-culturalised.
Dubbing should create the perfect illusion of allowing the audience to experience the production in their own
language without diminishing any of the characteristics of the original language, culture, and national background
of the production.
o If domestication is fully effective, the receptors of the target film will believe that they have seen an
original, believing that the linguistic adaptation is a perfect replica of the source.
o Through the domesticating strategy of dubbing, the original film dialogue cannot be heard and no
comparison can be made. Changes from the source dialogue may occur, and nobody would realise it.
Dubbing therefore may hide translation choices and deviations from the meaning of the source text.
Foreignization: means leaving in the translation elements of the source language and culture, highlighting the difference
and foreignness of that text. It privileges the source culture and evokes a sense of otherness.
o Zeffirellis Romeo and Juliet
o Choice of not translating film titles Notting Hill
Subtitling can be viewed as a foreignizing translation, as the source is maintained as it originally was, and the
audience is moved towards it by having to read added written dialogues. The target audience is aware that it is a
foreign film, and is reminded of its foreignness by the presence of the source language dialogues.

The choice to domesticate or foreignize in film translation can be determined by two main factors.
The type of audiovisual translation that each country decides to adopt, in relation to their approach to the
foreign. The choice of translation strategy, how the target language and culture view the other.
The domesticating strategy within dubbing or subtitling may be dictated by producers or distributors in order to
make the films more familiar and attractive. Translators often receive either suggestions or orders from above to
alter foreign elements and culturally unfamiliar items to make them more palatable and attractive to the target
language audience.

Audiovisual translation poses 3 main problems: the cultural difference, the sound/picture synchronisation, and the
relationship between the spoken and the written code.
Film dialogue is characterised by being a form of spoken language, and one of the difficulties in translating for
dubbing and subtitling is the rendering of the features of spoken language.
The spoken language is considered to be more dynamic and spontaneous. When people speak they can
disambiguate their message by using visual and paralinguistic features of communication such as intonation and
gestures.
o Spoken language is less precise and grammatically elaborate than the written language, because of its
nature and constraints.
o Written language is considered more permanent and controlled, often more formal than the spoken
mode. Written grammar is usually more complex and correct, and vocabulary tends to be more precise
and specific.
Film scripts are written-to-be-spoken genres. They are written to seem spontaneous. They tend to contain
features typical of the spoken mode.
o Higher occurrence of repetitions, hesitations, rephrasing.
o As a conversation is constructed in interaction by 2+ interlocutors, it can be structured into adjacency
pairs - utterance-response (ex. question-answer, greeting-greeting).
o Inserts: discourse markers (well, right, now, you know), interjections (oh, ah, wow), attention signals
(hey, yo) response elicitors (right? Eh? Okay?), response forms (yes, no, huh huh, sure, okay), hesitators
(fillers such as uh, er, um, erm).
Dialects: are varieties related to the language users (geographical, social and occupation background).
Registers: are varieties of language in use which are determined by different textual, functional, interpersonal,
and situational features.
Genre: refers to the general purpose of the text (ex. narrative, descriptive, argumentative, etc.)
Subtitling is a process which can be regarded as semiotic and interlingual since it involves:
1. A change of code the oral code is converted into a written code.
2. A change of language theres a certain tension between the spoken and the written code, and the fact that the
original spoken language is transferred into the written mode involves a shift in linguistic elements.
o Repetitions, hesitations, false starts, intonation and stress patterns, some discourse markers, deictics or
vocatives may be omitted in the subtitles.
A subtitler must render in writing what has been formulated orally, but at the same time respect both technical
exigencies and a certain sanctity attached to the written discourse in our culture. The translator must respect:
o Norms of good usage (avoiding elements considered extremely vulgar or offensive)
o Readability (textual coherence being dependent on phenomena such as word order, repetition,
redundancy, discourse markers and pragmatic connectors that are very frequent in oral discourse).
This is one of the reasons why strong sociolinguistic variation or particular linguistic features
typically characterizing the protagonists are often neutralized, making them unmarked.

