1/21/2010

AP
HISTORY, A DISCOURSE ON HISTORY – A FORTH ANALYSIS
DR.LEWIS

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Peter Castoldi

Table of Contents

Question 50 – The Key Events in Napoleon‟s Rise to Power and his Overall Success ................. 3
Question 51 – How Napoleon Changed France .............................................................................. 5
Question 52 – How Napoleon Changed Europe ............................................................................. 7
Question 53 – Problems Within the Empire ................................................................................... 8
Question 54 – The Development of German Romanticism and its relationship to Napoleon, J.G.
Herder, J.G. Fichte, The “Volk” and The “Volksgeist” In Accordance to Palmer, Colton, and
Kramer .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Question 55 – Why Napoleon Invaded Russia and How it Turned Disastrous ............................ 12
Question 56 – Clemens von Metternich and the Congress of Vienna‟s Push to Reform Europe. 15
Question 57 – The Major Causes of the Industrial Revolution .................................................... 18
Question 58 – The Major Consequences of the Industrial Revolution ......................................... 20
Question 59 – The “Advent of the –Isms”, In Accordance to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer ........ 22
Question 60 – Dramatic Political Development & Parallels from France and Britain ................. 23

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 50 – The Key Events in Napoleon’s Rise to Power and his
Overall Success

An Introduction to Napoleon Bonaparte

Born on August 15th, 1769 in Corsica, Napoleon was the second of eight children and no
Bonaparte that was part of the family was ever a professional soldier. His father Carlo was a
lawyer who had fought for Corsican independence, but after the French occupied the island in
1768, he served as a prosecutor and a judge and entered the French aristocracy as a count.
Through the influence of his father, Napoleon was educated at the expense of King Louis XVI in
Paris, France where he later graduated at the age of sixteen and joined the artillery company as a
second lieutenant. Although his early history seemed promising, you would not know it just by
looking at his appearance for he had a shabby appearance and was not one that was known to get
along with the other people in the community. Despite these qualities, and like many other rulers,
Napoleon always had the idea that he was destined for great deeds and that the public just did not
“understand him” for what he was.

A Whiff of Grapeshot
Napoleon‟s rise of power could be stated as a spontaneous one, for it stemmed from one main
event that mainly involved him and his actions in the year 1795. During this year, a group of
people known as Royalists were forming up to protest in front of the Tuileries palace in France,
debating that they were largely in favor of the Bourbon family and of the King and they felt that
they wanted them to make a comeback in the society to rule. A group during this time called the
“Directory” (the leaders of the revolutionary government) was unsure about whose side anyone
was on during this time or who was in favor of a specific event, for it was a highly confusing
time, and they called upon Napoleon Bonaparte to help rectify the problem and to defend the
palace. To do this, Napoleon enlisted the help of 4,000 of his men and he setup multiple artillery
pieces (cannons and other artillery of the sort) at close range and pointing directly towards the
crowd of protesters. Unaware of the severity of the situation, the protesters refused to take note
of the newly places defenses and Napoleon fired the artillery directly into the crowd killing
hundreds of people. This event is what Napoleon describes as being a “whiff of grapeshot”, and
as a result of resolving the problem in front of the Tuileries, he was promoted to the military rank
of General.

Continuing Rise to Power

After being promoted to the status of General in 1795, there was a notable change in the lifestyle
of Napoleon: it was reported that he had purchased a new house, received a fairly high salary,
and also purchased a seat in the Paris Opera House – all of these events meant that Napoleon was
making a name for himself. Due to the distasteful course of the war in Austria, the Directory -
amazingly – in the neat year, gave Napoleon command of the French forces stationed in Italy and
they instructed him to go forth with his troops and eradicate the Austrians in Italy. However, his
status of power was not the only thing in his life that was growing: his love life, was, too, 3
growing as well. During the planning stages of the invasion of the Austrians in Italy, Napoleon
fell in love with a woman named Josephine (who, at the time, was seven years older that he was).

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

Onward to Italy: 1796-1797
After the marriage of Bonaparte and Josephine in 1796, Napoleon decided it was time to train the
French forces to be well-prepared for the battle ahead. At this time, the French forces were ill-
prepared and exhausted when on the journey onward to Italy. Eventually, during this conquest,
one of the more important battles that took place during January of 1797 – the Battle of Ravoli
and – eventually – on October of 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio
which stated that Austria accepted the French control over much of Italy, the Netherlands, and
that France had exclusive control over the west bank of the Rhine river.

The Keys to Napoleon’s Success

Already at the (still young) age of 27, Napoleon enters Italy with an ill-equipped army and
manages to defeat the Austrians and gain control over a large portion of territory. There is one
large question that is posed during these circumstances: How does Napoleon do it – what were
his keys to success? Napoleon‟s success relied on three important things:

 (1) The Motivation and the Caring of the Troops

 (2) Speed, Timing, and Flanking
 (3) A good eye for Terrain
As for the first method – one could daringly compare these motives to that of Propaganda: One
way to motivate the troops of France is to appeal to a large mindset, which would be
compensation. He would tell his military that they were the “army of the Revolution” and it was
their chance for fortune and fame and this was a crusade for liberty, and for that of those who
wish to spoil the quest for liberty in France. In addition – unlike other commanders – Napoleon
would travel to the battlefield and encamp in a tent and he would also converse with the veteran
soldiers of the military and discuss many battles. Not only was he generous to the high-ranking
soldiers, but he was also generous to the lower-ranking soldiers as well: he would taste the soup
in which they were planned to eat and if it was not to his liking, he would call upon the chef to
correct the mistake in the cuisine. Promotions were also a method of Napoleon – he stated that
the military would be an army of talent and if one man has a superior performance on the
battlefield that that man would be rewarded accordingly and respectively.
A second method was the speedy tactics that Napoleon employed on the battlefield and when
traveling between destinations. He wanted the army to travel light, for he wanted to be able to
move parts of his army fairly quickly. Flanking was used greatly by Napoleon, and this was a
technique in which Napoleon employed very well and he was considered one of the “masters” at
the flanking technique.
A third method involved cartography and the physical features of the land. Napoleon was a
master at reading maps and he was a great landscape visionary – meaning he could envision the
terrain as it was laid out on a map and he was able to use the natural features of the landscape to
his advantage.
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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 51 – How Napoleon Changed France

18 Brumiare
Napoleon returned to France in the year 1798 and after returning to France he was deemed a hero
– praise and song rejoiced in his name and for his honor. The phrase “Viva la Bonaparte!” could
be heard when he walked the streets wearing the clothes of the commoners. Despite the
overwhelming popularity that he has received, Bonaparte once again starts a campaign to invade
the country of Egypt – this was decided because if the invasion was successful, France could
have a foothold on the Middle East and on India – which, at the time, was a very profitable
colony for the English. Eventually Bonaparte leaded the military up to Egypt and during the
fighting the outcome was looking grim – many men had perished as a result of the fighting,
however Bonaparte did not want to let the situation be known back in France – and, this is where
his mastery of Propaganda comes into play (yet again). Not releasing the true reason for heading
into Egypt, Bonaparte issued a cover-up story and made it look like the excursion was a
scientific exploration. And, during France‟s stay in Egypt, they uncovered the Rosetta Stone –
which was a decipher to figuring out the Egyptian hieroglyphics and their meaning. After
returning in 1799 from Egypt, Napoleon decides that the time is right to try and take power in
France. The people of France were ready and willing to accept Napoleon as the new power to the
country and this was because – looking back at all of the hardships that France had faced prior
(for example: The Terror, economic problems, and etc.) they needed a ruler who could help
prevent these types of problems and who could bring the glory back to France, essentially. And,
seeing what the young Napoleon had achieved, they were ready to accept him as a ruler.
18 Brumiare – an important date on the French calendar (this amounts to the date equivalent of
November 9th, 1799) because this was the day in which Napoleon took power in France, and did
so in a relatively peaceful manner. The title of First Council was placed upon him after his
coronation and he and his colleagues seized power and established a new regime – the
Consulate; under its [the Consulates‟] constitution, Napoleon had almost dictatorial powers.
Background Information: The Consulate
The Consulate was a form of government in France from 1799 to 1804 that was established after
the overthrow of the Directory by Napoleon. Now known as Napoleon I, Napoleon served as
first council and he had two other councils (Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes and Pierre Ducos) who
served as his advisors, who were then later replaced by two other men.
Following these events in 1804, Napoleon had addressed himself as the emperor of France and as
much of Europe and he permitted a constitution to be drafted that provided universal male
suffrage, which meant that all men had the right to vote. However, those who were able to vote
were voting for – what were called – “notables” which sat in the legislature and had no direct
power of influence, since the legislature could not write or debate laws.

The Transformation of France

5
Napoleon sets about transforming France and one of the most important accomplishments took
place in 1804 with the codification of French laws, which were commonly known as “Code
Napoleon” which consisted of 2,281 articles. In this he declared serfdom be abolished; there was

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

to be legal equality between the classes; and that there would be religious freedom in France. As
there were improvements for the rights of man the rights of women were still at a set-back:
Napoleon stated that all wages that a women earned would have to go straight to the man, and
that women were not allowed to sell property without the consent of the husband – and, in
addition, he also made the process of divorce very difficult. As for taxation and the tax system,
Napoleon revised the tax system by ending the tax exemptions for the nobles and the upper-class
and instated that they needed to start paying taxes.
Napoleon … On French Religion …
When it comes to Napoleon and religious conditions, there is an area showing a clear
disagreement between him and the French Revolution. Reflecting back to the Civil Constitution
of the Clergy (which stated that you needed to swear your loyalty to the French Government, and
that people of the Jewish and Protestant faith could vote for the bishops), Napoleon felt that
corrections needed to be made. He began discussions with the Pope in 1801 where, after many
talks, both the Pope and Napoleon signed the Concordat with the Vatican. This was a mutual
agreement that stated the Pope recognized Napoleon as a key power and he had the ability to fire
bishops, and that the Pope agreed to discontinue the discussions about the land seized from the
church years back.
Napoleon … On Education …
As well as religion, Napoleon also sought to change education in France and he created what he
called “careers open to talent” and in order to do this, he created the first public university
system. In addition, he also created secondary schools called “lycees” (however these were
strictly for boys) and this was so that he could give those who were not of the noble class a
chance to succeed in life and ever textbook that was used in classrooms were inspected by
Napoleon to make sure they were to his liking and that they were “pro-Napoleon” so-to-speak.
Napoleon … On Architecture …
New styles of architecture were created as a result of his ruling called the “Empire Style” of
architecture. A good example, and one of the greatest achievements of this architecture that is
known world-wide today, is the Arc de Triomphe – which was built as a monument to his
military victories (however, it was not completed until after his death in the year 1836).
Napoleon also beautified Paris by building new canals which brought in fresh water; building
new roads; constructing new bridges; clearing away the slums in Paris; building fountains; and
more. At one point he even renamed the Louvre (the infamous museum in Paris) and he creates a
new wing where he could exhibit the stolen artwork from his many conquests and campaigns –
which he called “Museum Napoleon”.

