1

Chapter 1
LOAD CALCULATIONS

In this chapter we review the structural basics of metal building systems. We begin with a
brief discussion of the structural loads (or loads, for simplicity) that the systems typically must carry,
the methods of combining these loads, and the methods of analysis.
Loads cause stresses, deformations and displacements in structures. Assessment of their
effects is carried out by the methods of structural analysis. Excess load or overloading may cause
structural failure, and hence such possibility should be either considered in the design or strictly
controlled. Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or
specifications. Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection. Building
codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to
face during their service life, while remaining fit for use. Minimum loads or actions are specified in
these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and materials of
construction.
Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause. Of course, in terms of the
actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs
for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models as follows. To meet the
requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, Building codes prescribe that, for
structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These factors are, roughly, a ratio of the
theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in service. They are developed to help
achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure based on probabilistic studies that take into
account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or dynamic nature.

Dead Loads

1. Dead loads means total wt of the building including its components. This includes frames,
purlins, sheeting, bracing and connections.
2. Generally for the design of frames in STAAD, we used to take the wt for sheeting and purlins.
We will consider insulation wt if provided with weld mesh, Roof liner with sub girts.
3. Generally collateral loads used to consider in dead loads. But for the purpose of criticality, we
used to consider collateral loads like light fixing loads, false ceiling loads, solar panel loads
etc., in live loads.

1.1. Live loads

1. Live load includes all loads that the structure is subjected to during erections, maintenance
and usage throughout the lifetime of the structure. Live load is specified by the applicable
code.
2. Live load refers to the weight of building occupants, furniture, storage items, portable
equipment, and partitions. Other sources of live load arise during construction, repair, or
maintenance of the building, and these are even more difficult to predict and quantify.

1. 0.57 KN/SQM is applicable as per MBMA 1986/1990 for category-1 (low hazard to human life
like agricultural buildings, temporary facility buildings, minor stage buildings) buildings.
2. The roof live load as per ASCE/MBMA codes ranges between 0.57 kN/m2 and 0.96 kN/m2.
 2

3. 0.75 KN/SQM is applicable as per IS 875- 1987 PART 2. Sloping roof with slope greater than
10 degrees, For roof membrane sheets or purlins 0.75 kN/SQM less 0.02 kN/SQM for every
degree increase in slope over 10 degrees. But Subject to a minimum of 0.4 kN/SQM.
4. For curved roof with slope of line obtained by joining springing point to the crown with the
horizontal, greater than 10 degrees, ( 0.75 - 0.52 Sqr(Y) ) kN/Sqm. But Subject to a minimum
of 0.4 kN/Sqm, where y = h, l, h = the height of the highest point of the structure measured
from its springing and l = chord width of the roof singly curved and shorter of the two sides
if doubly curved.

1.2. Wind loads

1. To design wind-resisting structures, the engineers need to know how to quantify the wind
loading and distribute it among various building elements. Unfortunately, the wind effects on
buildings are still not perfectly understood, the continuing research results in frequent
building code revisions.
2. Most modern building codes contain maps specifying design wind speed in miles per hour or
meter per sec for various locales. Design wind speed used to be defined as the fastest-mile
wind speed measured at 10 m above the ground and having an annual return probability of
0.02.
3. The 1995 and later editions of ASCE 7 and IS 875-1987 however, define it as the maximum
three-second gust, reflecting a new method of collecting 50 years data by the National
Weather Service.
4. By using the code-provided formulas, it is possible to translate wind speed into a
corresponding velocity pressure in kilo Newton per square area. From the velocity pressure,
the design wind pressure on the building as a whole can be determined as a function of
height and exposure category that accounts for local ground surface conditions.
5. Winds can damage buildings in four basic ways:
Component damage, when a part of the building fails. Some examples include a roof
being blown off, wall siding torn out, or windows shattered.
Total collapse, when lack of rigidity or proper attachments causes the building to fall apart
like a house of sticks.
Overturning, when the building stays in one piece and topples over, owing to insufficient
weight and foundation anchorage.
Sliding, when the building stays in one piece but loses its anchorage and slides
horizontally.
6. The application of wind load on a structure varies from one code of practice to another code.
7. As per IS 875- 1987 Part 3, the design wind speed (V z) = V bK 1K 2K 3 m/s
Where, V b = Basic Wind speed m/s.
K1 = Probability factor (Risk Co-efficient).
K2 = Height And terrain factor.
K3 = Topography factor.
2
Design wind pressure Pz =0.6V z N/Sqm.
Now the wind force acting normal to individual structure (F) = ( C peC pi )AP z .
Where, Cpe = External wind co-efficient.
Cpi = Internal wind co-efficient.
A = Structural area of the structural member.
 3

2
8. As per MBMA - 1996, Wind pressure (q) = 5
2.4510 V H 7
2

Where, q = Velocity pressure in kM/Sqm,

V = Specific wind sped in Km/hr .
H = Mean roof ht above ground in m > 4.57 m.
Now design wind Pressure (P) = I wq(GC p)
Where Iw = Importance factor form table 5.2(a) of MBMA 1996
GCp = Wind pressure co-efficient.

9. As per IS 875- 1987 part 3, percentage of openings is below 5%, we can clacify it as enclosed
building. If percentage of openings is in between 5% and 20%, we can clacify it as partially
enclosed building. If it is more than 20%, fully open.
10. As per MBMA 1996- opening condition is different. Refer the code.

