Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101

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Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint

Socio-ecology of Early and Middle Bronze Age communities in the

northwest Atlantic region of Iberia: Wood resources procurement and
forest management
Mara Martn-Seijo a, b, c, *, Joa
~o Pedro Tereso b, Ana M.S. Bettencourt c, d,
Hugo A. Sampaio , Emilio Abad Vidal e, Lorena Vidal Caeiro f
c

a
Study Group for the Prehistory of NW Iberia-GEPN (GI-1534), Department of History I, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela,
Spain
b
InBio e Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology (Associated Laboratory), CIBIO e Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic
Resources, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
c
Landscape, Heritage and Territory Laboratory (Lab2PT), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
d
Department of History, Social Sciences Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
e
CESGA e Centro de Supercomputacio n de Galicia, Spain
f
Zeta Arqueoloxa S.L, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper focuses on the web of relationships established between Early and Middle Bronze Age
Available online 6 September 2015 communities and their environment in Northwest Iberia. Charcoal remains recovered from settlements
and funerary sites in this area can inform a greater understanding of wood resource procurement and
Keywords: woodland management strategies adopted by these small-scale communities. Although charcoal analysis
Early Bronze Age of contexts with chronologies ranging from 2200 to 1200 cal. BC is not commonly undertaken in this
Middle Bronze Age
area, data from this period are of great importance because it represents a phase of major deforestation
Charcoal analysis
and landscape change. Wood resources were local and exploitation was conditioned by their availability
Woodland management
Wood resource procurement
in the environs of the sites. These communities established a clear preference for Quercus wood, com-
Northwest Iberia bined recurrently with shrubby species of the Fabaceae family. This co-occurrence, previously observed
in Middle and Late Bronze Age contexts, could extend back to the Early Bronze Age and even to the Late
Neolithic. The presence of small trees and shrubs such as Rosaceae/Maloideae and Corylus avellana could
be related with the open landscape that characterises this period, and with the existence of woodland
management practices designed to prevent forest regeneration.
2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction geomorphological characteristics, had already begun in prehistoric

Wood resource procurement during the Early and Middle
Bronze Age was determined both by resource availability and hu-
man choice (Pique , 2006). Regarding environmental setting,
climate and soil are usually considered to be the most relevant
drivers of plant distribution (Costa et al., 1998). However, even
though anthropogenic climate change is a recent trend, the human
capacity to change soil conditions, and even local
* Corresponding author. Study Group for the Prehistory of NW Iberia-GEPN (GI-
1534), Department of History I, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de
Compostela, Spain.
E-mail address: maria.martin.seijo@gmail.com (M. Martn-Seijo).
times, as studies in Northwest Iberia have demonstrated (Ramil-
Rego, 1993; Martnez-Cortizas et al., 1993, 2009).
Since at least the beginning of agriculture and pastoralism,
humaneenvironment relationships have inuenced plant distri-
bution, especially the composition and size of specic plant for-
mations (Ramil-Rego et al., 1998; Mun ~ oz-Sobrino et al., 2005;
Martnez-Cortizas et al., 2009; Lo pez-Merino et al., 2012). In this
sense, human communities and landscapes have co-evolved since
early times and anthropic activities have affected resource avail-
ability. To observe this transformation we must forget our notion of
objectied nature (Brck, 2000), because the relationship estab-
lished in the past between people, forest and resources was prob-
ably animistic, as demonstrated by anthropological research, and
perceived as a set of metaphorical links, without distinctions

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.026
1040-6182/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101 91

between self and other, objects and subjects, or human and animal
(Descola, 2001, 2002; Palsson, 2001; Viveiros de Castro, 2004). In-
teractions and interdependencies between plant resources and
people were established, creating a complex entanglement
(Hodder, 2011; Van der Veen, 2014).
Palynological studies in Northwest Iberia have enabled an
assessment of landscape reconstruction throughout the Holocene
(Ramil-Rego et al., 1998; Santos et al., 2000; Mun~ oz-Sobrino et al.,
2001, 2004, 2007; Mighall et al., 2006; Lo  pez-Merino et al., 2010,
2012). In the early part of this period, deciduous oak forests with
deciduous Quercus, Corylus avellana, Alnus, Ulmus and even Casta-
nea became slowly established in the region, to the detriment of
mixed forests of Pinus and Betula. Nevertheless, intra-regional dif-
ferences occur, reecting the geomorphological and bioclimatic
diversity of Northwest Iberia. As such, the establishment of decid-
uous oak and the retreat of Pinus and Betula occurred differently
within the region, particularly in the interior areas where
C. avellana is scarcer.
Despite some climatic uctuations throughout the Holocene,
particularly from the 5th millennium cal. BC onwards (i.e. the
Neolithic period), human pressure seems to have been the major
driver of landscape change (Ramil-Rego et al., 1998; Santos et al.,
2000; Mun ~ oz-Sobrino et al., 2001, 2004, 2007; Mighall et al.,
2006; Lo pez-Merino et al., 2010, 2012). These uctuations
continued throughout the 4th and 3rd millennia cal. BC, until the
beginning of the Bronze Age. Although climatic uctuations as
well as intra-regional differences occurred during this time-span,
there was also a tendency for a decrease in arboreal pollen, which