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 52 – How Napoleon Changed Europe

How Napoleon Remakes Europe

Napoleon was tremendously successful with his achievements in France and he also had a
profoundly important impact upon Europe. For the first few years, he was an unstoppable power
on land – he could start battles, see them through to the end, and finish them with France coming
out on top. He had two important victories: The first was The Third Coalition on December 2nd,
1805 and the second was the Battle of Jenna in 1806. Napoleon had control over most of Europe
except England and he did not have direct control over Russia – he in fact controlled Germany,
Belgium, Spain, Poland, Italy, and Austria and he sought to remake Europe by doing what he did
in France. In Germany, after defeating Prussia, he created the Federation of the Rhine, which
was a federation of twenty German princes (with the exception of Austria and Prussia) led by
Napoleon, and he brought all of these under his control. And, following this, the Holy Roman
Empire came to an end. In addition, he abolished Feudalism across Europe, declared legal
equality, and he reduced the power of the church – since he did not want any competition. He
also ended the inquisition in Spain, promoted religious equality for Catholics, Protestants, and
Jews; and he removed internal tariffs and established free trade.

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 53 – Problems Within the Empire

Problems in the Empire

Despite all of the major developments that were instated in Europe, problems started to arise
within the empire ….
Problem 1 – The British Navy
One major problem was the British Navy, and this brings the subject to the Battle of Trafalgar
that occurred in 1805 where Horatio Nelson defeated the French navy, and it was a glorious
victory for Britain and a horrible defeat for France. This victory (for Britain) was important for
two reasons: (a) Since the battle, the French left the power of the seas to the British and (b)
Nelson‟s victory – that overtime – would severely cripple Bonaparte.
Problem 2 – The Continental System
Implemented as a result of the Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon decided that if he could not get to
the British by sea that he could get them by land and (as he planned) he would cripple them
economically. The Continental System was a French boycott of England: Napoleon told every
country to seize trading with Britain and failure to follow the message would result in an
invasion and a nation take-over by the French. As one would imagine, this creates some major
problems for people such as merchants who relied on Britain to purchase their goods, and as a
result of the trading bans, smuggling became a major problem. As a result of the ban on British
trade, Britain placed a trade blockade upon France which – eventually – became more successful.
Problem 3 – Nationalism
As rust deteriorated the body of even the greatest vehicle, this can be compared to the element
that would slowly wither away at one of the greatest powers (at the time) in Europe and that
element would be Nationalism. Nationalism was the idea that you would become more loyal to
your nation and by doing so it would give you a sense of patriotism: you, essentially, wanted to
improve your nation and help defend it. This sense of Nationalism was enforced by Napoleons
policies by censorship of the press; the raising of taxes; and by engaging in what was called
Nepotism – meaning he favored his family members and gave them positions in government.
Those who did not feel as patriotic towards France would be arrested and imprisoned.
Another thing that was related to Nationalism was Romanticism. This movement began in the
late 18th century and it consisted of writers, poets, authors, artists, and etc. who believed that the
Enlightenment placed too much emphasis on the brain and not much (or not enough) emphasis
on the heart. The romantics were repulsed on Napoleons attempts to implement his ideas upon
Europe. One romantic named J.G. Herder published a book in 1784 titled Ideas on the
Philosophy of the History of Mankind in which he made one very important point: For any
individual to become a “fully-developed” individual entailed an identity relationship with the
Volk, which were a community at that time. The Germans and Herder both said to be passionate, 8
and to love, and care for your people. Another man named J.G. Fichte said that the Germans
were pure and that they must maintain this purity. Other men include Johann Wolfgang vonn
Geothe who wrote a famous work titled Fause which was considered one of the best works of

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

German literature. Another man that sought to appeal emotion and passion was a world-famous
man named Ludwig Van Beethoven who wrote Beethoven‟s 9th symphony which best conveyed
the ideas of emotion and passion.
Other famous writers and poets of the Romantic era included William Wordsworth and Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, who collectively wrote a work called Lyrical Ballads; and Mary Shelly who
wrote Frankenstein.
Problem 4 – Spain
Spain would soon turn into quicksand that would eat Napoleon‟s resources and his men –
figuratively speaking. Napoleon wanted to rule Spain and he put his brother Joseph on the throne
of Spain. The Spanish people did not like Joseph because Spain still felt like they had a large
sense of importance in their lives and that they did not want to be ruled by a Frenchmen.
However, there was a religious aspect to this: Spain was a Catholic nation and Napoleon was not
Catholic: he revoked the inquisition and took the land and the power away from the church and
because of Napoleon‟s activities Spain fought back using guerilla warfare tactics. Their goal was
to slowly bleed away France, and the tactic seemed to be working since the more men that
Napoleon lost in Spain, the more resources he kept putting towards fighting the Spanish and it
soon proved to be very costly for Napoleon.