2. Dubbing
Dubbing can be view as the replacement of the original dialogue with translated dialogue which needs to match up lip
and body movements of the actors. The language of a dubbed film is the result of a complex process of translation,
manipulation and adaptation which is undertaken by several people.
It is the only form of translation in which the length of the translated text has to be identical with the length of
the original text. The translator will have to change, cut, or add elements in order to achieve balance and
credible dialogue in the target language.

In Italy, the adattatore/dialoghista works from the film and the original film script. He then passes the target language
film dialogues to the dubbing director, who chooses the actors and directs them during recording
Less frequently, the original film script is given to a translator, who provides a literal translation based only on
the written dialogues, and not on the film. In Spain and Germany this passage is common.

There are 3 types of visual synchronisation:

1. Lip Synchronisation
2. Isochrony or Synchronisation between utterances and pauses
3. Kinetic Synchronisation

1. Lip Synchrony: is the correlation between lips and mouth movements of the original actors with the utterances heard.
It only represents one important aspect of audiovisual translation for dubbing, the others being the interaction between
words and images, and the use of the oral code.
Lip sync is necessary only in some specific situations, according to the types of images and of sound uttered:
o With close-ups shots, detailed lips shots, or scenes when the lips can be clearly seen.
o With certain vowels and consonants, such as bilabials (/b/, /p/, /m/), labio-dentals (/f/, /v/) and open
vowels. In such cases, the translator needs to attempt to use words which contain similar sounds or
sounds that require a similar articulation of the mouth.
2. Isochrony or Visual Synchrony: means that there needs to be correspondence between the length of utterances as they
are seen on screen and as they are heard, and between the number and rhythm of syllables in utterances. The visually
perceived beginning and end of a sentence need to correspond with the visually sentence uttered.
Visual synchrony is probably the most binding aspect of dubbing, as its lack would distract and annoy viewers,
because it would destroy the impression that the actors on screen are actually pronouncing the translated words,
and therefore the illusion of reality.
The need of isochrony implies that if a concept in the source language is expressed using more words than in
the dubbed version, changes will need to be made. If the translation is shorter than the original. Some words,
fillers or pauses could be added, or longer synonymous adopted, while if the translation is longer, it would have
to be cut somehow.
3. Kinetic Synchrony: means that spoken words need to respect and match the body movements of the actors.
Translated dialogue needs to coincide with gestures, facial expressions, and body language.
Luyken talks about nucleus sync, which is related to the fact that certain body movements usually coincide
with the characters pronouncing stressed syllables, which in linguistics are called nuclei.
The translator for dubbing needs to make sure that theres correlation of body movements, facial expressions,
movements of the head with nuclei, which are syllables that carry accentual prominence in the dubbed version.

The degree to which synchronisation influences translation choices varies from film to film and from scene to scene,
according to camera movement.
Isochrony and kinetic synchrony seem to be more important to achieve, while lip synchronisation may be
subject to adjustments.
Translator should be responsible for synchronisation, because this process implies textual and linguistic
operations which only a linguist with a thorough knowledge of source and target languages and cultures, and of
translation strategies, can undertake.

Descriptive Translation Studies aims to describe the way in which translations are produced and function in the target
context, the constraints that influence translators, the processes that come into play when texts are translated, and the
norms that may govern such actions. This is called a target-oriented, functional approach to translation. In all types of
translation, but even more evidently in film translation, important factors that determine the translators choices are the
target culture and the target audience.
Film translation needs to be seen as an act of intercultural communication, rather than a merely interlinguistic
transfer. Translating for dubbing can be viewed as a manipulatory process which rewrites and adapts the source
text according to the target culture, the target audience, and the specific function of the target text within them.

Lefeveres concept of rewriting and refraction. These concepts allow to investigate the factors that affect the translation
process and give more responsibility to translators, who become writers or authors in their own right.
1. Rewriting: genre that includes interpretation, criticism, anthologising, translation, and adaptation for different media,
and consists in manipulating a text according to the norms of the society and context in which the rewriter is working.
2. Refraction: adaptation of a work of literature to a different audience, with the intention of influencing the way in which
that audience reads the work.