Fig. 1. Distribution of the North-west Atlantic sites occupied during the Early and Middle Bronze Age for which anthracological data were obtained.
92 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101

was documented alongside clear evidence of the use of re for
forest clearance, the expansion of nitrophilous plants and the
presence of cereals (Mun ~ oz-Sobrino et al., 2005; Martnez-
Cortizas et al., 2009). These trends were often accompanied by
signicant erosion episodes (Martnez-Cortizas et al., 1993, 2009;
Ramil-Rego, 1993; Ramil-Rego et al., 1998; Mun ~ oz-Sobrino et al.,
2005).
During the Bronze Age, an important regression of the forest
was identied over wide parts of Europe (French, 2010). In North-
west Iberia the phase of marked landscape change continued and
forest area decreased signicantly, the cause of which seems to
have been primarily anthropogenic, although it also coincided with
a phase of climatic deterioration that may have exacerbated the
effects of human activities (Martnez-Cortizas et al., 2009; Lo  pez-
Merino et al., 2010; Kaal et al., 2011). Between 2000 and
1500 cal. BC several pollen sequences from northwest Spain and
northwest Portugal show a decrease in arboreal pollen (e.g. Van
Mourik, 1986; Mun ~ oz-Sobrino et al., 1997; Lopez-Merino et al.,
2012). This coincides with an increase in the number of known
settlements, some of which were large-scale. In some areas these
sites seem to be related to an intensication of the re regime (Kaal
 pez-Merino et al., 2012); in other areas there is an
et al., 2011; Lo
increasing percentage of Cerealia pollen type indicative of agri-
 pez-Merino et al., 2010). These changes in land
cultural practices (Lo
use and vegetation patterns are contemporary with a new phase of
soil erosion and even soil acidication (Martnez-Cortizas et al.,
2009; Lo  pez-Merino et al., 2010).
reduction requires high temperatures and therefore larger quanti-
ties of wood.
The rst aim of this study was to identify the wood resources
consumed by human communities during the Early and Middle
Bronze Age (2300e1200 cal. BC). Charcoal analysis of sites of this
period in the northwest Atlantic region of Iberia is not commonly
undertaken and this study aimed to address this research gap. The
study presents data from ve open-air sites e Lamas de Abade
(Santiago de Compostela), A Pataqueira (Palas de Rei), and Chan das
Pozas (Campo Lameiro), all in northwest Spain, and Lavra (Mato-
sinhos) and Pego (Braga) in northwest Portugal (Fig. 1, Table 1) e
and from the funerary context of Vale do Cha ~o 1 (Bragal). The data
will be summarised and compared with other sites previously
studied by Bettencourt et al. (2007) and Figueiral (2000): Sola
(Braga), Vale Ferreiro (Fafe) and Penedos Grandes (Arcos de Val-
devez) in northwest Portugal.
This research also aims to provide a local approach to human-
environment dynamics, complementary to other regional proxies.
The study of peopleeforest interactions was addressed from a
paleoethnobotanical approach, since the nature of the archae-
obotanical assemblages makes other kinds of paleoenvironmental
interpretations of the charcoal data difcult. The third and nal goal
of this paper was to dene and describe the forest management
practices developed by these groups. Wood resources were
essential to the day-to-day life of these Bronze Age communities,
and a complex entanglement was established between plants and
humans (Hodder, 2011; Van der Veen, 2014).

Table 1
14
Chronology of contexts with charcoal analyses: C dates calibrated using Oxcal 4.2 (curve IntCal 13) (Reimer et al. 2013).

Site Conventional radiocarbon age (BP) 2 Sigma calibrated result (BC) Laboratory reference

Vale Ferreiro 3674 44 2151e1939 AA89669

Lamas de Abade 3530 40 1971e1745 Beta-289832
A Pataqueira 3460 30 1881e1692 Beta-308701
Sola IIa 3450 37 1883e1682 CSIC-1139
Sola IIb 3343 30 1693e1596 UtC-5657
3338 33 1692e1529 CSIC-1186
3315 40 1689e1504 UtC-4785
3310 110 1891e1386 ICEN-1274
Lavra 3230 40 1611e1430 Beta-258086
~o 1
Vale do Cha 3156 41 1516e1373 AA89665
A Pataqueira 3140 30 1497e1377 Beta-308703
Chan das Pozas 3080 60 1462e1192 Beta-267356
Penedos Grandes 3084 30 1420e1266 CSIC-1833
Pego 3086 43 1436e1229 AA89668