1.3. Earthquake Loads

 4

1. The first classic theory holds that the majority of earthquakes originate when two segments
of the earth crust collide or move relative to each other. The movement generates seismic
waves in the surrounding soil that are perceived by humans as ground shaking; the waves
diminish with the distance from the earthquake epicentre. The wave analogy explains why
earthquakes are cyclical and repetitive in nature.
2. The second seismic axiom states that, unlike wind, earthquake forces are not externally
applied. Instead, these forces are caused by inertia of the structure that tries to resist ground
motions. As the earth starts to literally shift away from the building, it carries the building
base with it, but inertia keeps the rest of the building in place for a short while. From
Newtons first law, the movement between two parts of the building creates a force equal to
the ground acceleration times the mass of the structure. The heavier the building, the larger
the seismic force that acts on it.
3. Factors affecting the magnitude of earthquake forces on the building include the type of soil,
since certain soils tend to amplify seismic waves or even turn to a liquid like consistency (the
liquefaction phenomenon). The degree of the buildings rigidity is also important. In general
terms, the design seismic force is inversely related to the fundamental period of vibration;
the force is also affected by the type of the buildings lateral load-resisting system.
4. The notion of ductility, or ability to deform without breaking, is central to modern seismic
design philosophy. Far from being just desirable, ductility is fundamental to the process of
determining the level of seismic forces. The building codes may not explicitly state this, but a
certain level of ductility is required in order for the code provisions to be valid.
5. Without ductility, the design forces could easily have been four or five times larger than
those presently specified. The systems possessing ductile properties, such as properly
detailed moment-resisting frames, may be designed for smaller seismic forces than those
with less ductility, such as shear walls and braced frames.
6. Most building codes agree that the structures designed in accordance with their seismic
code provisions should resist minor earthquakes without damage, moderate earthquakes
without structural damage, but with some non-structural damage, and major ones without
collapse.
7. Since the magnitude of the actual earthquake forces is highly unpredictable, the goal of
collapse avoidance requires the structure to deform but not to break under repeated major
overload. The structure should be able to stretch well past its elastic region in order to
dissipate the earthquake-generated energy.
8. To achieve this goal, the codes are filled with many prescriptive requirements and design
limitations; particular attention is given to the design details, since any disruption of the load
path destroys the system.
9. It is important to keep in mind that real-life seismic forces are dynamic rather than static,
even though their effects are commonly approximated in practice by a so-called equivalent
static force method. This method is used partly for practicality, as dynamic analysis methods
are quite cumbersome for routine office use, and partly for comparison of the results to
those of wind-load analysis and using the controlling loading to design against overturning,
sliding, and other modes of failure.
10. The actual formulas for determination of seismic forces differ widely among the building
codes and even among the various code editions. In general, these formulas start with the
 5

weight of the structure and multiply it by several coefficients accounting for all the factors
discussed above.

As per IS 1893 - 2002

Z
I
2
1. Horizontal seismic co-efficient, (Ah) = S a
R
g
Where, Z= Zone factor,
I = Importance factor,
R= Response reduction factor,
Sa/g = Average response acceleration co-efficient.
Design Seismic Base shear, VB = Ah * W
Where W = Seismic wt of the building.
Load = Dead load + 50% of Live load (If LL >3.5 kN/Sqm)
Dead load + 25% of Live load (If LL <3.5 kN/Sqm)
W i H 2i
VB n
2. If no of floors are there, then seismic Base shear along height (Q i) =
W j H 2j
j =1
Where W= Seismic weight of the floor.
H = Height of the floor measured from base.

As per MBMA -1996

3. Seismic design Co-efficient (Cs) = 2.5 * Ca/R

Where R = Reduction Factor
4. Seismic Base shear VB = Cs * W
Where W = Seismic wt of the building.
Load = Dead load + 50% of Live load (If LL >3.5 kN/Sqm)
Dead load + 25% of Live load (If LL <3.5 kN/Sqm)

1.4. Crane loads

As per IS 875 -1987 Code:

1. For vertical loads for electric overhead cranes, we have to consider 25 percent of maximum
static loads for crane girders for all classes of cranes.
2. For Horizontal forces transverse to rails, we have to consider 10 percent of weight of crab
and the weight lifted by the cranes, acting on any one crane track rail. acting in either
direction and equally distributed amongst all the wheels on one side of rail track.
3. For Horizontal traction forces along the rails for overhead cranes, either electrically operated
or hand operated, we have to consider 5 percent of all static wheel loads.

As per MBMA - 1996 Code:

1. Wheel load: The maximum wheel load for a bridge crane shall be calculated as the end truck
wheel load produced with the trolley loaded at rated capacity and positioned at the same
end of the bridge as the wheel load being calculated.
 6

2. Vertical impact: The maximum wheel load used for the design of runway beams, including
monorails, their connections and support brackets, shall be increased by the percentage of
25 % for cab operated electrical cranes.
3. Lateral force: The lateral force on bridge crane runway beams with electrically powered
trolleys shall be calculated as 20 percent of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and
the weight of the hoist and trolley.
4. Longitudinal force: Runway beams, including monorails, their connections, and the
longitudinal bracing system shall be designed to support horizontal forces calculated as 10
percent of the maximum wheel loads excluding vertical impact.

S DETAIL
No TYPES OF CRANES
1 These type of Cranes moves on crane beams rests on main frame
GANTRY CRANES columns
2 This type of Cranes moves on crane beams one side rests on main
SEMI GANTRY frame column, another side column comes along with crane
3 The monorail crane moves only in direction. The wheels of which
MONO RAIL ride on the bottom flange of a single runway beam.
4 These cranes are connected to single column. It turns circularly by
JIB CRANES carrying loads.
WALL MOUNTED It moves as like gantry cranes, but supports on a single column like
5 CRANES(CONSOLE cantilever beam and carries loads. Three crane beams are required
CRANES) to support these type of cranes.

S TYPES OF AS PER CMAA (CRANE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA)

No CLASSES STANDARDS
USES IN INFREQUENT PURPOSES, THESE CRANES WILL KEEP IN
1 CLASS A
STANDBY
USES IN LIGHT WT SERVISES WHERE LIFTS ARE 2-5 PER HOUR.
2 CLASS B
MOVING SPEED IS LOW
USES IN MODERATE WEIGHTS WHERE LIFTS ARE 5-10 PER HOUR WITH
3 CLASS C
MIN 50 % CAPACITY.
USES IN HEAVY WEIGHTS WHERE LIFTS ARE 10-20 PER HOUR WITH
4 CLASS D
MIN 65 % CAPACITY.
USES IN SEVER WEIGHTS WHERE LIFTS ARE MORE THAN 20 PER HOUR
5 CLASS E
WITH FULL RATED CAPACITY.
6 CLASS F USES IN CONTINEOUS WEIGHT WITH FULL RATED CAPACITY.