Skopos theory: is a functional approach to translation developed by Reiss and Vermeer (1984), which views translation
as a form of human action. This has a specific purpose that determines the way translators approach the source text and
the translation choices they make.
The first and most important aspect of this theory is that the target text is determined by its skopos, that is the
function of the translated text within the target culture, whereas faithfulness or equivalence to the source are less
important.
The skopos of the text and the medium affect the translation strategy, which will definitely be target-oriented,
whereas the source text may sometimes be of secondary importance. Equivalence to the syntax and semantics of
the source text is important, but there is a pre-eminence of the pragmatic function of the text or utterance over
linguistic form.
o Quando si traduce bisogna prestare attenzione a tutto il testo e non andare avanti frase per frase senza
considerare il fine ultimo del testo stesso.
Corpus-based Translation Studies, study of translation through corpora. It is extremely important as it enables the
researchers to identify translation universal or recurrent patterns of translational behaviour.
Baker (1996) identified the following universal features in all types of translation:
o Explicitation: tendency to render things more explicit in the target text, perhaps by adding background
information.
o Simplification: tendency of translators to simplify the language or message in the target text.
o Normalization: tendency to conform to the norms of the target language, by using unmarked structures
and collocations.
o Levelling out: tendency of the target text to place itself in between the written and the spoken mode.
 In his research on a corpus of films translated for dubbing into French, Goris (1993) identified 3 main norms:
1. Explicitation: mean a tendency to be more explicit than the source text, explaining things which in the
original may be implicit or ambiguous.
2. Standardization: means the tendency to avoid specific language uses, such as dialects, idiolects and
colloquialism or typical features of the spoken language. The dubbed version produces a shift in style,
so that the target language appears to be more formal, closer to standard language and written language.
3. Naturalization: means that the dubbed version seems as natural as possible to the target audience, as the
foreign features of the source text are eliminated or toned down, and culture-specific elements are
adapted. This last tendency is similar to the concept of domestication.

Language varies according to user and to the characteristics of the people who use it. This is called sociolinguistic
variation and the different varieties are called dialects. Dialects can be divided in:
1. Temporal they depend on the historical period in which the dialect is spoken.
2. Geographical or regional where the dialect is spoken.
3. Social the social class of the speakers.
4. Standard/non-standard whether standard or non-standard forms of language are used.
5. Individual or idiolectal each persons characteristic, idiosyncratic way of using language.

1. Temporal dialects: reflect the language change through time. Translators may encounter difficulties when having to
translate texts that use an archaic language, as they need to decide whether to use a similarly archaic target language
dialect, or to modernise the language.
2. Geographical or regional dialects: vary according to the regions where the speakers come from. We have AmE, BrE,
AuE, but also more restricted dialects such as Yorkshire, Scottish, Black English. Regional dialects pose a very serious
problem in the translation of films, as choices need to be made as to whether to use a target language dialect and, if so,
which one.
British and American films tend to be rich in geographical and social dialects, which play an important part in
defining each character. However, as theres no correspondence between the characteristics and connotations of
English and Italian regional dialects, theres a tendency to lose this type of information in dubbed films, so that
the different characters usually speak with the same standard Italian, in terms of accent. Neutralisation of
geographical variation seems inevitable in dubbed films, at least as regards accents.
o Woody Allens Match Point - Irish, English, Scottish, American accents.
o Bend it Like Beckham British accents, varieties of Indian, Southern English, Irish.
o Billy Elliot set in Norther England, Billys father has a strong Scottish accent.
There are some exceptions in which Italian dialects are used. These are the case in which a specific regional
accent is conveyed in dubbing.
o Ford Coppola The Godfather Sicilian accent rendered also in Italian.
Ethnolects: variation from standard Italian accent in dubbed film found when the speakers belong to specific
ethnic groups. Ethnic varieties of the majority language (specific accents which signal that the speaker was not
born in that country.
o Sicilian accent of Italian immigrants living in the USA, accent of Jewish American, Black English
vernacular, Spanish accents of American.
o Romeo + Juliet Juliets nurse has a Spanish accent in English, which is kept in the Italian version.
3. Social dialects: pretty often present in films. Such variation is usually lost in dubbed films in terms of accent, but it is
partly conveyed through lexical and syntactic choices: the use of colloquial expressions, slang, some ungrammaticalities,
and repetitions.
Pavese (2005) provides several examples of non-standard Italian colloquial forms and ungrammaticalities used
in dubbed versions of films containing social dialects. The use of such non-standard forms of Italian in some
dubbed films may vary be due to a strategy of compensation: lexical and syntactic choices compensate for the
loss of social variation expressed through accent in the original film.
o The use of the indicative rather than the subjunctive.
o The masculine singular pronoun gli used also for feminine and plural nouns.
o The use of the pronouns ci instead of gli.
o The use of dislocations.
4. Non-standard dialects: of English are related to grammatical aspects. Grammatical variation within general English is
not really a regional feature, as it cuts across regional and national boundaries. It is probably more related to the
education of the speakers.