Considering the impact of Early and Middle Bronze Age human
communities on regional environmental trends in terms of vege-
tation and soils, it is of signicant interest to evaluate the direct
evidence of the human actions that led to such changes, as well as
the social and economic context in which they occurred (settle-
ment type, duration of occupation, group size, technological
development, etc.). Although most anthropogenic deforestation
was likely related to the necessity of clearing new agricultural elds
and pastureland, the study of the wood that was used in daily ac-
tivities for construction, objects and fuel gives valuable insights into
wood procurement and the relationship between human commu-
nities and their environment (Figueiral and Mosbrugger, 2000;
Pique , 2006; Martn-Seijo, 2013a). It is also during this period
that copper mining developed (Bettencourt, 2013; Pontevedra-
Pombal et al., 2013) and bronze metallurgy was adopted. Moulds
and casting drops were found in some archaeological sites
(Bettencourt, 2000; Senna-Martnez et al., 2011). These metallur-
gical activities, particularly those associated with bronze produc-
tion, would have exerted pressure on the landscape, as tin
2. Archaeological context
The Bronze Age populations of Northwest Iberia built their
settlements in lower elevations or sheltered areas, although higher
elevation and mountainous sites were also occupied (Bettencourt,
2013). The settlement distribution was probably inuenced by cli-
matic conditions during the Neoglaciation period, which was
established between 2500 and 1600e1400 BC (Fa bregas Valcarce
et al., 2003; Martnez-Cortizas et al., 2009). These settlements
were built using perishable materials, the only surviving remains of
which are subsurface features, such as ditches, pits and post-holes.
Their wooden huts were constructed using intertwined branches,
clay and compacted soil (Bettencourt, 2013).
Until recently, Early Bronze Age (2300e1600 cal. BC) settle-
ment data was scarce, in contrast to funerary contexts, which have
a greater tradition of research in Northwest Iberia. Funerary sites
are not linked to settlements and express a great variability in
terms of location and context, including small, low cairns within
or on the edge of large megalithic cemeteries in use since the
 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101
Neolithic, caves and copper mine galleries in mountainous areas,
cists, at graves and pits without tumuli in the lowlands
(Bettencourt, 2008, 2010). The only Early Bronze Age funerary site
where charcoal analyses were carried out to date is Vale Ferreiro,
which presented evidence of the construction of exceptional
subterranean tombs (tombs 1 and 2), as well as one at grave
(tomb 3) and pits. This site has been interpreted as being related
to the cult of the dead and the ancestors (Bettencourt et al., 2005;
Sampaio, 2014).
The scarcity of domestic sites may indicate a degree of mobility,
with groups probably staying in the same location for only a few
years, perhaps until the exhaustion of farmland and pastures
(Bettencourt, 2013). However, the possibility that the difculty in
locating such sites in valleys and lower elevations is a consequence
of subsequent sedimentary events should not be discounted
(Martnez-Cortizas et al., 2009). There are examples of settlements
located in valleys with agricultural potential (e.g. A Pataqueira and
Sola IIa) and in areas favourable to pastoral activities (e.g. Lamas de
Abade). All of these sites were discovered during the course of
infrastructural works or quarry exploitations. Little is still known
about the overall size of these settlements and the number of
people who inhabited them.
Apart from husbandry or shepherding activities, these pop-
ulations were also producers of salt and gatherers of copper (native
or carbonated), which they used in the production of artefacts
(Bettencourt, 2013). Although no remains of metallurgy in North-
west Iberia from this period have been reported, geochemical an-
alyses of peat cores show heavy metal contamination from the 3rd
millennium BC onwards, probably related to this kind of activity
(Pontevedra-Pombal et al., 2013).
Middle Bronze Age (1600e1200 cal. BC) settlements in valleys
include A Pataqueira (Vidal Caeiro, 2011), Sola IIb (Bettencourt,
2000), and the occupation ex nihilo of Pego (Sampaio, 2014) and
Lavra (Bettencourt and Fonseca, 2011). Chan das Pozas (Martn-
Seijo, 2013b; Me ndez and Lo pez, 2013) and Penedos Grandes
(Bettencourt, 2013) are examples of settlements located in shel-
tered and well-irrigated areas of mountains. With the exception of
sites located in mountainous areas, these settlements were prob-
ably larger than those in the preceding period and probably sup-
ported a less mobile population. This could be related to a number
of factors, including the introduction of new crops such as Panicum
miliaceum, which has been found at Sola IIb. This spring cereal
reduces the risk of hunger in the case of a poor harvest of winter
crops (Bettencourt, 2003, 2013).
New funerary practices arose during the Middle Bronze Age,
with inhumation cemeteries of cists and at graves containing
standardised grave goods appearing in the vicinity of settlement
areas (Bettencourt, 2008). Other funerary rites such as crema-
tion probably also persisted. Charcoal analyses from this period
were carried out at Vale Ferreiro and Vale de Cha ~o 1. In the
former, a at grave and several pits possibly associated with
funerary and ceremony activities were identied (Sampaio,
2014). At Vale de Cha ~o 1, there was an Early Bronze Age
(1976e1749 cal. BC) tumular structure which was reused during
the Middle Bronze Age (Vilas Boas, 2014; Vilas Boas and Martn-
Seijo, 2014).
3. Material and methods
3.1. Field sampling strategies
This study presents the charcoal analyses of six archaeological
sites. As the archaeological excavations were carried out by
different teams, there are signicant differences between the sites
in terms of eld methods and sampling strategies:
93
- A Pataqueira (500 m.a.s.l.). Systematic sampling took place
during the archaeological excavation of the site (JanuaryeMarch
2011). Twelve sediment samples from the lls of pits, huts, post
holes and ditches were selected and processed, but only two
samples could be related to the Early and Middle Bronze Age
occupations. The volume of soil samples processed ranged from
2 to 17 L. The charcoal was recovered by otation in the labo-
ratory using 2.1 and 0.5 mm meshes.
- Lamas de Abade (220 m.a.s.l.). Samples were collected during
the archaeological excavation of 2010. The sampling strategy
focused on several structures: huts, hearths and ditches linked
to different phases of occupation during the 3rd to 2nd
millennia cal. BC. Sediment samples were processed in the
laboratory and one hundred fragments from an Early Bronze Age
hearth were identied.
- Chan das Pozas (251 m.a.s.l.). Systematic sampling took place
during the excavation of this site in 2008, combining soil and
grab samples. The bulk samples recovered from hut foundations
were processed in the laboratory by otation using 2.1 and
0.5 mm meshes. Two samples dating to the Middle Bronze Age
were selected.
- Pego (220 m.a.s.l.). Systematic sampling took place during the
archaeological excavation of the site between 2003 and 2010.
The archaeobotanical remains were recovered in the eld by
otation of the sediments. Only one sample recovered from a
hearth was dated to the Middle Bronze Age.
- Lavra (15 m.a.s.l.). The site was excavated over the course of a
month in 2004. The archaeobotanical remains were recovered
by dry sieving in the eld. One sample from a dispersed deposit
was interpreted as a layer linked to the occupation or the
abandonment of the site, and three samples came from
concentrated deposits e two pits and one posthole.
- Vale de Ch~ ao 1 (440 m.a.s.l.). This funerary monument was
excavated during 2007, 2009 and 2010. In the last two cam-
paigns systematic sampling was carried out, and charcoal was
recovered by dry sieving in the eld. Charcoal was recovered
from a at grave in a tumular structure.
3.2. Charcoal identication
Only samples with a clear adscription to Early and Middle
Bronze Age contexts were selected; most came from contexts dated
by radiocarbon (Fig. 2). This careful selection is essential in Bronze
Age sites characterized by long-lasting and recurring occupations
that complicate the attribution of chronologies to archaeobotanical
samples. This was the case at Lamas de Abade, which was occupied
repeatedly during the 3rd and 2nd millennia cal. BC, and at A
Pataqueira and Pego with occupations spanning the Early to Late
Bronze Age.
No distinction was made between concentrated and scattered
charcoal, because charred wood remains from occupation layers
were only recovered in one deposit at the site of Lavra. The charcoal
studied was recovered from primary and secondary depositions
(Schiffer, 1987; LaMotta and Schiffer, 1999). Primary deposition
represents charcoal that is recovered in the place where they were
used or produced: hearths, kilns or destructions levels where
timber was burned and afterwards found in situ (Schiffer, 1987).
Secondary deposition is a depletion process involving the removal
of refuse from an activity area and its deposition in a spatially
removed location (Lamotta and Schiffer, 1999), including charcoal
inlling of hut foundations, pits, postholes and ditches during
maintenance activities or as a result of atmospheric and biological
agents (Schiffer, 1987). During the Bronze Age it is also important to
note the existence of deliberate structured depositions within pits,
94 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101

