Presentation of Data
graphs should be clearly labeled.
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical,
sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to
make them amenable to study and interpretation. Analysis
and presentation put data into proper order and in
categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and
interpretable so that the relationships between the research
specific questions and their intended answers can be
established. There are three ways of presenting data:
textual, tabular and graphical.
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or
numbers to describe data. The main aims of textual
presentation are to focus attention to some important data
and to supplement tabular presentation.
Example: The following refers to the response of 59
government workers tothe e-waste location disposal in the
study of e-waste management on five government offices
in metro manila:
Of the 59 respondents, 20 or 33.89 percent have
answered Collection Center for the location of E-waste
disposal, 10 or 16.96 percent have answered Pit for
Burning, and 29 of 49.15 percent answered Landfill or
Dumpsite.
The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is
boring to read and the reader may not even be able to grasp
the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The
reader may even skip some statements.
TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA
When presenting ideas that include references to
data, it can be helpful to make the point using a table or
graph. Text alone should not be used to convey more than
three or four numbers. Well-presented tables and graphs
can concisely summarize information which would be
difficult to describe in words alone.
Tables and graphs should, ideally, be
self-explanatory. The reader should be able to understand
them without detailed reference to the text, on the grounds
that users may well pick things up from the tables or graphs
without reading the whole text. The title should be
informative, and rows and columns of tables or axes of
A statistical table or simply table is defined as a
systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of
numerical facts or data are given each a row and their
subclasses are given each a column in order to present the
relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a
definite, compact, and understandable form or forms.
(Calderon, et al, p.210)
The purpose of a table is to facilitate the study
and interpretation, the making of inferences and
implications of the relationships of statistical data. Table
construction for data presentation is a part of analysis
because the data are separated and grouped according to
class or category.
Advantages of tabular over textual presentation of data.
(Calderon, et al, p.210) The advantages of the tabular over
the textual presentation of data are:
1. Statistical tables are concise, and because data
are systematically grouped and arranged,
explanatory matter is minimal.
2. Data are more easily read, understood, and
compared because of their systematic and logical
arrangement into rows and columns. The reader
can understand and interpret a great bulk of data
rapidly because he can see significant
relationships of data at once.
3. Tables give the whole information even without
combining numerals with textual matter. This is so
because tables are so constructed that the ideas
they convey can be understood even without
reading their textual presentation.
The major functional parts of a statistical table. (Bacani, et
al, p. 55)
The above illustration of a table is only a simple
one. There are tables that are very complicated. For
instance, the column caption may further be subdivided into
sub-column captions which in-turn may still be subdivided.
This happens when the subject matter of the table is
classified, then the first classifications are further sub-
classified, and so on.
1. Table Number. Each table should have a number,
preferably in Arabic, for reference purposes. This
 is because only the table numbers are cited. The
number is written above the title of the table.
Tables are numbered consecutively throughout
the thesis report. If there is only one table the
number is unnecessary.
2. Title. The title should tell about the following:
a. The subject matter that said table deals
with;
b. Where such subject matter is situated,
or to what entity or persons it belongs,
or from whom the data about such
matter were gathered;
c. When data about such subject matter
were gathered or the time period when
such data were existent; and
d. Sometimes, how the data about such
subject matter are classified.
Usually, however, only the first two elements are
mentioned in the title, and occasionally, only the subject
matter. Only the beginning letters of the important words
in the title are capitalized. If the title contains more than
one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid.
In the example, Table 1, the subject matter is E-
waste Disposal, and the entities from whom the data or
from whom the data were gathered are the government
offices or workers. The period of the inquiry was 2017 but
that was already mentioned in the scope and delimitation
and it does not need to be included in all tables anymore.
How the data are classified need not be included in the
title because the table is only a simple one and the
classification of the data are clear.
3. Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written below
the title and it is usually enclosed in parentheses.
It explains some things in the table that are not
clear.
Suppose a table entitled People with HIV Aids is
to be constructed and the entries in the table are
in rounded millions of people. Instead of entering
37 million of people, the entry is only 37. The
headnote that should be written below the title
should be Millions of People.
4. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row
labels. The stub head tells what the stub contains,
the row labels. Each row label describes the data
contained in that row.
Where do you think?
In the table given as example, Table 1, E-waste
Disposal is the stub head and below are the
degrees which are the row label: Collection
Center, Pit For burning, landfill/dumpsite. In the
Collection center row, all the workers listed there
answered collection center for the e-waste
disposal and so on. Totals may be considered as
part of the stub.
5. Box Head. The box head contains the master
caption, the column captions, and the column
subcaptions. The master caption describes the
column captions and the column captions in turn
describe the subcolumn captions.
In table 1, the master caption i Government
Offices. The column captions are Office 1, 2, 3, and
totals. The subcaptions are F (Frequency) and %
(Percent). The F indicates the number of teachers
under it and the symbol % indicates the proportion
of the number under F to the total, 59.
6. Main body, field, or text.
For instance, the 13 respondents who work for
office 3 and who answered landfill/dumpsite are
entered in the cell which is the intersection of the
landfill/dumpsite row and the office 3 column.
7. Footnote.
In table 1, a is used to indicate that all the teachers