Language may also vary according to use, which is called register variation.
Films usually contain several spoken interactions which are characterised by different types of register, and the same
speaker may shift from one register to another as the story moves to different places, situations and interactants.
The 3 dimensions of register are:
1. Field of discourse: refers to the subject of the text, the field of activity and a particular function of the text.
Refers to whats going on the kind of activity within which language is playing some part.
2. Mode of discourse: Refers to the medium of the language activity. Its the manifestation of the nature of the
language code being used. Mode refers to the role that language is playing and the medium of transmission.
3. Tenor of discourse: refers to the type of relationship between the interactants. Refers to the relationship between
the addresser and the addressee, and the role that they play in the interaction. It can be very formal, formal,
familiar, informal, colloquial, slang.

An important element of conversation are modes of address and vocatives, as they establish the relationship between
interlocutors. In translation in general, and translation for dubbing in particular, differences in modes of address and
vocatives may pose translation problems.

English and Italian use similar forms of address, which are however expressed and used in different ways.
English modes of address are the second person pronoun you and vocative forms. Theres no distinction
between polite and familiar forms. Familiarity and distance are not grammaticalized in English (not expressed by
pronoun and verb inflection), but are conveyed by the lexical choices of the speakers, through the use of
vocatives
Italian has the form Lei and tu, which immediately reveal the relationship between speakers, and the attitude of
the speaker toward the addressee.
o The form Voi is a third possible option. Its a temporal and geographical variant, as it was commonly
used between 16th and 19th century, and its still used in Southern regions as a form of respect for elders
even within the family or for strangers and social superior. Nel doppiaggio, stato completamente
soppiantato dalluso del Lei, a meno che non ci sia la necessit di usarlo (heritage film, ambientati in
epoche passate, dove il suo utilizzo era comune).
The fact that formality, politeness, and familiarity are grammaticalized in Italian pronouns as oppose to English
may create problems in the translation of film dialogue, as the translator has to make choice on whether to
adopt tu, Lei, or Voi.
o As the relationship between speaker and hearer is shown both by the pronoun and the verb inflections,
it would be impossible, or at least extremely difficult, for Italian speakers not to express this type of
relation, whereas in English it could remain covered.
o In natural conversation as well as in film dialogues, the presence of visual signs combines with verbal
and linguistic elements to provide meaning. Therefore, a translator can understand the relationship
between speaker and addressee by analysing the verbal elements as well as the characters movements
and facial expressions.
Variation in modes of address within the same conversational exchange signals attitudinal changes or shifting in
social distance and/or power relations with in a dyad (nella coppia).