Fig. 2. Contexts of provenance of charcoal samples. Open air settlements: A Pataqueira: a) irregular pit (GE003) and b) post-holes (GE104). Pego: c) hearth. Chan das Pozas: d) hut.
Lavra: e) post-holes. Funerary context: f) Vale de Ch~ao 1.

postholes and ditches which could involve the deposition of char-
coal among other materials (Brck, 2006; Brudenell and Cooper,
2008).
Using a reected light microscope, each charcoal fragment was
taxonomically identied according to the specic anatomical
patterns on the three sections of wood e cross, tangential and
radial. These identications were based on wood anatomy atlases
and their identication keys (Schweingruber, 1990; Gale and
and the pit (Structure 003) at A Pataqueira. For the rest of the
samples, taxonomic curves were used according to the methodol-
ogy established by Chabal (1997) and a minimum of one hundred
fragments per sample were identied (Fig. 3).
Table 2
Absolute frequency of charcoal taxa in Early Bronze Age contexts.

Cutler, 2000; Hather, 2000). To contextualize these results Open-air settlements

archaeobotanical data of this area were compiled. In order to
Sites Lamas de Abade A Pataqueira
facilitate comparison between sites analysed by various re- Stratigraphic Units 46B 0031
searchers using different methodologies, botanical nomenclature Structures ES46 003
was homogenized, e.g. Quercus suber, Quercus ilex and Quercus Contexts Hearth Pit
Sample recovery Flotation Flotation
evergreen were included in the same morphotype as Quercus sp.
Chronologies (cal BC) 1963e1745 1881e1692
evergreen. Quercus sp. deciduous 96 21
Differences between sites regarding the number of charcoal Fabaceae 19
remains studied were conditioned by the abundance or scarcity of Rosaceae/Maloideae 1
charcoal in the archaeological contexts (Tables 2 and 3). When the Prunus sp. 3
Non-identiable 1 1
number of charcoal remains was low, all fragments greater than
Nb. of fragments 100 42
0.3 cm were analysed. This was the case for all the contexts at Lavra
 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101 95

Table 3
Absolute frequency of charcoal taxa in Middle Bronze Age contexts.

Open-air settlements Funerary monument

Sites Lavra A Pataqueira Chan das Pozas Pego Vale do Cha~o

Stratigraphic Units 11 702 703 801 1040 010 e 1B
Structures e e e e 104 005 e Structure 1
Contexts Pit Deposit Post-hole Pit Post-hole Hut Hearth Grave
Sample recovery Dry sieving Flotation Flotation Manual Flotation Dry sieving
Chronologies (cal BC) 1611e1430 1497e1377 1460e1200 1414e1312 1516e1373
Quercus sp. deciduous 7 7 1 73 81 12 61 167
Fabaceae 5 19 5 1 26 41 2 24 4
Rosaceae/Maloideae 2 2 5 2
Corylus avellana 1 3
Fraxinus sp. 4 2
Salix/Populus 6
Frangula alnus 1
Ilex aquifolium 1
Quercus sp. evergreen 1 1 3
Quercus/Castanea 1
Arbutus unedo 21 34
Pinus pinea/pinaster 4
Betula sp. 2
Cistus sp. 1
Quercus sp. 2
Pteridium aquilinum 5 1
Dicots 1 1 1 1
Nb. of fragments 5 32 29 5 100 150 50 100 174