CRANE LOAD CALCULATIONS

VERTICAL LOAD (50 % of Crane Wt + Crab Wt + Crane capacity)/No of wheels on each

side.
LATERAL LOAD Lateral Impact factor percentage x (Crane Wt + Crab Wt) / 100.
LONGITUDINAL
LOAD Longitudinal Impact factor percentage x (Crane Wt + Crab Wt) / 100
 7

Crane System guide lines

1 Crane bracket ht can be assumed as hook ht as bracket ht

2 Generally crane brackets 0.65 m is sufficient unless they given.
3 Min crane bracket size = 400x8+220x10.
4 Provide crane brackets up to 20 MT cranes
5 Provide stepped column from 20 MT to 60 MT cranes
6 Provide separate column with main column lacing for above 60mt cranes
7 Consider bumper distance for cranes as 0.5 m (normally).
8 Consider bracing for crane beams (for longitudinal force).
9
Cap channel of mc 250 can provide till 180 fw, mc 300 till 220 fw and mc 400 till 330 fw.
10 Built-up crane beam can provide with surge girder without cap channel. (economical if
they ask walkway.)
11 Serviceability checking for crane beam and frames as per design codes.
12 For wall mounted cranes, three crane beams need to design
1. At bottom of crane placed vertically to support vertical loads.
2.at bottom of crane placed horizontally to support horizontal loads.
3.at top of crane placed horizontally to support horizontal loads.
13 Load cases for cranes as per no of cranes in no of modules.
14 Load combinations for cranes as per design.

SPECIFICATIONS IS 800 - 2007 AISC - 1989

DEFLECTION LIMITS
MAIN FRAME- HORZ DEFLECTIO H/150 H/60
VERTICAL DEFLECTION (DL+LL) L/180 L/180
VERTICAL DEFLECTION (DL+WL) L/180 L/150
SECONDARIES (PURLINS) L/150 L/150
SECONDARIES (GIRTS) L/150 L/120
CRANE BEAM (VERTICAL) L/750 L/600
CRANE BEAM (HORIZONTAL) H/500 H/400
MEZZ BEAM (VERT DEFLECTION) L/240 L/240
JOIST BEAM (VERT DEFLECTION) L/240 L/240
MAIN FRAME-(CRANE) HORZ DEFLECTION H/200 H/100
MAIN FRAME-(MEZZ) HORZ DEFLECTION H/200 H/100
WIND COLUMN H/150 H/120
CANOPY L/120 L/90
UNDER SLUNG CRANES L/750 L/450
LOADS & COMBINATION
COMBINATION FOR DESIGN 1.5(DL+LL) 1.0(DL+LL)
1.5(DL+WL) 0.75(DL+WL)
1.5(DL+SL) 0.75(DL+SL)
1.2(DL+LL+WL) 0.75(DL+LL+WL)
1.2(DL+LL+SL) 0.75(DL+0.5LL+SL)
0.9DL+1.5WL
CRANE-CL CRANE -CL
 8

1.5(DL+CL) 1.0(DL+CL)
1.5DL+1.5LL+1.05CL 0.75(DL+0.5WL+CL)
1.5DL+1.05LL+1.5CL 0.75(CR WT+SL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+0.6WL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+1.2WL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+0.6WL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+1.2WL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+0.6SL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+1.2SL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+0.6SL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+1.2SL)
CHAPTER-12
0.9DL+2.5SL
1.2DL+0.5LL+2.5SL
COMBINATION FOR SERVICEABILITY 1.0(DL+LL) 1.0(DL+LL)
1.0(DL+WL) 1.0(DL+WL)
1.0(DL+SL) 1.0(DL+SL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8WL 1.0(DL+LL+0.5WL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8SL 1.0(DL+0.5LL+SL)
CRANE-CL CRANE -CL
1.0(DL+CL) 1.0(DL+CL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8CL 1.0(DL+0.5WL+CL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8CL+0.8WL 1.0(CR WT+SL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8CL+0.8SL
SECTION LIMITAION
Fw/Ft 23 30
Wd/Wt 170 137.5
Wd/Fw 5 or 6 5 or 6
Ft/Wt 2.5 2.5
EFFECTIVE LENGTH (KZ) 2 (PINNED SUPPORT) 2(PINNED SUPPORT)
1.2(FIXED SUPPORT) 1.2(FIXED SUPPORT)
BRACING ANGLE-->TUBE ROD-->ANGLE-->TUBE
L/350 (ANGLE -- EXCL SEC
SLENDERNESS RATIO 12) L/350
L/350 (TUBE -- EXCL SEC 12) L/350
L/120 (TUBE -- INCL SEC 12)
WELDING DOUBLE SIDE WELDING SINGLE SIDE WELDING
DL BASED ON MATERIAL BASED ON MATERIAL
LL 0.75 0.57
CODE OF PRACTISE
BUILT-UP SECTIONS IS 800 - 2007 AISC-1989
COLD FORMED SECTIONS IS801 AISI
WIND LOAD IS875-PART-3 ASCE-7
SESMIC LOAD IS1893-2002 ASCE-7

1.5. Steel material specifications

 9

The material properties of the structural steel members are as listed below.
Youngs modulus, E - 210,000N/mm2
Shear Modulus, G - 80,000 N/mm2
Density - 7850 kg/m3
Poissons ratio - 0.3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion- 11.7 x 10 -6/0C

1.6. Material Specifications

1. Generally for all built-up sections, and secondaries are 345 Mpa Strength materials are using.
2. All hot rolled members are 250 Mpa are using.
3. Sheeting is 345 Mpa and 550Mpa.
4. All bolts, anchor bolts are considered as 345 Mpa.
 10

Chapter 2
GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF BUILDINGS

Planning and organising different buildings is an important step for designed before proceeds
with the design of individual components. The following parameters of the building configurations
effects the building efficiency and economy.
1. Main frame configuration (Orientation, type, roof slope and eave ht.)
2. End wall system (type and spacing)
3. Bay spacing (Optimum)
4. Expansion joints (number and location)
5. Bracing system and arrangement (number and location)
6. Roof purlins and wall girts ( Type, connection, lap length and spacing of purlins or girts.)
7. Mezzanine floor - beams/columns (type, loading, orientation and spacing)
8. Crane system (Capacity and service class)

2. 1. Main Frame and Configuration

Main frames are the basic supporting components of the building. It provides the vertical
support for the whole building and in addition to providing lateral stability. Longitudinal stability in
other direction usually achieved by bracing.
Mostly the frames span the short distance (width) of the building. This will result in more number of
light frames rather than less number of heavy frames and also reduce wind bracing force resulting in
lighter bracing system.
Generally the width and length of the building can be given in o/o of building, o/o of column
flanges, c/c of columns, I/I of column flange etc. Eave ht is the vertical distance from the bottom of
base plate to the top of eave strut. Clear ht is the vertical distance from the bottom of base plate to
the bottom of rafter bottom flange at eave.
Main frame members are built-up with tapered or straight. While deciding the depth of the
section at various locations, the most economical shape is achieved by following the bending
moment diagram of the section. Pinned base columns are mostly tapered and fixed base columns are
mostly straight. Interior columns are mostly straight. If interior column is pinned, we can go with
tapered column also.
Generally below types of frames are available.
1. Clear span frames (Single span rigid frames).
2. Multi span frames
3. Mono slope frames
4. Lean to frames.
5. Space saver frames
6. Roofing system
7. Multi gable frames (Multi gable-clear span, Multi gable-multi span)
8. Canopy frames (L type canopy and butterfly canopy)

2.1.1. Clear Span Frames (Single span rigid frames)

Clear span frames are single gable frames providing full width clear spacing inside the
building. This type of frames are used when an unobstructed working area required in the building
like auditoriums, showrooms, aircraft hangers etc.
 11

Clear span rigid frames are suitable and economical when

Width is in the range of 20 to 30 m.
Headroom at the exterior walls is not critical.
Depending on sway we can design the columns as fixed or pinned. Generally eave ht up to
8m, we can give tapered columns with pinned base.