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 54 – The Development of German Romanticism and its
relationship to Napoleon, J.G. Herder, J.G. Fichte, The “Volk” and The
“Volksgeist” In Accordance to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer

The Resistance to Napoleon: Nationalism

From the beginning, as far back as 1792, the French met with resistance as well as collaboration
in the countries that they occupied. The Continental System was also resented because it was
used for the benefit of French manufacturers and the Europeans began to feel that Napoleon was
employing them as tools against England, figuratively speaking. Nationalism developed as a
movement of resistance against the forcible internationalism of the Napoleonic Empire.
According to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer – since the international system was essentially
French, the nationalistic movements were anti-French; and since Napoleon was an autocrat, they
were antiautocratic. The nationalism of the period was a mixture of conservative and liberal and
some nationalists – mostly conservative – insisted on the value of their own peculiar institutions,
customs, folkways, and historical development, which they feared might be obliterated under the
French and Napoleonic system. Others, or the same persons, insisted on more self-determination,
more participation in government, more representative institutions, more freedom for the
individual against the bureaucratic interference of the state.
In Spain, nationalism took the form of implacable resistance to the French armies that desolated
the land. In Italy the Napoleonic regime was better liked and national feeling was less anti-
French than Spain. Bourgeois of Italian cities generally prized the efficiency of the
enlightenment of French methods and often shared in the anticlericalism of the French
Revolution. With the Poles, Napoleon positively encouraged national feeling and he repeatedly
told them that they might win a restored and units Poland by faithfully fighting in the cause. A
few Polish nationalists, like the aging patriot Kosciusko, never trusted Napoleon, and some
others, like Czartoryski looked rather to the Russia tsar for a restoration of the Polish kingdom.

The Movement of Thought in Napoleonic Germany

According to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer, by far one of the most momentous new national
movements developed in Germany. The Germans rebelled not only against the Napoleonic rule
but also against the century-old ascendancy of French civilization and they rebelled not only
against the French armies but also against much if the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment.
The years of the French Revolution and Napoleon were for Germany the years of great cultural
unfolding for it was the years of Beethoven, Goethe, and Schiller, or Herder, Kant, Fichte, Hegel,
Schleiermacher, and many others. Germany became the most “romantic” of all countries and
German influence spread throughout Europe. In the 19th century the Germans came to be widely
regarded as intellectual leaders, somewhat as the French had been in the century before.
In about 1780 signs of change set in. Even Frederick, in his later years, predicted a golden age of
German literature, proudly declaring that Germans could do what other nations had done. In
1784 a book appeared that as written by a man named J.G. Herder titled Ideas on the Philosophy 10
of the History of Mankind. “Herder was an earnest soul,” states Palmer, Colton, and Kramer, a
Protestant pastor and theologian who thought the French somewhat frivolous. He concluded that
imitation of foreign ways made people shallow and artificial. He declared that German ways

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

were indeed different from French but not for that reason the less worthy of respect. All true
culture that the life of common people, the Volk, not from the cosmopolitan and artificial life of
the upper class. He thought that each people, meaning by a people a group sharing the same
language, had its own attitudes, spirit, or genius. A sound civilization must express a natural
character or Volksgeist and the character of each people was special to itself. Herder did not
believe the nations to be in conflict – the opposite was in fact the case; he simply insisted that
they were different. He did not believe the German culture to be the best, however.
The Idea of the Volksgeist
The idea of the Volksgeist was reinforced from other and non-German sources and soon passed
to other countries in the general movement of romantic thought. Like much else in romanticism,
it emphasized genius or intuition rather than reason. It stressed the differences rather than the
similarity of mankind. It broke down that sense of human militarily or universally which had
been characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment, and when revealed itself in French and
American doctrines of the rights of man, or again in the good for all peoples.

Fichte and the German National Spirit

The career of J.G. Fichte illustrates the course of German thought in these years. Fichte was a
moral and metaphysical philosopher, a professor at the University of Jena. His doctrine that the
inner spirit of the individual creates its own moral universe was much admires in many countries.
In America, for example, it entered into the transcendental philosophy of Ralph Waldo Emerson.

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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 55 – Why Napoleon Invaded Russia and How it Turned
Disastrous

1812: Into Mother Russia

Despite all of the problems that Napoleon – and the French Empire – were facing, Napoleon was
still reaching enormous heights of power that other rulers (with some exceptions) had never
reached and it is said that this power rivaled Alexander the Great and Caesar‟s power, and even
the power of Adolf Hitler. He had an empire that now stretched far across Europe – from Spain
to Russia – and he ruled over forty five million people. However, despite major success in the
Napoleonic Empire, in 1812 Napoleon would make a mistake that would prove to be
catastrophic for the French: Invade Russia.