3.3. Dendrological and taphonomical attributes
In order to characterise the kind of wood resources managed,
several dendrological attributes were recorded for each charcoal
fragment. Where anatomical and morphological characteristics
were identiable, the part of the plant (i.e. trunk, twig, root, etc.)
was recorded (Schweingruber et al., 2008). The qualitative deter-
mination of tree-ring curvature (i.e. weak, moderate, strong and
indeterminate) helped to estimate the calibre of the wood. A strong
or marked curve corresponds to the branches or to the inner part of
a trunk or a branch, and a weak or smooth curve corresponds to the
outer part of the tree trunk (Marguerie and Hunot, 2007). The
maturity of the wood was established by distinguishing between
heartwood and sapwood by the presence or absence of inclusions
such as tyloses (Taylor et al., 2002; Schweingruber et al., 2008).
Where present, the complete diameter of the stem was measured
(Marguerie and Hunot, 2007). If bark was also preserved, the cut-
ting season was recorded. Where both bark and pith were present,
the number of annual rings was counted (Morgan, 1988). In addi-
tion, several dendrological features related to the conditions of
plant growth were determined, such as compartmentalization,
growth rhythm alterations, and reaction wood (Schweingruber
et al., 2008).
Alterations related to the presence of biodeterioration of wood
were also recorded, providing information about the state of wood
before burning. The presence of xylophage's galleries indicates the
action of entomofauna and the presence of white laments in
cross-sections of vessels correspond to fungal hyphae that pene-
trate into the dead or dying wood (Marguerie and Hunot, 2007).
The preservation of both fungal hyphae and evidence of post-re
wood deterioration allowed for the recognition of pre-burning
microbial activity (Moskal-del-Hoyo et al., 2010).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Wood resources
Wood resources were embedded in the social, ritual and
economic life of these small-scale societies, requiring tending,
conservation and protection if they were to exist in the ways
that humans wanted them (Hodder, 2011). The identication of
trees and shrubs that had entered into an intimate relationship
with these communities through their use as rewood could be
a way of approaching the reciprocal relationships established
during the Bronze Age between plants and people (Van der
Veen, 2014). However, the complex web of relations woven be-
tween humans and wood resources lies not only in the pro-
curement of rewood, as forest and scrubland also provide
timber and light building materials, wood and bres for manu-
facture and basketry, fodder, stable litter, fertilizer, fruits, etc.
Wood resources are also connected with natural dependences in
ecosystems, and sometimes human and animal inuence fav-
oured the spreading of species induced by burning, grazing,
hunting, etc.
Data regarding wood resources procurement by Early Bronze
Age communities were obtained from two open-air settlements e
Lamas de Abade (1936e1745 cal. BC) and A Pataqueira
(1881e1692 cal. BC) (Table 2). In the case of Lamas de Abade, the
only sample of this date was recovered from a hearth, which
presented little taxonomic variability, as is characteristic of this
kind of structure. Only Quercus sp. deciduous and Prunus sp. were
identied. Two of the Quercus charcoal fragments were affected by
the action of xylophages, and hyphae were also observed in one of
the fragments. Quercus sp. deciduous, woody legumes of the
Fabaceae family and Rosaceae/Maloideae were recovered from the
ll of an irregular pit at A Pataqueira. In this sample, narrow rings
related with alterations of the rhythm of growth were identied in
three Quercus charcoal fragments. The fragment of Rosaceae/
Maloideae was a small branch, 0.3 cm in diameter, with 4 annual
rings. Its season of death was coincident with the latewood,
indicating that it was probably cut in autumnewinter. These
charcoal data could be complemented with those registered at the
open air settlement of Sola IIa (1883e1666 cal. BC) where both
evergreen and deciduous Quercus, along with Fabaceae, Rosaceae/
Maloideae, Corylus avellana, Salix/Populus and Quercus/Castanea
were identied scattered in a deposit (Figueiral, 2000)
(Table 4).
96 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101

Table 4
Habitational contexts: absolute frequency of the charcoal identication of Sola and presence/absence of Penedos Grandes (After Figueiral, 2000 and Bettencourt et al., 2007).

Open-air settlements

Sites Sola Penedos Grandes

Phases IIa IIb
Contexts Deposit Cist Deposit Deposit Deposit Pit 1 Pit 2 Pit3/4 Pit 5 Pit 7 Pit 8 Hearth Deposit
Chronologies (cal BC) 1883e1666 1891e1386 1733e1532 1733e1532 1733e1532 1731e1529 1420e1266
1689e1504
Quercus sp. deciduous 52 3 33 92 26 18 10 15 2 2  
Fabaceae 50 27 1 14 7 22 28 7  
Quercus sp. evergreen 1 3 28 2  
Quercus sp. 4 1 3 7 1 
Salix/Populus 2 1 3 1 2 1
Rosaceae/Maloideae 6 3 2 20
Corylus avellana 6 1 10
Quercus/Castanea 1 5
Pinus pinaster 2 1
Erica sp. 1 2
Sambucus sp. 1 
Prunus sp. 1
Fraxinus sp. 2
Acer sp. 1
Hedera helix 1
Gimnospermae 1
Alnus/Corylus 1
Pinus sp. 1
Cistaceae 2
cf. Hedera helix 1
Non-identiable 2 4 1 2 1 2
Nb. of fragments 124 5 82 6 146 44 63 10 62 4 10 e e