2.1.2. Multi span Frames (BC1, BC2 etc..)

When the clear space inside the building is not crucial requirement, then multi span rigid
frame offers greater economy and theoretically unlimited size. Building wider than around 90m
experience a built up of temperature stresses and requires temperature load analysis and design.
Generally interior columns are straight with pinned support unless otherwise give large
spacing, heavy loads, crane loads etc. For optimization purpose we can make pinned connection at
the top to the rafter. The bottom flange of the rafter at interior column should be straight in order
facilitate proper connection. Multi span rigid frames may have straight or tapered columns, the latter
usually at the exterior. The rafters are normally tapered.
The attachments between the interior columns and
the rafters are usually assumed as pinned, rather than full
moment connections, and the columns are designed as
members with purely axial loads. The relatively high shear
stresses in the rafters above the columns often require web
stiffeners.
Generally multi span frames are most economical when width of the building is more than
30m and width of the module is in between 15 to 25m. Depending on sway condition, we can design
exterior columns as fixed or pinned. Generally eave ht up to 8m, we can give exterior columns as
tapered columns with pinned base.
Though there are some disadvantages of such a framing system include:
The susceptibility to differential settlement of column supports,
locations of the interior columns are difficult to change in future
Longer un-braced interior columns especially for wider buildings.
Horizontal sway may be critical and governing the design in case of internal columns pined with
rafter.
 12

2.1.3. Mono slope Frames (Single Slope Frames)

Mono-Slope or single-slope framing system is an alternative to gable type of frame that may
be either Clear Span or multi-span. Mono-Slope configuration results in more expensive framing than
the gable type.
Mono-Slope framing system is frequently adopted where:
i) Rainwater needs to be drained away from the parking areas or from the adjacent buildings
ii) Larger headroom is required at one sidewall
iii) A new building is added directly adjacent to an existing building and it is required to avoid:
The creation of a valley condition along the connection of both buildings.
The imposition of additional loads on the columns and foundations of the existing building.

2.1.4. Lean-to Frames

Lean-To is not a self-contained and stable framing system rather an add-on to the existing
building with a single slope. This type of frame achieves stability when it is connected to an existing
rigid framing. Usually column rafter connection at knee is pinned type, which results in lighter
columns. Generally columns and rafters are straight except that rafters are tapered for larger widths
(> 12m). For clear widths larger than 18m, tapered columns with moment resisting connections at
the knee are more economical.
Lean-To framing is typically used for building additions, equipment rooms and storage. For larger
widths Multi-Span-Lean-To framing can be adopted with exterior column tapered and moment
connected at the knee.
13
2.1.5. Space Saver Frames
Space Saver framing system offers straight columns, keeping the rafter bottom flange
horizontal for ceiling applications with rigid knee connection. Selection of Space Saver is appropriate
when:
i) The frame width is between 6m to 18m and eave height does not exceed 6m.
ii) Straight columns are desired.
iii) Roof slope of < 0.5:10 are acceptable.
iv) Customer requires minimum air volume inside the building especially in cold storage ware houses.

2.1.6. Roof System

A Roof System framing consists of beam (rafter) resting onto a planned or an existing
substructure. The substructure is normally made of concrete or masonry. The rafter is designed in
such a way to result in only vertical reaction (no horizontal reaction) by prescribing a roller support
condition at one end. The roller supports are provided at one end by means of roller rods.
If the roller support condition is not properly achieved in reality and only slotted holes are
provided at one end then a horizontal reaction HR has to be considered for the design of supporting
system. HR is calculated as:
HR = VR
Where,
= Coefficient of friction between steel and steel.
VR = Vertical reaction at that end.

2.1.7. Multi- Gable Frames

 Multi-Gable buildings are not recommended due to maintenance requirement of valley
region, internal drainage and bracing requirement inside the building at columns located at valley.
Especially in snow areas, Multi-Gable framing should be discouraged. However for very wide
buildings this type of framing offers a viable solution due to:
Reduced height of ridge and thus the reduced height of interior columns, and
Temperature effects can be controlled by dividing the frame into separate structural
segments
Thus, Multi-Gable buildings are more economical than Multi-Span buildings for very wide
buildings. Multi- Gable frames may be either Clear Spans or Multi-Spans. The columns at the valley
location should be designed as rigidly connected to rafters on either side using a vertical type of
connection.

2.1.8. Canopy Frames

Butter fly canopy and L-canopy frames consists straight built-up sections for columns and
rafters. Columns are fixed at base. these types of frames are used for parking purpose.

2.2. Roof Slope:

Building roof slopes plays a major role in behaviour of a frame. Substantial reduction in steel
rigid frame weight can be achieved by using steeper slopes for clear spans of larger widths.
Higher roof slopes may result in heavy frames in the case of Multi-Span frame buildings due
to the longer interior columns. Higher roof slopes help reduce the deflection in wider span buildings.
In the areas of high snow higher roof slopes (slopes > 1:10) help reduce the snow loads if snow load
governs.
Higher roof slope tends to increase the prices of fascias since fascias are designed to cover
the ridge. Also increased height of fascias cause the rise in frame weight due to additional wind
forces from fascias. However roof slope starts from 1:5 needs sag rods between purlins thus adding
to the price of the building.

2.3. Eave Height:

Eave height is governed by:
Clear height at eave (head clearance)
Mezzanine clear heights below beam and above joist
Crane beam / Crane hook heights
Minimize eave height to the bare minimum requirement since the eave height affects the
price of the building by adding to the price of sheeting, girts and columns. If columns are unbraced
eave height affects the frame weight significantly. Also higher eave heights increase the wind loads
on the building. If eave height to width ratio becomes more than 0.8 then the frame may have a fixed
based design in order to control the lateral deflection.