Greenbaum defines vocative as a normal element added to a sentence or clause optionally, denoting the one or more
people whom it is addressed, and signalling the fact that it is addressed to them. Vocatives may take initial, medial, or
final position in a sentence. The choice of which vocative to use reveals the type of relationship between speaker and
hearer.
He divides vocatives in 3 groups:
1. Single names with or without a title (Mark, Mr Jones, Dr Cooper ).
2. Appellatives, usually nouns without pre- or postmodification.
o Terms referring to family relations (mother/mum, father/dad )
 o Titles of respect (sir, madam, ladies and gentlemen )
o Markers of profession or status (doctor, Mr President, Mr Prime Minister )
3. A single name or an appellative with the addiction of modifiers or appositive elements of various kinds
(My dear Mr Jones, young woman/man ).
Biber groups vocatives into 8 categories, in a scale from the most familiar to the more distant and respectful
ones:
1. Endearments (baby, darling, honey, sweetie, lover, dear ).
2. Family terms (mum, mummy, mom, ma, daddy, pop, pa, granny, grandpa ).
3. Familiarizers (guys, bud, man, dude, baby, mate, folks, bro ).
4. Familiarizers first names (shortened names and/or with pet suffix Jackie, Tom ).
5. First names in full (Jennifer, Thomas ).
6. Title and surnames (Mr Cooper, Miss Caulfield, Dr Cox ).
7. Honorifics (sir, madam ).
8. Others, including nicknames (boy, lazy!, Uncle Joe ).
Biber also identifies 3 main function of vocatives:
1. Getting someones attention
2. Identifying someone as the addressee
3. Maintaining and reinforcing social relationship
In contemporary English, the n.6 (First Name FN) is increasingly relegated to marking a more distant and
respectful relationship towards an acquaintance (conoscenza) and is not used as frequently as the first name.
There seems to be a predominance of n.5 not only for friends and family, but also for colleagues and
acquaintances.
o Both in AmE and BrE the switch to mutual FN is rapid (FN+LN followed by immediate use of the
FN-FN).
o Italians, on the contrary, do not resort to FN as rapidly with acquaintances, and tend to retain a certain
formality and respect with the pronoun Lei.
o This AmE and BrE tendency seems to affect the translation of films into Italian. Theres an overuse of
FN in dubbed films, which causes lack of naturalness in the Italian version, also because names are
combined with the formal Lei.
Finding Forrester (2000).
o In the Italian version, theres a frequent omission of vocatives such as yo, man, dog (dog appears to be a
feature of colloquial Black American English, used by African-American people as a form of greeting or
a reference to a friend). La traduzione di man in amico stata molto criticata perch non viene utilizzata
spesso nellitaliano parlato, ma viene omesso direttamente il vocativo.
o Frequent use of Lei+FN and frequent and repeated use of n.6, which in Italian sounds extremely formal
or may represent aggressiveness.
o Repetition of the FN as expression to closeness, but it may initially seem as an attempt on the part of the
speaker to establish a kind of empathy with the interlocutor. However, if it is repeated several times
within the conversation, it may also imply that the speaker is trying to impose his or her own will.

Scholars have identified 2 parameters to express the relationship between interlocutor:

1. The superiority-inferiority aspect: if theres a relationship of superiority-inferiority, there will be non-reciprocity
in the use of mode of address.
2. The closeness-distance aspect: if the family-distance parameter prevails, there will be reciprocity in the use of
modes of address.

Tags: short structures which can be added at the end of the clause in conversation or in written presentation of speech.
They take either the form of a noun phrase or of an interrogative or declarative clause.
Se le tags vengono omesse, nelle traduzioni avremmo personaggi che appaiono molto sicuri di s, anche se nel
dialogo originale il contrario.
Question tags pose problems in translation into Italian, as the target language doesnt have an equivalent form.
In Italian, they tend to be in the form of eh? or no?, and they are less frequent than in English. The
 presence of English question tags may lead the translator to insert Italian syntactic structures which copy the
English ones (vero? non vero? credi? Non credi? ).
Tags provide a mechanism by which a speaker can avoid into conflict with the addressee, while at the same time
may well give the impression that the speaker is unsure of himself/herself.
There are 3 types of tags:
1. Noun phrase tags: its function is to clarify or highlight the noun phrase, and in particular the pronoun in the preceding
noun phrase (It was a good book this. - No, I think its about one hundred that one ).
2. Question tags: also called interrogative tags, are made of an auxiliary verb followed by a personal pronoun. Their
function is to seek the addressees approval or agreement. (You arent upset, are you? It looks lovely, isnt it? ).
3. Declarative tags: are similar to question tags, but they are less frequently used, and have different function. They stress
the speech-act function, the meaning of the main clause, what it aims to express and do. (Hes alright he is. It looks
terrible it does).