In the case of Middle Bronze Age contexts, the settlement of
Lavra (1611e1430 cal. BC) was one of the sites with higher taxo-
nomic variability (Table 3). Within the pit lled by SU 11, only 5
fragments of charcoal, all of Fabaceae, were recovered. In the other
pit, Quercus sp. deciduous, Fraxinus sp. and Ilex aquifolium were
identied. Hyphae were present in a Fraxinus charcoal. The pres-
ence of I. aquifolium in charcoal samples is very infrequent,
although this evergreen tree grows in association with the
temperate mixed woodlands that constitute the regional climactic
forests. One fragment was identied in the Early Bronze Age site of
Monte Calvo, which is located in the Mediterranean region of
Northwest Iberia (Martn-Seijo et al., 2012). Quercus, Fabaceae,
Rosaceae/Maloideae and Fraxinus were identied in the sample
recovered from the occupation oor, SU 702. The greatest number
of different taxa e Quercus sp. deciduous, Fabaceae, Rosaceae/
Maloideae, C. avellana, Salix/Populus, Betula sp., Cistus sp., Frangula
alnus and Pinus pinea/pinaster e were identied in the post-hole,
suggesting a gradual inlling with domestic debris that included
charcoal, possibly as a result of maintenance activities. Several
charcoal fragments from this structure were affected by biological
degradation or presented alterations related to growth conditions
e one charcoal fragment of Salix/Populus was affected by hyphae
and another one presented a scar; compression wood was observed
in a pine fragment; and one of the Quercus fragments presented
narrow rings.
Quercus sp. deciduous and Fabaceae were associated within the
inlling of a post-hole in the settlement of A Pataqueira
(1497e1377 cal. BC). One of the Quercus fragments presented nar-
row rings. Analysis of the charcoal assemblage of Chan das Pozas
(1460e1200 cal. BC), which was recovered from a hut foundation,
showed the predominance of Quercus sp. deciduous, followed by
Fabaceae and Arbutus unedo, with the occasional presence of
Pteridium aquilinum and Quercus sp. evergreen. One of the Quercus
charcoals was affected by xylophages. The signicant presence of
A. unedo e both in otation and grab samples, where it is over-
represented in the latter e could be related to specic environ-
mental conditions of the site, arising from the southern orientation
of the slope, and also to anthropic pressure on the forest (Kaal et al.,
2011). The presence of P. aquilinum is infrequent and could be
associated with its use as raw material for roong or even as re-
wood when dry. Pedoanthracological and palinological studies
carried out in the environs of this site demonstrated that during the
Bronze and Iron Ages there was a regression of forest cover, as
indicated by the low presence of Quercus charcoal, and an expan-
sion of the scrubland formations with a high presence of Erica and
abundance of Fabaceae. Disturbances related to grazing and cereal
cultivation were also recorded (Carrio  n et al., 2010; Kaal et al.,
2011). The decrease of forest cover, as indicated by to the signi-
cant presence of A. unedo and Fabaceae, along with P. aquilinum,
could be related to burning episodes. The presence and percentages
of these three taxa were also linked to the rewood preferences of
the inhabitants of this site.
The hearth at Pego (1414e1312 cal. BC) registered a high taxo-
nomic variability not usual in this kind of structure, with Quercus
sp. deciduous and evergreen, Fabaceae, Rosaceae/Maloideae and
C. avellana present. Xylophage's galleries were observed in one of
the Fabaceae fragments. Previous data could be compared with the
IIb occupation phase of Sola (1731e1529 cal. BC) and Penedos
Grandes (1420e1266 cal. BC). Charcoal analysis of samples from
Sola IIb indicates the gathering of Quercus, Fabaceae, Rosaceae/
Maloideae and Salix/Populus (Figueiral, 2000). In this case, the
rewood consumed in specialised features, such as pits 7 and 8 that
were related to metallurgical activities, was Quercus, Fabaceae and
Salix/Populus, showing no signicant difference regarding the other
contexts of this site other than the smaller diversity of taxa. This
combination of wood species was also observed in the metallur-
gical contexts of the Late Bronze Age site of Cocin ~ adoiro (Martn
Seijo, 2012) but the small size of the assemblages from metallur-
gical contexts at Sola IIb demands caution in interpretation. Char-
coal assemblages from Penedos Grandes conrmed the use of
deciduous and evergreen Quercus, Fabaceae and Sambucus sp. as
rewood (Bettencourt et al., 2007).
In relation to funerary contexts, samples from the Early Bronze
Age contexts of Vale Ferreiro (2151e1939 cal. BC) indicate the
 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101 97

consumption of both deciduous and evergreen Quercus, Fabaceae

and Salix/Populus (Table 5) (Bettencourt et al., 2007). The Middle
Bronze Age assemblage recovered from structure 1 of Vale do Cha ~o
1 (1516e1373 cal. BC) revealed the in situ burning of oak, together
with Rosaceae/Maloideae and Fabaceae (Table 3). Hyphae were
identied in one of the Quercus charcoal fragments. The shape,
dimension and context of this structure indicate that it could be a
at grave. The abundance of charcoal fragments from oak trunks,
along with some branches of Rosaceae/Maloideae and Fabaceae,
which were burned in a primary context, suggests that this repre-
sents the practice of a ceremony involving re, perhaps in situ
cremation. This would not be unprecedented, as a carbonised
wooden cofn was found in the necropolis of Cimalha (Felgueiras)
within a grave containing an Early or Middle Bronze Age ceramic
vessel (Almeida and Fernandes, 2008; Bettencourt, 2010).

Table 5
Funerary context: presence/absence of taxa in Vale Ferreiro (After Bettencourt et al.,
2007).

Funerary structures

Site Vale Ferreiro

Structures Pit 4 Pit 3 Pit 7 Flat grave-T3
Chronology (cal BC) 2151e1939
Quercus sp. deciduous    
Fabaceae  
Quercus sp. evergreen 
Quercus sp.  
Salix/Populus 

The tree-ring curvature of Quercus showed a clear predomi-

nance of weak curvature in most of the samples from Early and
Middle Bronze Age contexts, except in Chan das Pozas and Pego
where fragments with moderate and strong tree-ring curvature
prevail (Fig. 4). It could indicate a preference for big branches or
trunks in the case of Quercus. In most of the cases the fragments
correspond to the heartwood. Technological changes during this
period involving the incorporation of bronze tools could have
inuenced the relation established between these communities
and wood resources. The efciency of the toolkit used for wood
procurement was improved by the incorporation of metal axes that
reduced the time invested in felling trees and made the felling of
larger trees easier (Mathieu and Meyer, 1997). The presence of
galleries of xylophages and hyphae laments in Quercus wood
could be related to the harvesting of dead wood or its storage before
burning. Twigs and branches of other taxa were also consumed as
rewood in A Pataqueira, Lavra, Chan das Pozas and Pego, probably
as the result of coppicing and pruning of lower and small branches Fig. 3. Saturation curves for taxa occurrence in sampled assemblages (LAM: Lamas de
Abade, PAT: A Pataqueira, CHA: Chan das Pozas, PEG: Pego).
of some trees and shrubs or the harvesting of dead wood (Fig. 5).