A Quest for Immortality

Napoleon was a great ruler and led France though much success, however one thing that he also
had was a large ego and was seeking immortality. There was one country that stood between
Napoleon and his goal, and that country was Russia. Before one learns about the history of the
battles that are soon to take place between Russia and France, one must know the relations
between Napoleon and the current (at the time) tsar of Russia Alexander I. Alexander was not a
particularly bright man, nor was he a tremendous ruler and he did little to resolve problems in
Russia and did nothing to abolish serfdom. In 1807, after being defeated by Napoleon through
various battles, France and Russia signed a peace treaty called The Treaty of Tilst which formed
an alliance between the two nations. After signing the treaty and withdrawing back to Russia,
Alexander I received much oppression from his people and he was therefore pressured to break
the contract between Russia and France. In 1810 Alexander finally made the choice to break the
treaty between Russia and France. After hearing about this, Napoleon was angered and began
thinking that if Russia had broken a contract with France than other nations are soon to follow
through … this was when Napoleon decided to invade Russia.
Gathering a Force
In response, Napoleon decided to invade Russia. Before doing so, however, he needed to gather
a force, in which he called the Grand Army. The Grand Army consisted of 690,000 men and
traveling alongside the army were wives and prostitutes.
On the Road to Russia
Napoleon and the Grand Army left France in June of 1812 and they eventually made their way
across France, Prussia and Poland and they were soon to arrive near Russia. Before entering
Russia borders, Napoleon rallied his troops by giving them a great speech and told them that this
was their “shining moment”. However, almost immediately there were problems: The military
had overextended their supply lines – meaning that they had traveled too far ahead of their
supplies and they were running short, and since Napoleon told his men to travel light, this
allowed them to move faster, however it meant carrying less supplies. Also, adding to the 12
problems, the fields in Eastern Europe during this time were drying out and there was not much
food to go around. Even worse, lice spread a disease called typhus which, if not treated, can
eventually lead to death.

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

Despite all of these problems Napoleon pushed on and when he entered Russia territory, the
Russian forces pushed back – further into Russia. About then Napoleon‟s generals had advised
him that it would be sufficient to instead turn back instead of pushing forward – Napoleon denied
the request saying in response: “The wine has been poured and has to be drunk” – an indication
that Napoleon is eager to keep pushing forward and to pursue the Russians. Eventually the Grand
Army pushed further into Russia and eventually, on August 17th, they reached a walled-in city
called Smolensk located 220 miles west of Moscow. Seeing this, the French started to fire upon
the walls with cannons and the city soon caught fire and while Napoleon was watching it is said
that he said the following: “Remember…the words of a Roman emperor: A dead enemy always
smells sweet”. It was not until the next day – August 18th – that the French entered Smolensk and
they soon came to a stunning realization: they were burning peasants instead of Russian soldiers!
While the French were burning the walls the night before, the Russians left and proceeded to go
deeper into Russia towards Moscow where they had in fact camped in a town called Borodino
located 70 miles west of Moscow, where they will await for Napoleon‟s forces.
The Fighting Begins
It is now September 7th of 1812 – the fighting begins during the Battle of Borodino. To halt
Napoleon‟s advance on Moscow, about 125,000 Russians built earthworks along the highway at
Borodino and this battle was mentioned in Leo Tolstoy‟s novel War and Peace (written in 1869).
When the fighting was over, the casualties were as follows: The French had lost 28,000 and the
Russians had lost 45,000 – this was a technical victory for the French. Again, the main Russia
force continues to march towards Moscow and again Napoleon follows them deeper and deeper
into Russia and finally … on September 14th, 1812 Napoleon sets his eyes on Moscow and he
thinks that victory is in sight. Before entering he sends his cavalry to enter and scout the city –
only for them to return with bad news: there are no forces in Moscow! This was because, prior to
Napoleon‟s entrance into Moscow, Alexander ordered an evacuation of the city. Napoleon,
angered yet again, orders everyone inside of the city and they setup encampments where he tells
his men to have the rest of the day off – while, unknowingly, Napoleon has yet to see the worst.
Fire in the Sky
On September 16th, 1812; Alexander gives orders for his men to burn down the city of Moscow.
The city was then set on fire and it was said that the fire was so bright that it could be seen 10
miles outside the city. Unsure of what to do, Napoleon drafts a peace offering and sends it to
Alexander – in response, Alexander denies the request for another peace treaty. Days and
eventually weeks pass and yet another major challenge is about to greet Napoleon: Russian
winters. Snow starts to fall in Russia and food is becoming scarce in the region and, eventually,
on October 14th, Napoleon makes the decision to leave.
Leaving Russia
As the French are beginning to pull out of Russia, they are battling the elements – snow, ice, and
freezing temperatures and aside from these problems, the Russians are pursuing the evading
French. The Russia burn any food-related items in the region so the French could have no chance 13
of obtaining any food or supplies while they were leaving. Eventually the French forces and
Napoleon returned back to France and what started with over 600,000 people endede up

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

returning with only around 10,000 people. The invasion of Russia was a catastrophic
consequence for France.

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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

Question 56 – Clemens von Metternich and the Congress of Vienna’s Push
to Reform Europe

The Congress of Vienna

After the attempted invasion of Russia and after the attempted total-blockade on Britain‟s trade
system, other nations decided that it was time to put a stop to Napoleon‟s rule of power and to do
this they formed an alliance known as the Quadruple Alliance which consisted of Russia,
Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain. In doing so, they restored the power of Louis XVIII and
Napoleon was put aside. The Alliance converged and attempted to figure out a solution on how
to fix Europe since Napoleon had been removed from power and they also attempted to figure
out on how to reconfigure Europe. Their solution was to create what was called the Congress of
Vienna and they in turn created what was known as the Concert System. This was a series of
meetings that were held from September 1814 to June 1815 and the main attendees were that of
the Quadruple Alliance.