Discourse markers (DM) are linguistic items which establish and help organizing interaction between participants in a
conversation. They usually emptied of their propositional meaning and they have the function of structuring
conversation and turn-taking. DM have 2 roles:
1. To signal a transition in the evolving progress of the conversation.
2. To signal an interactive relationship between speaker, hearer, and message.
Pulcini and Furiassi provide some guidelines for identifying DMs:
o DMs are more typical of oral discourse than of written and are often encountered in informal
interactions.
o Phonologically, DMs are prosodically marked (they are usually uttered as a separate tone unit followed
by a pause.
o Pragmatically, DMs play a prime function in discourse.
o Morphologically and syntactically, DMs are only barely connected to the syntactic structures of the
utterances, usually appearing either at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
o Semantically, DMs may be optional in determining the meaning of an utterance (they have little or no
propositional meaning).
According to Bazzanella (1994) DMs can have 2 main functions:
1. Interactional function: they identify different turns in the conversation, signal the speakers request for
attention, indicate agreement or disagreement.
2. Textual function: their role is to structure the text providing cohesion among its different parts. Their
presence determines different turns in a conversation, signals the beginning and end of a new topic,
marks corrections, reformulations, hesitations.
Several linguistic items can perform DMs functions and behave like them.
o Connectors/adverbs (well, right, now, then, actually ).
o Finite verb formulae-clauses (I mean, you know, you see, I think ).
o Non-verbal signals (gestures and gazes).
o Hesitation sounds (er, erm, mm ).
o Interjections (oh, ah, uhu ).
o Coordinators/conjunctions (and, but ).
The most common DMs in English are actually, ah, after all, alright, and, anyway, but, God, goodness, gosh,
however, I mean, I see, I think, just, kind of, like, mind you, now, oh, okay, or, please, really, right, sure, well,
yeah, yes, you know, you see.
o Well tends to be used to initiate a turn, and it often has the function of taking time. It also relates what
the speaker is going to say with what came before, often conveying agreement or disagreement.
o Right usually occurs at the beginning of a turn and signals that the speaker is initiating a new phase of
the conversation. It may also function as a tag.
o Now is an utterances launcher which has the function of continuing the topic of the conversation while
also moving it forward, adding information.
o I mean may be adopted by a speaker who is in a lower position in the conversation, as it seems to signal
insecurity in expressing ones point of view.
 DMs tend to pose problems in the translation of films. They are among the first items that tend to be eliminated
in subtitles, as they do not carry propositional meaning. In translation for dubbing, they are sometimes retained,
others omitted, it may be difficult to find equivalents in Italian, also for problems of synchronisation or utterance
length.