2.4. Bay Spacing:

For standard loads the most economical bay spacing is around 7.5m. For greater loads than
standard loads the economical bay spacing tends to decrease. For buildings with heavy cranes (crane
capacity > 10 MT) the economical bay spacing ranges between 6m and 7m.
Smaller end bays than interior bays will taper off the effect of higher deflection and bending
moment in end bays as compared to interior bays and help reduce the weights of purlins/girts in the
end bays. This will avoid the need of nested purlins/girts in the end bays and result in uniform size of
purlin/girt sizes.
Some buildings require bay spacing more than 10m in order to have a greater clear space at
the interior of the building in Multi-Span buildings. Such a situation can be handled by providing jack
beams that support the intermediate frames without interior columns. Thus the exterior columns
will have bay spacing of say 6m while the interior columns are spaced at 12m. Intermediate frames
allow the purlin to span for 6m.

2.5. Expansion Joint

The maximum length of the building without any expansion joint can be calculated using
following formula.
max
L=
KE T
Where,
max = Maximum Allowable Expansion in cm.
L = Length of building in cm.
E = Coefficient of linear expansion (0.0000117/ oC)
T = Temp. Difference in oC
K = 1.0 for building without air-conditioning
= 0.7 for building with air-conditioning
= 0.55 for building with heating and air-conditioning

As per IS 800 -2007, expansion joint can be given for every 180m. Generally we can give
expansion joint for every 220m.

2.6. Roof Purlins and Wall Girts

Secondary structural members span the distance between the primary building frames of
metal building systems. They play a complex role that extends beyond supporting roof and wall
covering and carrying exterior loads to main frames. Secondary structural, as these members are
sometimes called, may serve as flange bracing for primary framing and may function as a part of the
buildings lateral loadresisting system.
Roof secondary members, known as purlins, often form an essential part of horizontal roof
diaphragms; wall secondary members, known as girts, are frequently found in wall bracing
assemblies. A third type of secondary framing, known by the names of eave strut, eave purlin, or
eave girt, acts as part purlin and part girtits top flange supports roof panels, its web, wall siding.
Roof purlins are to be arranged according to the following guide lines as applicable:
a. Generally cold form sections are considered for purlins and girts. (345Mpa).
b. First purlin from ridge has to take 0.34m away from ridge centre. Immediate one next to first
purlin has to take 1.16m.
c. The spacing between eave strut and first roof purlin from eave should not more than 1.1m.
d. Generally the intermediate spacing between roof purlins are considered as 1.5m
e. Nested purlins can be considered in end bays. But should not consider nested purlins at
successive bays. Connection problem will arise.
f. If sheeting from FFL, first wall girt should be 2.2 m from FFL. Generally the intermediate spacing
between wall girts are considered as 2.0 m
g. The lap length between purlins or girts should not be more than 1412mm (706mm+706mm).
h. Sag rods or Sag angles has to consider to support the purlins or girts in minor axis direction. The
spacing between sag rods or sag angles should not more than 2.5m for economical purpose.
i. Sag rods (or sag angles) are carrying load coming in minor axis direction. So if width is high, we
need to check the sag rods capacity also. Later we will discuss sag rods (or sag angles) design.
j. Flange bracing connects purlins (or girts) and bottom flange of rafter (or inner flange of
columns) to give support in minor axis direction of rafters (or columns). Flange bracings will
carry 1.4% of axial load coming from the column or rafter.
k. If load on sheeting or purlin is high, then we can consider hot rolled or built-up simply
supported purlins. Wall girts can be consider flush (Simply supported) or bi-pass(Continuous).
l. If roof slope is more than 1/10, we need to consider clips to support purlins.
m. If sheeting is away from column flange, we can go with clips up to 75mm. If gap is high, we need
to consider brackets to support girts.
n. In later chapters we will discuss the design of purlins, sag rods, flange bracings etc.