Enter Clemens Von Metternich

A man named Clement Von Metternich, who was Austrian‟s foreign minister, was a clear oppose
of the French Revolution. He was a leading conservative and those like Metternich believed that
the French Revolution was, indisputably, a negative thing for society, and that Napoleon was a
grave ruler who made equally grave changes to Europe. Essentially, his overriding belief was
that changes were bad and the state of Europe in the 1600s was better off than the state of Europe
then (where there was the old kingship and the social systems were in place). As bad as these
arguing points may have seen, they did have some reasonable arguments and amongst one of
their supporters was a man named Edmund Burke who published a work titled Reflections on the
Revolution in France (written in 1790). In this work, Burke said that the French Revolution is
doomed to failure and that it did not “respect tradition” and the Revolution would end in
bloodshed (since those involved were all radicals). Other men included Louis de Bonald and
Joseph de Maistre.
The Two “-Isms”
Burke believed in a few things that society needed to do to replay on the ideas of the French
Revolution – he believed: (1) The society needed to come around an idea known as a balance of
power, meaning essentially to not let one sole figure dominate the rest of the common good: He
believed that you need equally powerful figures ruling the various other nations. (2) There were
three “-isms” that existed: Conservatism and Liberalism – Burke supported Conservatism;
however he opposed Liberalism (this was the philosophy of 1689 and 1789 [During the Glorious
Revolution and during the French Revolution] and it meant going back to the Age of Kings). The
third “-ism” in existence is Nationalism – and below is an overall view of these “-isms”:

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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

LIBERALISM

 It was the philosophy of the Bourgeoisie

 Believed in Natural Rights
 Contained a Representative Government
 Expressed Tolerance
 Expanded Suffrage (however not to women)
 Said “NO” to Guilds and Unions
 Promoted Self-Interest

Two more famous Liberals included John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham and they both
believed in a philosophy called Utilitarian Philosophy. This was an argument that stated
whatever was right and good was something that produces the most happiness for most people.
Bentham opposed Nationalism, which is simple the idea that a nation consists of a people with a
common language, culture, and history; and that all nations could be free, independent, and
sovereign.

NATIONALISM

 It overlapped the ideals of the other beliefs (Liberalism, Conservatism … )

 Had a belief for Tradition, History, and Language

The Congress of Vienna and how it Changed Europe

The Congress of Vienna, after its formation, made some major changes to Europe, by instating
the following:

 Created the Netherlands (combined Austrian Netherlands with the Dutch Republic)
 France‟s southern border: strengthen Kingdom of Sardinia (addition of Piedmont and
Savoy)
 Joined 35 German states into a German Confederation (dominated by Austria and
Prussia)
 Strengthened Austria (and compensated it for the loss of the Netherlands) by giving it the
Lombardo-Venetian kingdom in north Italy
 Strengthened Prussia – gave it northern portion of Saxony (the northern half) and
territory along French border
 Recognized Switzerland as independent nation
 Britain gained Cape of Good Hope (South Africa), Malta (in the Mediterranean), and
Trinidad and Tobago (in the Caribbean)  Good trading territories
 Russia gained more Polish territory 16
 The “Kingdom of Poland” proclaimed but dominated by Russia
 France permitted to maintain army and independent government

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

  Keep all land incorporated before November 1st, 1792 - The Congress did
this because, otherwise, if some other country acquire the land, there
would be an imbalance of power

They sought to essentially place strong nations around France and to improve many other
nations, as well. However, as one would imagine, the Congress of Vienna did not consult the
common people about these changes.

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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 57 – The Major Causes of the Industrial Revolution

The Five Main Causes of the Industrial Revolution

Cause 1 – Improved Agricultural Production
One cause of the Industrial Revolution was the improved agricultural production, which included
the following: (1) Better Farming Methods – Farmers were highly productive and were able to
produce more foods – one of the main factors of this was crop rotation. (2) As aforementioned,
Crop Rotation played a large (positive) role on the improvement of farming methods – Crop
Rotation is the practice of planning different types of crops during the off-season to help keep the
soil fertile and to keep it from spoiling (or becoming infertile). Some of the main types of crops
planted were clover and turnips. (3) Enclosure of Common Lands – Particularly practiced by the
British, the enclosure of common lands meant that they claimed, and then sold, common lands to
private interest (this was because before the 1700s in England over 50% of all land was open
fields and other types of common land). (4) The 1760-1815 Enclosure Acts – There were over
3,000 of these acts which helped promote the selling of common land and they made it private
interest, which, in turn, made the farming more productive. (5) A Warm Climate in the 18th
Century – The warm climate helped the growing of various types of crops and therefore
increased production.
Cause 2 – Demographic Explosion

1700 1800 1850 1914

Population 120 187 266 435
(in millions)
Table 1 - Population (In Millions)

As depicted in the table above, there was a large growth in population in Europe, due to multiple
factors: (1) Agricultural Production – More people, in turn leads for more products to be
created and circulated; (2) Sewage Disposal & Good, Clean Water – In Europe in the 1800s
people were healthier because of the installment of sewage systems and the piping in of clean
water (as a result of these sewage systems). (3) Sterilized Milk – Milk was sterilized to make it
better to drink and to be used for many other applications. (4) Creation of the First
Vaccinations – Smallpox vaccinations became more widespread in the 19th century; (5) Change
in Living Standards and Diets – For the first time, the working class could afford to purchase
and consume red meat (people including craftsman and artisans, to name a few); and (6) Peace –
Another large factor why the population had grown was because the 19th century was a relatively
peaceful century in Europe, and only two main wars were fought: The Crimean War and the
Franco-Prussian War.
Cause 3 – Inventions
Below is a list of some of the most infamous inventions created during the Industrial Revolution: 18