Cultural reference is an aspect of texts that needs to be tackled with great care in all type of translation. When the source
text contains a word or expression that refers to a concept that is completely unknown in the target culture, translation
problems may arise. Concepts specific to each culture may be related to the fields of religious beliefs, food, social
customs, politics, measurements, or name of place and people.
In a written text, different strategies may be adopted to deal with culture-specific items. The most common ones
are translating using a loan word, or loan word + explanation, and translation by culture substitution.
Cultural reference is even more important in the translation of films and in dubbing, as the film medium doesnt
allow the translator to add explanatory footnotes.
o When translators encounter such words or expressions, they should consider whether the target
audience would be able to retrieve the information needed in their world knowledge. The translators
themselves may not understand the reference and will need to do some research to understand what the
source text refers to.
o A common strategy in dubbing is that of cultural substitution. When proper names, events, institutions,
and the like are mentioned with which the target audience is unacquainted (historical figures, celebrities,
quotes) theres no sense in retaining them. Necessary background information lacking, understanding
would be forfeited. The elegant solution is to come up with equivalents triggering similar response.
Notting Hill (1999):
Ringo Starr > Roger Moore,
Toppy/Topol > Devoto/Devito,
Cookie Monster > Spice Girl.
The translator opted for another name, which is probably thought to be more familiar
to an Italian audience.
Name of places (Notting Hill Gate, Portobello Road, Kensington High Street) are kept
and not domesticated, as it is obviously from the film itself that the story takes place in
London, and in Notting Hill. Changing names of places would create a clash with
images.
Horse and Hound > Cavalli e Segugi.
The meaning of the original title of the magazine is used in the scene, and will generate
humour. As it was important that Italian viewers understood what the magazine dealt
with, the title had to be translated literally.

Languages have always been influenced by other languages through culture and language contact. The insertion in the
vocabulary of a language of new words from other languages is called borrowing. Borrowings can be divided into 2 broad
categories: loanwords (Anglicism) and calques.
An Anglicism is an English word which has become part of the vocabulary of the borrowing language. It is a
form of borrowing, a loanword in which the source word can maintain its original linguistic form, or be partially
adapted. There are 2 types of Anglicism:
1. Direct Anglicism: they maintain the original English linguistic form.
bed and breakfast, squatter, okay, airbag, babysitter, scooter, computer.
2. Adapted Anglicism (they modify the original linguistic form either orthographically or morphologically,
according to the rules of the borrowing language).
dribblare, scellino, sportivo, manageriale, dollaro.
Anglicisms seem extremely frequent in films which are aimed at a young audience, perhaps because young
people like and use words from English in everyday conversation.
In dubbed films, there are probably more calques than loanwords. Calques are less faithful copies of the English
linguistic item, as they do not reproduce completely the formal, external features of the original, but they adapt
the foreign word or expression. There are 2 types of calques:
 1. Lexical calques: take place when a word in the target language receives or adopts a new meaning, which
is derived from the foreign word.
Realizzare < realize, bene < well, prego < please.
2. Syntactic or structural calques: occur when, although elements of the target language are used, the
structure is that of the source language expressions.
Fine settimana < weekend, Posso aiutarla? < Can I help you?, mangiamorte < death eaters.
Dubbed films tend to remain closer to the syntactic structures of the original. The presence of semantic and
structural calques can be a sign that a dialogue is dubbed.
Most common calques in the language of dubbed films:
o Assolutamente (absolutely)
o Bene (well, in inizio frase, al posto di ecco)
o Ci puoi scommettere (you can bet, al posto di puoi starne certo, certamente)
o Dacci un taglio (cut it out, invece di smettila, piantala, finiscila)
o Esatto (exactly, invece di hai ragione)
o Fare la differenza (make the difference, al posto di essere importante, cambiare le cose)
o Lhai detto (you said it, invece di proprio cos)
o Nessun problema (no problem, al posto di non fa niente)
o Niente di personale (nothing personal, al posto di non ce lho con te)
o Scordatelo (forget about it, al posto di non importa, lascia stare)
o S signore/ No signore (yes sir/no sir, invece di s/no)
o Sicuro (sure, al posto di certo)
o Stai bene? (are you okay?, al posto di non ti senti bene?)
o Stai scherzando? (are you kidding?, al posto di dici sul serio?, scherzi?)

Collocation: occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text.
Words are usually not isolated but have a tendency to combine with other in a text, to co-occur in language, to form
multi-words unit.
go and see, law and order, soft drink, run a business, watch television, make a decision, brush your teeth.
Different languages contain different collocation patterns, or words that combine together. Risk of translator
remains too linked to the source language collocation and creates unnatural-sounding target language
collocations.
Italian dubbed film dialogues contain several unusual combinations of swearwords which are influenced by the
English collocations.
lurida mignotta, maledette puttanate, vigliacco cagasotto, fottiti amico!