2.7. Bracing Systems Arrangement

Bracing is a structural system used to provide stability in a structure in a direction where applied
forces on that structure would otherwise make it unstable. Whether it is a force due to wind, crane
or seismic applications, the bracing system will always eventually transmit that load down to the
column base and then to the foundations.
The rules of arranging different types of bracing systems are as follows
2.7.1. Bracing for wind and seismic loads in the longitudinal direction
a. In long buildings, braced bays shall be provided in intervals not to exceed five bays.
b. A braced bay shall not be located in the end bay of a building if the end wall system at the end
is Light End Frame.
c. Sidewall bracing shall be generally placed in the same bays of roof bracing. This may not be
possible at times due to openings in the sidewalls. In such cases, sidewall bracing shall be
placed in bays adjacent to those containing the roof bracing with a consideration that load
transfers to the adjacent bays.
d. Rod / Angle/ Tube braces shall not exceed 12m in length. If a cross bracing contains rods longer
than 12m, then the bracing should be broken to two sets of bracings with a strut member
between them so that the rod / angle/ tube lengths shall not exceed 12 m.
e. 8. Sidewall bracing shall be comprised of any one of the following types:
Rods or Angles or Tubes
Portal frames with / without rods or angles.
f. There shall be only one type of bracing in the same sidewall. Do not mix different type /
material in the same sidewall.
g. It is preferable to use only one type of wall bracing in the whole building otherwise the lateral
loads (especially seismic loads) will not be divided equally between bracing lines, For cases
 when this will result in excessive weight for bracing system advanced calculation is to be done
to determine the force that will be carried by each type depending on its stiffness and
location.
h. End wall bracing is not required for a fully sheeted LEF end wall with flush girt construction. If
LEF end walls have by-framed girts then this end wall needs bracing.
i. If an end wall requires bracing and the customer requests that no bracing to be placed in the
plane of the end wall, then it is recommended that the load in the plane of the end wall is
transferred back to the first rigid frame through additional roof bracing in the end bay.
j. In wide buildings, if end wall bracing is required, it shall be provided in intervals not to exceed
five end wall sections.
2.7.2. Crane Bracing
a. In crane buildings, bracing has to be designed for longitudinal crane loads for top running or
underhung cranes. The bracing shall be placed in intervals not to exceed five bays.
b. For side wall columns, cut the bracing at crane beam level.
c. For intermediate columns provide longitudinal cross bracing from crane beam to rafter at
every braced bay and run a tube every braced bay (for longitudinal force due to crane at
intermediate columns.
d. In stepped columns and double laced columns, separate bracing has to provide for crane
longitudinal force up to crane beam level in addition to the wind bracing.
e. For longitudinal running monorails, longitudinal and cross bracing should be considered.(if it is
hanged from roof.)
f. For longitudinal running monorails, no need to consider bracing.(if its supporting beams
hanged from columns perpendicularly.)
g. Longitudinal bracing for top running cranes shall be comprised of any one of the following
types.
Rods (for cranes with a capacity of 15 tons or less)
Angles (for cranes with capacity exceeding 15 tons)
Portal frame with rods (or angles)
Portal frame without rods (or angles)
h. Longitudinal bracing for top running cranes shall be of only one type in the same longitudinal
plane of a building.
i. Longitudinal bracing for underhung cranes shall consist of either rods or angles.
j. Lateral bracing for underhung cranes (attached to crane brackets), if any shall consist of
either rods or angles.
k. Whenever a brace rod is used for crane bracing, the minimum diameter of that rod shall be
20mm.
 Chapter 3
MAIN FRAMING DESIGN
Main frame method of design, the choice of haunch depths, haunch lengths and splice
location has a significant effect on the economy of the building as a whole. STAAD Pro software is
used for the design of main frame.
Members may have variable properties along their lengths. Such Members are called non-
prismatic elements and the stiffness coefficients for such Members are calculated by STAAD Pro. End
forces at nodes due to intermediate member loading are also calculated by software STAAD Pro.
STAAD Pro is a general purpose structural analysis and design program with applications
primarily in the building industry - commercial buildings, bridges and highway structures, industrial
structures, chemical plant structures, dams, retaining walls, turbine foundations, culverts and other
embedded structures, etc.
The program hence consists of the following facilities to enable this task.
Graphical model generation utilities as well as text editor based commands for creating the
mathematical model. Beam and column members are represented using lines. Walls, slabs and
panel type entities are represented using triangular and quadrilateral finite elements.
Analysis engines for performing linear elastic and p-delta analysis, finite element analysis,
frequency extraction, and dynamic response (spectrum, time history, steady state, etc.).
Design engines for code checking and optimization of steel, aluminium and timber members.
Reinforcement calculations for concrete beams, columns, slabs and shear walls. Design of shear
and moment connections for steel members.
Result viewing, result verification and report generation tools for examining displacement
diagrams, bending moment and shear force diagrams, beam, plate and solid stress contours,
etc.
Peripheral tools for activities like import and export of data from and to other widely accepted
formats, links with other popular softwares for niche areas like reinforced and pre stressed
concrete slab design, footing design, steel connection design, etc.
A library of exposed functions called Open STAAD which allows users to access STAAD Pros
internal functions and routines as well as its graphical commands to tap into STAADs database
and link input and output data to third-party software written using languages like C, C++, VB,
VBA, FORTRAN, Java, Delphi, etc. Thus, Open STAAD allows users to link inhouse or third-party
applications with STAAD Pro.

1. Main Frame Design Procedure as per IS 800 - 2007

STAAD Pro is capable of performing steel design based on the Indian code IS 800 - 2007
General construction in steel - Code of practice. For steel design, STAAD compares the actual design
forces with the capacities as defined by the Indian Standard Code. The IS 800: 2007 Code is used as
the basis of this design.
A brief description of some of the major capacities is described herein. The following
command should be used to initiate design per Limit State Method of this code: CODE IS800 LSD
Design Process for steel structures as per IS 800 -2007
The design process follows the following design checks.
1. Slenderness
2. Section Classification
3. Tension
4. Compression
5. Shear
6. Bending
7. Combined Interaction Check
All of the design check criteria are described in the following sections. When a design is
performed, the output file reports the maximum utilization ratio from all the above mentioned
checks.
3.1.1. Slenderness
As per Section 3.8 Table 3 of IS 800 - 2007, the slenderness ratio (KL/r) of compression
members shall not exceed 180, and the slenderness ratio (L/r) of tension members shall not exceed
400. We can edit the default values through MAIN and TMAIN parameters.

3.1.2 Section Classification

The IS 800: 2007 specification allows inelastic deformation of section elements. Thus local
buckling becomes an important criterion. Steel sections are classified as Plastic, Compact, Semi-
Compact, or Slender element sections depending upon their local buckling characteristics. This
classification is a function of the geometric properties of the section as well as nature of the load
applied to the member.
The design procedures are different depending on the section class. STAAD is capable of
determining the section classification for the standard shapes and design the section for the critical
load case accordingly. The Section Classification is done as per section 3.7 of IS 800 - 2007 and Table
2, for Outstanding and Internal Elements of a section. For the criteria for being included in those
classes, refer to section 3.7.2-(a) (d) of the code.
Slender Sections
STAAD Pro is capable of designing I-Sections with slender webs for IS 800:2007. This feature
requires STAAD Pro V8i (SELECT series 3) or higher. The IS:800-2007 code does not provide any clear
guidelines about what method should be adopted for the design of slender section. The "Flange
Only" methodology is used where it is assumed that flexure is taken by the flanges alone and the
web will resist shear with adequate shear buckling resistance. This method requires that the flanges
be non-slender elements (i.e., on the web is a slender element) to qualify for a valid section for
design. If any of the flange elements become slender, the design will not be performed and a
warning message is displayed in the output.

3.1.3. Tension
The criteria governing the capacity of Tension members are based on:
Design Strength due to Yielding in Gross Section
Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section
Design Strength due to Block Shear
STAAD calculates the tension capacity of a given member based on these three limit states.
The limit state of yielding in the gross section is intended to prevent excessive elongation of the
member, and the corresponding check is done as per section 6.2 of the code. The Design strength,
involving rupture at the section with the net effective area, is evaluated as per section 6.3 of the
code. Here, the number of bolts in the connection may be specified through the use of the design
parameter ALPHA.
 The Design strength, involving block shear at an end connection, is evaluated as per section
6.4 of the code. This criteria is made optional by the parameter DBS. If the value of DBS is specified
as 1, additional design parameters AVG, AVN, ATG, and ATN must be supplied to the program for that
member. The Net Section Area may be specified through the use of the parameter NSF.