 1733: Englishmen John Kay‟s flying shuttle: enabled one worker to double
production (weave thread faster)

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

  1760s: Englishman James Hargreaves‟s spinning jenny enabled a worker to work
with 6-8 different threads at a time
 1769: Englishman Samuel Crompton‟s spinning mule: made stronger and finer thread
 1785: Englishman Edwards Cartwright‟s power loom: used waterpower to speed
production
 Early 1700s: The Englishmen Thomas Newcomen built the first usable steam engine
 Scotsman James Watt improved the steam engine
o Drive pumps in coal mines
o Propel boats and trains
 Robert Fulton: first steam engine to sail a boat – 1807
 1850s: Henry Bessemer: the Bessemer Converter to improve steel (cooking the iron
to enormous vats to remove impurities)
 Thomas Edison: invented the incandescent lamp
 20th Century: electricity replaced coal as major source of energy
 1876: Alexander Graham Bell invented the first phone

Cause 4 – The Middle Class

The Middle Class population during that time made up 15-20% of the population and it can be
compared through Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The Middle Class thought of themselves
to be the useful class and they had three main beliefs: Industry, Thrift, and Sobriety. In
addition, the life of the middle class improved drastically with the introduction of dining rooms
and kitchens; flush toilets; pianos; travel and leisure time; and something called “separate
spheres”. The middle class were firm believers in an idea called “separate spheres” which was an
idea that stated women were more suited to simply being at home and tending towards the
domestic responsibilities and the men believed that they were the ones that had to work.
Cause 5 – Trains, Cars, Zeppelins, and Planes
Below is a run-down of the above mentioned products of the Revolution:

 Cause and consequence

 By the 1830 Britain had 400 miles of RR track
 Increased Employment
 Transportation and communications speeds were increased
 Trade
 Late 1800s, early 1900: first cars
 Germans Carl Benz (1844-1929) and Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913)
 American Henry Ford – the Model T
 Leisure activities
 Goggles
 Parliament‟s “Red Flag” act: 2mph & 3 flag carriers 19
 1896 speed limit: 14 mph
 1900: Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838-1917) created the blimp. Aka the Zeppelin
 1903: Orville and Wilbur Wright launched first successful flight of a plane
AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60
 Question 58 – The Major Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

Changes
Europe during the 19th century had a word ringing throughout: change and Europe would
experience more change during this time than it ever had experiences prior to the 19th century –
Europe had become modern. There were three main changes:
1 – Economic and Social Change
One large change in Europe was the start of the Industrial Revolution and the introduction to
factories and stream-powered machinery. Due to this change Europe went from an agricultural to
an industrial economy and this had major consequences on the European civilization. The
Industrial Revolution went through two phases: the first phase was the intensification of previous
forms of manufacturing and the introduction of what was known as the “Cottage Industry
System” and the “Putting Out System”. These systems were for the merchants who wanted to
make products – they would hire people who worked in the countryside and those who worked in
cottages to fulfill various orders. However, as new ideals progressed these two systems
eventually faded out and these types of manufacturing were replaced with machinery and
factories and workers were placed in these factories where they could be watched and their hours
could be strictly regulated. During the first part of the Industrial Revolution the key products
were textiles and coal and in the second phase of the Revolution the key product was steel – steel
that was to be used for things like railroads, cars, buildings, warfare, and etc.
One important thing to keep in mind is that the Industrial Revolution did not begin in one year –
it was indeed a process – and the effect that it had was different for every country. In England,
the leader of production, due to the following: Coal and Iron ore was produced; Water
transportation (specifically the river Thames) aided in the transportation of goods; there was a
high merchant class; and there was a strong government. France was second-highest in
production because they had less coal and iron ore deposits; More common land (meaning areas
like parks) – this was a factor since the land was not privately owned and therefore, could not be
developed; and banks were limited to the government. Germany, third in line, was more
constricted than France because of customs and tariffs; Guilds; The role of the banks in the
region were shrewd since they lent money to private interest and only invested in the companies
that they lent money to; they had strong Universities; they were catching up in the production of
steel; and they did not become a nation until 1871.
Below: This chart reflects the Steel Output in Metric Tons of Britain and Germany:

Year Britain Germany

1885-1889 2.86 1.65
1900-1904 5.04 7.71
1910-1913 6.93 16.14 20
Table 2 - Steel Output (In Metric Tons)

Russia, forth in production, was hindered due to their: Large Middle Class population;
Rudimentary transportation systems; and their growth did not develop until the early 20th

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

century. As for Eastern Europe, they were the furthest behind in the Industrial Revolution –
coming in fifth, due to an almost non-existent Middle Class; Different Farming techniques; No
crop rotation; and hindering Governments.
2 – Intellectual and Artistic Change
Some of the main Intellectual and Artistic changes of the Industrial Revolution were some great
intellects such as Pasteur (in relations to the studies of Germs); Charles Darwin (theories of
Evolution), and Albert Einstein (on his Theory of Relativity). For Artistic changes, came the
development of new art and the founding of what was known as Impressionism from Monet and
Manet; and Freud and his studies on Psychoanalysis.
3 – Political Change
Political Change came with expanding democracy and mass politics; the coming of Nationalism;
and the coming of Imperialism.
4- Urbanization and Immigration
There was urbanization and immigration and in 1860 5 million Europeans travelled across the
seas. In the early 1900s one million Europeans a year left Europe. There are also terms in regards
to immigration called the push and pull factors – the push would be bad living conditions and the
pull is what attracted the people to a particular place.
5 - Education