4.2. Forest management
Forest management involved all the actions undertaken by
these small-scale communities in the forests and scrublands. Early
and Middle Bronze Age groups consumed only local wood re-
sources that were procured in the surroundings of the settlements
and gathered as part of their daily routines in different biotopes:
mixed deciduous forests, scrubland areas and riparian woodlands.
Chan das Pozas is a good example of a site where the species
identied in the archaeological context coincide with pedoan-
n et al., 2010).
thracological analyses (Kaal et al., 2013, 2011; Carrio
The best represented biotope in all the sites considered is the
mixed deciduous forest, including mainly deciduous Quercus,
accompanied by species growing in woodland, hedgerows and
wood-borders such as Rosaceae/Maloideae, Prunus sp., Fraxinus sp.,
F. alnus, Sambucus sp., Acer sp. and I. aquifolium. As mentioned
previously, mixed deciduous forests, where pedunculate oak
(Quercus robur) was dominant, were the most abundant vegetation
in the Atlantic or Eurosiberian phytogeographic zone since the
Early Holocene (Ramil-Rego et al., 1998; Santos et al., 2000; Mun~ oz-
 pez-Merino
Sobrino et al., 2001, 2004, 2007; Mighall et al., 2006; Lo
et al., 2010, 2012). The abundance of taxa from this biotope in the
charcoal assemblages reveals not only its relevance within the
regional landscape but also the role that Bronze Age communities
had in its evolution, through cutting and management for day-to-
day activities. This management led to the spread of scrubland
which is also well represented in the archaeological sites.
Shrubby areas were also frequented for gathering fuel. Charcoal
assemblages indicate the presence of Atlantic and Mediterranean
scrublands comprising Fabaceae, Cistus sp. and Erica sp., and even
A. unedo. This suggests the existence of different successional
stages, e.g. Cistus usually occurs in more degraded soils while
98 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101

160

140

120

100

80

60 Strong
Moderate
40
Weak-Moderate
20
Weak
0

CHA-Hut05
APA-Pit-031

LAV-Deposit-702

VAL-Grave
LAM-Hearth-ES46

LAV-Post-hole-703

APA-Post-hole-104

PEG-Hearth
Early Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age

Fig. 4. Absolute frequency of Quercus sp. deciduous tree-ring curvature (LAM: Lamas de Abade; LAV: Lavra; APA: A Pataqueira, VAL: Vale do Ch~ao, CHA: Chan das Pozas, PEG: Pego).

160

140

120

100

80

60
Strong
40 Moderate
20 Weak

0
CHA-Hut05
APA-Pit-031

LAV-Deposit-702

VAL-Grave
LAV-Post-hole-703

APA-Post-hole-104

PEG-Hearth
LAM-Hearth-ES46

Early Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age

~o, CHA: Chan das Pozas, PEG:

Fig. 5. Absolute frequency of tree-ring curvature in the other woody taxa (LAM: Lamas de Abade; LAV: Lavra; APA: A Pataqueira, VAL: Vale do Cha
Pego).