have enough education units, b is used to indicate
that all percent were computed with 59 as the
base, and c is used to indicate that the total
percent does not equal 100.00 due to the
rounding off of the partial percent to two decimal
places.
8. Source note. The source note which is generally
written below the footnote indicates the origin or
source of the data presented in the table. The
source note is not necessary if the sources of the
data are the respondents to a questionnaire or
interview schedule. The purpose of placing the
source note are:
a. To give credit or recognition to the author of
the table or the sources or h sources of the
data;
b. To allow the users to secure additional data
from the same source;
c. To provide the user for determining the
accuracy and reliability of the information
provided by the table, and;
 d. To protect the maker of the table against any
charge of inaccuracy and unreliability.
Rulings and spacing in tables. (Calderon, et al, p.210) Ruling
is done in a table to emphasize or make clear relationships.
There are no fixed standard rules to follow in ruling and
spacing tables. Emphasis and clarity are the determining
factors. However, the following guidelines are generally
followed in the construction of tables for a thesis report:
1. The table number is not separated by line from
the title. It is written two spaces above the title.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by
a double line placed two spaces below the lowest
line of the title.
3. The stub, master caption, captions, subcaptions,
and totals are separated from one another by
vertical and horizontal lines.
4. The rows and columns are not separated by lines.
Major groups, however, are separated by single
lines. For purposes of clarity, rows are separated
by a double space and the columns are separated
by as wide a space as possible.
5. Both ends of the table are unruled
6. There is always a line, either single or double, at
the bottom of the table.
Unity in a table. There should always be unity in a
table. To achieve this, presenting too many ideas in a
single table should be avoided. One subject matter is
enough, one that can be divided into categories which
in turn can be divided into common classifications.
In table 1, for instance, the subject matter is e-waste
disposal of govt offices. E-waste disposal is divided into
similar categories such as collection center, pit for
burning, and landfill. The subclasses such as office 1,2,3
are common to the office categories
Textual Presentation of Tabular Data
Generally, there should be a textual presentation
of a table which precedes the table or the table may be
placed within the textual presentation. The table and its
textual presentation should be placed as near as possible to
each other. Textual presentation is mixing words with
numbers in statements.
There are two ways of making a textual
presentation of a table;
1. All the items in the table are textually presented.
This manner enables the reader to comprehend
the totality of the data even without consulting
the table. This is alright if the data are not so
many. However, if the data are so numerous,
reading becomes boring and the reader may even
skip some of the items.
Table 1 shows that there were 59 respondents in
three govt offices in metro manila. Of this
number, 20 or 33.89 percent answered collection
center. Of those who answered collection center,
3.39 worked for office 1, 20.16 worked for office
2, 10.34 worked for office 3.
There were 10 respondents who answered pit for
burning, of this number
Summarizing the e-waste disposal, 20 or 33.89
answered collection center, 10 or 16.96 for pit for
burning, and 29 or 49.15 for landfill/dumpsite,
2. Only the highlights or important parts of the data
are textually presented.
Of the 59 respondents, 20 or 33.89 percent have answered
Collection Center for the location of E-waste disposal, 10 or
16.96 percent have answered Pit for Burning, and 29 of
49.15 percent answered Landfill or Dumpsite.
The basic principles that should be remembered in the
textual presentation of a table are:
1. The textual presentation of a table should be as
complete as possible so that ideas conveyed in the
table are understood even without referring to the
table itself.
2. Textual presentation is generally followed by
interpretation, inference, or implication. This is
done after the data from the table have been
textually presented.
Implication, inference, interpretation. These
three terms are synonymous if not exactly the
same in meaning. They are used interchangeably.
Each is a statement or statements of the possible
meaning, revealed by the findings plus a veiled
suggestion to continue the situation if it is good or
to adopt some remedial measures to eradicate or
minimize its bad effects. Those who are to be
benefitted and those who are going to suffer the
bad effects should also be mentioned.
Implication, inference, or interpretation has
atleast four elements, namely, condition, cause,
effect, and continuance of remedial measure.
a. Statement of the condition or situation.
The condition or situation is stated
based upon the findings, whether
satisfactory or unsatisfactory.
 b. Probable cause of the condition.
Usually, also very condition has a cause
but, there must also be a logical and
valid relationship between the
condition and its cause.
c. Probable effects of the condition.
Usually, also every condition has an
effect, either bad or good. However,
there must also be a logical and valid
relationship between the condition and
its effect and this must be clearly given.
d. A veiled suggestion for continuance or
remedial measure, if the possible effect
is bad. If the effect of the condition is
good, then there must be a hint for the
continuance of the existence of the
condition. However, if the effect is
deleterious there must be some
suggestions for the adoption of
measures aimed at minimizing the
harmful effects.

3. Findings in the present study should be compared

with the findings of other studies as presented in
the related literature and studies. This enables the
researcher to make some generalizations if there
are enough data to support such generalizations.

Findings are the original data, quantitative or

otherwise, derived or taken from the original
sources and which are results of questionnaires,
interviews, experiments, tests, observations, and
other data gathering instruments. Data presented
in tables and their textual presentations are
examples of findings. Findings do not directly
answer the specific questions asked at the
beginning of the investigation or the explicit
hypotheses but the findings provide the bases for
making the answers. Hence, the main functions of
the findings are to provide bases for making the
conclusions.

The Waste Managers were given a list of

Management options to choose from. These
included dumping, composting, reduction, reuse,
burning and burying. A larger proportion of the
interviewees of BENSESA choose dumping as the
management method adopted by the Agency.
This is line with the researchers observation where
waste irrespective of the type of waste or
composition, was mixed together without any
means of separation or segregation.