 In 1880 the British Parliament mandates that all children between the ages of 5 and 10
attend primary school
 1891: Parliament makes primary school free
 Other nations followed
 University education still limited
6 – Mass Culture & Shared Experiences

 Leisure activities
 Dance halls, cafes and large scale performances grew in size and numbers
 Radios – Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) created the first wireless device
 July 14th, 1900: First subway in Paris – the Metro
 Department stores
 Sporting activites
o Football (soccer)
 First modern-day Olympics was in 1896 in Athens
7 – Pollution and Politics

 Pollution in cities 21
 Smoke, sewage, rivers
 Disease

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 59 – The “Advent of the –Isms”, In Accordance to Palmer,
Colton, and Kramer

The Advent of the “-Isms”

The combined forces of industrialization and of French Revolution led after 1815 to a
proliferation of new doctrines and movements, most of which contributed to a general European
revolution in 1848, says Palmer, Colton, and Kramer. As for the 33 years from 1815 to 1848,
there is no better way of grasping their long-run meaning than to reflect on the number of
enduring “-isms” that arose at that time.
Palmer, Colton ,and Kramer then proceed to say: So far as is the word „liberalism‟ first appeared
in the English language in 1819, „radicalism‟ in 1820, „socialism‟ in 1832, „conservatism‟ in
1835. The 1830s first saw „individualism‟, „constitutionalism‟, „humanitarianism‟, „feminism‟,
and „monarchism‟. „Nationalism‟ and „Communism‟ date from the 1840s. not until the 1850s did
the English-speaking word use the word „capitalism‟; and not even until later had it heard of
„Marxism‟, through the doctrines of Marx grew out of and reflected the troubled times of the
1840s.
The rapid coinage of new “-isms”, said Palmer, Colton, and Kramer; does not in every case mean
that the ideas they conveyed were new. Many of them had their origins from the Enlightenment,
if not before. People had loved liberty before talking of liberalism and been conservative without
defining their ideas as conservatism. The appearance of so many “-isms” shows rather that
people were making their ideas more systematic.
An “-ism” (excluding such words as “hypnotism” or “favoritism”) may be defined as the
conscious espousal of a doctrine competition with other doctrines. Without the “isms” created in
the 30-odd years after the peace of Vienna it is impossible to understand or even talk about the
history of the world since that event, so that a brief characterization of some of the most
important is in order.

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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

 Question 60 – Dramatic Political Development & Parallels from France
and Britain

Politics in 19 th Century England

England, despite many other nations, was the only country in the 19th century that did not
experience a revolution, however despite not experiencing a revolution; they did experience
great change. When reflecting upon England‟s power status (in comparison to other nations in
Europe during the 19th century) – it is easy to see that England was the imperial power and it
controlled more land, had more natural resources, better access to trade, and more. One main
event that mainly symbolized the power of England was something called the World‟s Fair that
took place at the Crystal Palace and representatives from every nation came to London in 1851 to
see the exhibit.

The Many Reforms of the 19 th Century

During the political changes of England during the 19th century, there were many reforms that
were passed, including:

 1828 Catholic Emancipation Act – Catholics could hold office and serve in the
Parliament

 1832 Reform Act – Reduced/Eliminated representation in towns that were

overrepresented
o Added representation in towns and cities that were underrepresented or not
represented (Manchester)
o Lowered the minimum franchise requirement and thereby doubled the size of
the electorate

 1833 – Parliament abolished slavery in the Empire

 1834 – Parliament passed Poor Law (no assistance – workhouses instead)

 1846 – Parliament repeals 1815 and 1828 Corn Laws that had imposed tariffs on
foreign grain
o Support from Whig politicians, industrialists, free-traders

 1847 – Parliament passed the Ten Hours Act (limited the number of hour‟s women and
children to 10)

Why the Reforms?

One may inquire as to why all of these reforms were instated and there are three main reasons 23
why the reforms were put into place: (1) The Enlightenment and the French Revolution –
People reflected upon the events of these two major periods and instated reforms to help prevent
such disastrous situations; (2) Leaders – There were many leaders of nations that were not aware

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60

of problems and many who did not deal with the problems (whether intentional or not). The
Whigs Prime Minister Earl Charles Gray formed an alliance with King William IV, and the
Tories eventually became Liberal due to many issues (one of the more famous liberals was
William Gladstone). Also emerging from this was the Conservative Party – the famous leader of
the conservatives was Benjamin Disraeli. (3) Pressure from the Commoners – Existing during
this time was the London Workingmen‟s Association for Benefiting Politically, Socially, and
Morally Useful Classes (also known as the Chartists, since they presented a list of demands to
Parliament which – in the short-term, was rejected.) Despite the early failure at attempting to
establish more rights for the commoners, the Chartists were eventually – in the long term –
successful since by the year 1900 almost every male could vote and in 1918 every man and
woman can vote. Also instated during this time was the secret ballot and frequent parliament
meetings.

Difference from France

These changes were different because when the changes were instated on behalf of the Congress
of Vienna, the commoners were not polled on their opinion. Instead, here, for the other changes,
the commoners help to pressure changes and they had a larger impact on the political structure
than in France.

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AP History, Dr.Lewis | Question Set 4, Questions 50-60