3.1.4. Compression
The design capacity of the section against Compressive Force, the guiding phenomenon is
the flexural buckling. The buckling strength of the member is affected by residual stress, initial bow
and accidental eccentricities of load. To account for all these factors, the strength of the members
subjected to axial compression is defined by buckling class a, b, c or d as per clause 7.1.2.2 and Table
7 of IS 800:2007. Imperfection factor, obtained from buckling class, and Eulers Buckling Stress
ultimately govern compressive force capacity of the section as per clause 7.1.2 of IS 800:2007.
Slender Sections
For member with slender section under axial compression, design compressive strength should be
calculated on area ignoring depth thickness ratio of web in excess of the class 3 (semi-compact)
limit.
Refer to clause 7.3.2 and Table 2 of IS 800:2007, (corresponding to Internal Element of Compression
Flange)
Ae= Ag - (d/tw - 42) tw^2
Where:
Ae = Effective area of section.
Ag = Gross area of section.
d = Depth of web.
tw = thickness of web.

3.1.6. Shear
The design capacities of the section against Shear Force in major- and minor-axis directions are
evaluated as per section 8.4 of the code, taking care of the following phenomena:
Nominal Plastic Shear Resistance
Resistance to Shear Buckling
Shear area of the sections are calculated as per sec. 8.4.1.1. Nominal plastic shear resistance is
calculated as per sec. 8.4.1. Among shear buckling design methods, Simple post-critical method is
adopted as per sec. 8.4.2.2(a).
Slender Sections
Slender sections should be verified against shear buckling resistance if d/tw > 67 for web
without stiffeners or if it exceeds 67 (Kv5.35) for a web with stiffeners. Design methods for
resistance to shear buckling are described in clause 8.4.2.2 of IS:800-2007 code.
Vn = Vcr
Where:
Vcr = shear force corresponding to web buckling = Av x b
b = shear stress corresponding to web buckling, determined as follows:
When w 0.8 b= fyw3
When 0.8 < w < 1.2 b= [1 - 0.8(w - 0.8) ](fyw3)
When w 1.2 b= fyw((3 w
Where w = Non-dimensional web slenderness ratio or shear buckling stress, given by:
 = [ fyw(3 cr,e )]1/2
cr,e = elastic critical shear stress of the web
= (kv2E)/[12(1 - 2 ) (dtw)2]
Where
= Poissons ratio and
Kv = 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are provided only at supports
= 4.0 + 5.35/(c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 5.35 + 4.0/(c/d)2 for c/d 1.0
where, c = spacing of transverse stiffeners
d = depth of the web

3.1.5. Bending
The design bending moment capacity of a section is primarily dependent on whether the
member is laterally supported or unsupported. You can control the lateral support condition of the
member by the use of LAT parameter.
If the member is laterally supported, then the design strength is calculated as per the
provisions of the section 8.2.1 of IS 800:2007, based on the following factors:
Whether section with webs susceptible to shear buckling before yielding
Shear Force to Design Shear Strength Ratio
Section Classification
If the member is laterally unsupported, then the design strength is calculated as per the
provisions of the section 8.2.2 of IS 800:2007, based on the following factors:
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Section Classification
Combined Interaction Check
Slender Sections
For member with slender section subjected to bending, moment is taken by flanges alone.
Design bending strength should be calculated with effective elastic modulus disregarding the
contribution of web of the section.
Zez = 2[ Bf x tf^3/12 + (Bf x tf) x (D/2 - tf/2)2 )] (0.5 x D)
Zey = 2( Bf x tf^3/12) (0.5 x Bf)
Where:
Zez = Elastic Section modulus about major principal axis.
Zey = Elastic Section modulus about minor principal axis.
Bf = Width of flange.
Tf = thickness of flange.
D = Overall depth of section.
The Moment Capacity will be Md = Ze fy/m0 for Laterally Supported condition.
The Moment Capacity will be Md = Ze fbd/m0 for Laterally Un-Supported condition.
Where, fbd is defined in clause 8.2.2 of IS 800 - 2007.

3.1.6. Combined Interaction Check

Members subjected to various forces axial, shear, moment, torsion - are checked against
combined interaction check.
This interaction check is done taking care of two aspects:
 Section Strength
Overall Member Strength
Section Strength interaction ratio is calculated as per sec. 9.3.1 of the code. Overall Member Strength
interaction ratio is calculated as per sec. 9.3.2, taking care of the design parameters PSI, CMX, CMY
and CMZ.
Star Angle Arrangements
STAAD Pro can design "star angle" sections (double angles, toe to toe) per IS 800:2007.
Members using this section must be axial only (i.e., use TRUSS specification). It is assumed that the
star angle arrangement is a welded shape. Plated shapes are not accounted for in the program
Note: This feature requires STAAD Pro V8i (SELECT series 4) or higher. The internal cross section
properties are calculated for the principal axes and are checked for Tension and Compression limit
states as described in this section.
Design Parameters
The program contains a large number of parameter names which are required to perform design and
code checks. These parameter names, with their default values, are listed in the following table.

Parameter Name Default Value Description

CODE --- Must be specified as IS800 LSD
ATG None (Mandatory for Block Minimum Gross Area in Tension from the bolt hole
Shear check) to the toe of the angle, end bolt line, perpendicular
to the line of the force. This parameter is applicable
only when DBS = 1.0
ATN None (Mandatory for Block Minimum Net Area in Tension from the bolt hole to
Shear check) the toe of the angle, end bolt line, perpendicular to
the line of the force. This parameter is applicable
only when DBS = 1.0
AVG None (Mandatory for Block Minimum Gross Area in shear along bolt line
Shear check) parallel to external force. This parameter is
applicable only when DBS = 1.0
AVN None (Mandatory for Block Minimum Net Area in shear along bolt line parallel
Shear check) to external force. This parameter is applicable only
when DBS = 1.0
BEAM 1.0 0.0 = design at ends and those locations specified
by the SECTION command.
1.0 = design at ends and at every 1/12th point along
member length (default).
CMX 0.9 Equivalent uniform moment factor for Lateral
Torsional Buckling(as per Table 18, section 9.3.2.2)
CMY & CMZ Cm value in local Y & Z axes, as per Section 9.3.2.2.
DBS 0.0 Check for Design against Block Shear:
0 =Design against Block Shear will not be performed
1 = Design against Block Shear will be performed
DFF None (Mandatory for "Deflection Length" / Maximum allowable local
deflection check) deflection.
FYLD 250 MPA Yield Strength of Steel in current units.
KX 1.0 Effective Length Factor for Lateral Torsional Buckling
(as per Table-15, Section 8.3.1)
KY 1.0 K value in local Y-axis. Usually, the Minor Axis.
KZ 1.0 K value in local Z-axis. Usually, the Major Axis.
LAT 0.0 Specifies lateral support of beam, as per Section
8.2.1 and 8.2.2, respectively: 0 = Beam is laterally
unsupported 1 = Beam is laterally supported
LX Member Length Effective Length for Lateral Torsional Buckling (as
per Table-15, Section 8.3.1)
LY Member Length Length to calculate Slenderness Ratio for
buckling about local Y axis.
LZ Member Length Length to calculate Slenderness Ratio for
buckling about local Z axis.
MAIN 180 Allowable Slenderness Limit for Compression
Member (as per Section 3.8)
TMAIN 400 Allowable Slenderness Limit for Tension
Member (as per Section 3.8)
RATIO 1.0 Permissible ratio of the actual to allowable
stresses.
STP 1 Specifies the section type per Table 2 and
Table 10: 1 = Hot rolled section, 2 = Welded section
TRACK 0 Controls the levels of detail to which results are
reported. 0 = Minimum detail, 1 = Intermediate
detail level, 2 = Maximum detail
2. Main Frame Design Procedure as per IS AISC - ASD &LRFD