Idioms: or idiomatic phrases, can be defined as fixed groups of words which allow little or no variation in form and
whose meaning is not entirely derivable from the sum of the meanings of the individual words. They are fixed multi-
words units whose meaning is not transparent.
How do you do?, Whats up?, give me a break, drive me crazy, change ones mind.
The difficulty for translators lies in recognising an idiom, and finding an appropriate equivalent in the target
language. They are not particularly frequent in conversation, as they are more typical of fiction, or advertising
texts.

Contemporary BrE and AmE films contain many swearwords, which tend to be used in the spoken language, and in
more informal registers, also when slang is used.
Swearwords have become more common in films since the 1950s, and have 2 functions:
1. To express hostility or rage
2. To convey familiarity or intimacy
Taboo language poses problems in translation, especially if the target culture doesnt accept certain words or
references to certain fields, or depending on the type of audience.
Taboo words are also subject to fixed, stock translation in dubbing. There are stereotyped Italian swearwords
which are derived from the language of dubbed films.
fottiti < fuck you, maledizione < goddamn, figlio di puttana < son of a bitch, merda < shit, bastardo < bastard.
 Swearwords do not carry propositional, but only evoked meaning, so they do not need to be translated literally,
or could be omitted without altering the propositional meaning of an utterance. They can thus be translated in a
more creative way, without looking for a semantic equivalent but for a swearword in the target language that
conveys a similar feeling or is used in similar contexts. The translator needs to take into consideration frequency
of use, and context of use in the two languages.
stronza < bitch, cazzo < fuck.
On a corpus of films, theres usually a tendency to omit or tone down the strength of vulgar words: Italian
dubbed versions contain less swearwords than the original dialogues
o Pulp Fiction (1994): 389 swearwords in English, 272 in Italian.

The presence of some written parts in another problem that translators of dubbed films may have to deal with. Several
strategies may be adopted, and the choice partially depends on the role of such captions in the film.
Some of these written parts can be left untranslated, as they do not need to be understood by the target
audience, but simply provide a sign of the foreignness of the film. However, there are some cases in which the
written language plays an important role in the film and it is shown in close-up so that the audience can and
should read it. In such cases, the translator needs to choose how to render the written words. 2 main strategies
can be adopted:
o Inserting subtitles
o Adding a voice-over which reads the words
The translation of written words through subtitles or voice-over always implies an addition to the source film,
and therefore a change in its psychological impact on the audience.

Humour, wordplay, and creative language pose great difficulties for translators.
Humour is particularly difficult to translate as it is closely linked to the language and culture of in which it
originates. In the case of film dialogue, the translation of wordplay is even more problematic, as puns on screen
may be intertwined with the images, depending on them, and being restricted by them. When translators are
faced by words and images that create humour, and are ambiguous, they resort to one of the following four
options:
1. Leave the pun unchanged and in the source language.
It is quite unlikely to occur in films as it would be almost impossible for the target audience to
understand the original pun.
2. Replace the source pun in the target language.
Probably the hardest option of all, because finding a pun in the target language which uses the same
elements is quite difficult.
3. Replace it with an idiomatic expression which may or may not contain an element of the source puns
core meaning.
4. Ignore it altogether.
This happens quite often in film translation, although one cannot know whether the omission of a pun
depends on a deliberate translation choice or is due to the translators inability to recognise the pun in
the source dialogue.
o When a pun is omitted in the dubbed version the Italian translator may adopt the
compensatory strategy of inserting a different pun in another part of the text even though at that
point there was no wordplay in the original.
The use of creative language or rhyming language in the original may pose translation problems, as the Italian
translator should attempt to recreate a similar effect on the target audience, manipulating a different language.
Poetry in one of the most difficult genre to translate, as its meaning is conveyed by the combination of words,
sounds, length, double or metaphorical meanings.