A. unedo occurs frequently in more developed successional stages, could indicate a funerary or ritual function. The presence of
together with other tall shrubs or small trees. The presence of these P. pinaster in the Late Bronze Age site of Santinha (Amares), where
shrub communities in the landscape increased during the Bronze pine needles and charcoal fragments were associated with a
Age (Kaal et al., 2013). ceramic vase close to a cist, could be another example of the rela-
Other biotopes where wood resources were procured less tion of pine with funerary ceremonies (Figueiral and Bettencourt,
frequently were riparian woodlands, represented by species such as 2004).
Alnus sp. and Salix/Populus, and C. avellana, which could be part of Charcoal data demonstrate that there was a continuum in wood
both wood-borders and river banks. Finally, in the coastal area the resources procurement by human communities of the Atlantic re-
consumption of P. pinea/pinaster as rewood was also identied. gion of Northwest Iberia since the Early Bronze Age and probably
The presence of pine during Late Prehistory in Northwest Atlantic since the Late Neolithic (Vernet and Figueiral, 1993; Figueiral and
Iberia was sporadic and limited to coastal areas, whereas in Bettencourt, 2004; Martn-Seijo et al., 2012; Martn-Seijo and
northeast and central-east Portugal it had a signicant presence Pique, 2013). These mobile groups repeatedly occupied settle-
(Figueiral, 1995; Figueiral and Bettencourt, 2004). Pine was also ments over long periods of time, inuencing their forest landscape
identied inside a Middle Bronze Age cist-like structure from Sola and exerting an intense pressure on the oak forest. The tree-ring
IIb (Figueiral, 2000). The morphology and small size of this struc- curvatures of the charcoal indicate a different gathering pattern
ture, in combination with its position close to similar features, between oak and other woody taxa (Figs. 4 and 5). Weak curvatures
 M. Martn-Seijo et al. / Quaternary International 437 (2017) 90e101
are predominant in oak charcoal, while moderate and strong cur-
vatures are found more frequently in other taxa, including scrub,
bushes and small trees. Only the Middle Bronze Age assemblages of
Chan das Pozas and Pego do not match with the aforementioned
scheme e in both sites fragments of oak with moderate and strong
tree-ring curvatures were identied predominantly. These differ-
ences between sites could be the consequence of a change in the
procurement of wood resources or could be related to the different
formation processes of the assemblages. To elaborate a denitive
hypothesis the number of samples and contexts must be increased.
The plant and people interconnections established during this
period could be exemplied by the presence of synanthropic spe-
cies e i.e. Fabaceae and Pteridium e that have entered into a
mutualistic relationship with these human communities. Lamas de
Abade was the only case where no Fabaceae species were docu-
mented, despite this site being occupied since at least the begin-
ning of the 3rd millennium cal. BC. The presence of these shrubby
species in this site is dated to 1261e996 cal. BC (Martn-Seijo et al.,
2012). While the evidence of human pressure suggested by char-
coal analyses tallies with palynological data for the region, the
scarcity of Erica and the abundance of Fabaceae charcoal in the
archaeological sites shows a clear contrast with the palynological
series of the region (Ramil-Rego et al., 1998). This can be explained
at least partially by the well-known differences in pollen produc-
tion and dispersal that tends to under-represent Fabaceae (Figueiral
and Bettencourt, 2004). Although this explains the discrepancy
between archaeological and palynological records, it does not
justify the scarcity of Erica in the archaeological sites. However, this
must not be seen as evidence for premeditated avoidance of Erica as
rewood. It is possible that such differences result from the
different location between the Bronze Age settlements (mostly in
the lowlands) and the most suitable places for pollen sequences
(middle or high altitude mountains).
Relations established between Bronze Age communities and the
woody species of the Fabaceae family formed part of a complex web
of interdependences. Resources provide by these species were
diverse, including fuel, light building material, raw material for
 pez, 2002;
tools and basketry, fodder, stable litter, fertilizer, etc. (Lo
Carvalho, 2005). These plants colonised clearings, abandoned elds
or pastures, protecting soil from erosion and improving its fertility
(Figueiral and Bettencourt, 2007). Their regenerative capacity
guarantees the cyclical renovation of resources. These plants were
also favoured by the relation established with human communities,
thus they would grow in the surroundings of the settlements: in
clearings opened in the mixed deciduous forests, in the margins of
the elds and in areas affected by res. The use of re for forest
management was probably a common practice of these Bronze Age
communities and Chan das Pozas is a good example of the
humanere landscape interactions (Kaal et al., 2011, 2013).
Forest management practices developed by these groups could
be related also to the recurrent presence of Rosaceae/Maloideae,
C. avellana and Prunus sp. The procurement of these wild species,
appreciated not only for their wood and fuel, but also for their
fruits, could also be related to forest management practices aimed
at preventing forest regeneration. Although carpological remains
of these species are not common in archaeological contexts of
Northwest Iberia, their consumption has been documented since
the Mesolithic period in other areas of the Iberian Peninsula
(Zapata, 2000). The presence of such species could have been
favoured by simple forest practices such as the opportunistic
transport of seeds, selection of plants, creation of discontinuities
inside the forest e clearings, cuts, res, etc. e that improve their
growing, spreading or fructication. The existence of this kind of
practice is extremely difcult to identify in the archaeobotanical
record.
99
5. Conclusions
General trends can be observed regarding wood resources
procurement by Early and Middle Bronze Age communities. The
procurement of wood was adapted to its availability in the sur-
roundings of the settlements or funerary places. Charcoal analysis
indicates that these small-scale societies established a clear
preference for Quercus wood, which palynological data has
demonstrated was predominant in the deciduous forests that
dominated the landscape of Northwest Iberia during this period.
Quercus wood was combined in the majority of the sites (except
in Lamas de Abade) with the gathering of scrub species such as
those included in the Fabaceae family. This co-occurrence was
previously observed by Figueiral and Bettencourt (2004) in
Middle and Late Bronze Age contexts. Current charcoal data could
extend this association of species back to the Early Bronze Age
and increase the number of Middle Bronze Age sites where both
species were documented together in the Atlantic region of
Northwest Iberia. The preference for both species was established
probably since the Late Neolithic but charcoal samples of this
date are still scarce (Vernet and Figueiral, 1993; Figueiral and
Bettencourt, 2004; Martn-Seijo et al., 2012; Martn-Seijo and
Pique, 2013). The comparison with other paleoecological data
demonstrates that such long-term use of Quercus wood, together
with the development of animal and plant husbandry, had major
impacts on deciduous oak forests (Martnez-Cortizas et al., 2009;
pez-Merino et al., 2010; Kaal et al., 2011). Such impacts
Lo
increased in the Bronze Age.
The recurring presence of small trees and shrubs, including
Fabaceae and also Rosaceae/Maloideae, C. avellana, Prunus sp.
and A. unedo, was identied. Clear differences arose between
Quercus and other taxa regarding tree-ring curvatures and the
part consumed: weak curvatures predominate in Quercus wood
while in other trees and shrubs strong and moderate curvatures
were frequent, indicating the presence of twigs and branches of
these species. These results showed the potential of recording
dendrological features to characterise wood resources procure-
ment and woodland management beyond taxonomical
identication.
Acknowledgements
Mara Martn-Seijo was funded by a Post-Doc Grant Plan I2C
mod. A with the project Ale n do bosque na Idade do Bronce do
ria. Estudo dos combustibles e das manufacturas en
Noroeste da Ibe
cnico-operativa. The charcoal analysis
madeira a partir da cadea te
was carried out in the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory of
the InBio- Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary
Biology (Associated Laboratory)/CIBIOeResearch Center in Biodi-
versity and Genetic Resources/University of Porto. This work was
developed under the project Natural Spaces, Architecture, Rock Art
and Depositions from the Late Prehistory of the Western Front of
Central and Northern Portugal: from Actions to Meanings (PTDC/
HIS-ARQ/112983/2009) nanced by the Operational Programme
Thematic Factors of Competitiveness (COMPETE) and by the Eu-
ropean Regional Development Fund (FEDER) reference PTDC/HIS-
ARQ/112983/2009. The authors would like to thank the anonymous
reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions which
improved the manuscript. We also thank Clodhna N Lonain for
reviewing the English version of the text.
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