2.1. Types of Design Procedures

2.1.1. Ultimate Design Method (LRFD)
In this method, also known as the strength design method, the loads are added together in
various combinations, using load factor multipliers for each load and modifying the total by a
probability factor. The resulting combined load is then compared to the ultimate capacity of the
structure. The load factors reflect a degree of uncertainty and variability of the loads, as was already
mentioned.
For steel design, this method is followed in the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings published by the American Institute of Steel Construction,
that contains a list of load combinations similar to those of ASCE 7. The LRFD method of structural
analysis provides a more uniform reliability than the allowable stress design discussed below and
may become prevalent in the future for structural steel buildings.
Further, the users of LRFD in metal building systems may actually be at a disadvantage relative to the
users of the allowable stress design method (ASD). The load factors of LRFD (1.2 for dead and 1.6 for
live load) have been established to ensure an equal level of reliability with ASD at a certain ratio of
live to dead loads. Below this ratio, LRFD generally provides a more economical design; above it, ASD
does.
It is easy to find what ratio of live to dead load provides the same level of reliability for both
LRFD and ASD methods. At that ratio, the average (global) LRFD load factor should be 1.5, which is
also the implied safety factor of ASD method (recall that the allowable bending stress in compact
wide flange members is 0.66Fy , inverting which yields 1.5). So, for the dead load of, say, 1.0 kN and
the live load of R times 1.0 kN, the following equation can be constructed to find the ratio R:
1.0 x 1.2 + R x 1.0 x 1.6 = ( R + 1 ) x 1.5
From this equation, the break-even ratio of live to dead load R is 3.0. As the reader
certainly knows, in metal building systems the dead load is extremely small (typically 0.1 to 0.2
kN/sqm), and any realistic design level of live or snow loading will exceed the dead load by a factor of
more than 3.0, making ASD design more economical for this type of construction.
2.1.2. Allowable Stress Design Method (ASD)
In this method, some fractions of loads that represent perceived probabilities of the
simultaneous load occurrence are added together in various combinations. The total stress level
from the loads in each combination is then computed and compared with the allowable stress value
(expressed as a function of the yield stress for steel members). The allowable stress can usually be
increased by one third for wind or earthquake loading. There is no universal agreement or a single
best way to combine the loads acting on the building.
Specifiers should follow the provisions of the governing building code, or, if not available, of
a nationally recognized standard such as ASCE 7 modified for project conditions if needed. For single
story metal building systems, the following basic load combinations used to be commonly
specified:
Dead + roof live load
Dead + wind (or earthquake)
Dead + roof live load + earthquake
Dead + 1/2 wind (or earthquake) + roof live load
Dead + wind (or earthquake) + 1/2 roof live load
 ASCE 7, since its 1995 edition, is using another approach to combining loads, where the
effects of all the loads are essentially simply added together. For metal building systems subjected
only to dead, live, roof live, wind, and earthquake loads, the critical ASD load combinations are as
follows:
Dead + roof live load [+ some other loads such as temperature and soil pressure]
Dead + wind (or earthquake)
Dead + roof live load + wind (or earthquake)
If there are two or more loads acting in addition to the dead load, the total of those loads
(excluding the dead load) may be reduced by a factor of 0.75. The total shall not be less than the
effect of the dead load plus the largest unreduced load. No further stress increase is permitted for
these load combinations. The earthquake load is excluded from being reduced in this manner, and
there are separately defined load combinations when this load is present.
The load combinations in the latest editions of ASCE 7 are more severe than those listed
previously, because the one-third stress increase for wind acting in combination with dead load is not
allowed, and because the extreme levels of both snow and wind loading are simply combined.
There are two sets of combinations for the allowable stress design method. The first one (basic) is
similar to the combinations of ASCE 7 (1995 and later editions), but its combinations involving only
dead and lateral loads are:
0.6 Dead + wind
0.6 Dead + 0.7 earthquake
The IBCs second (alternate) set of load combinations has been already described. One
code provision quite relevant to metal building systems concerns the alternate load combination of
dead + wind. In that combination, the code allows using only two-thirds of the of the minimum
dead load likely to be in place during a design wind event.
The dead load in load combinations should include collateral load if that increases the total
effect. Collateral load should be ignored for uplift determination in the dead + wind combination
but included when the wind acts downward. Thermal loading, not included in the above basic
combinations, should be considered when appropriate, as discussed above.
Occasionally, projects may require that some nonstandard load combinations be considered,
whether based on the local code provisions or on engineering judgment. In this case, the specifiers
should bring the manufacturers attention to this requirement early at the bidding or negotiating
stage and be prepared to persevere in the face of some resistance to altering routine practice and
the available computer programs.
2.2. Allowable per AISC Code (9th Edition)
STAAD contains a broad set of facilities for designing structural members as individual
components of an analyzed structure. The member design facilities provide the user with the ability
to carry out a number of different design operations. These facilities may be used selectively in
accordance with the requirements of the design problem.
The operations to perform a design are:
Specify the members and the load cases to be considered in the design.
Specify whether to perform code checking or member selection.
Specify design parameter values, if different from the default values.
These operations may be repeated by the user any number of times depending upon the
design requirements. Currently, STAAD supports steel design of wide flange, S, M, HP shapes, tees,
angle, double angle, channel, double channel, pipes, tubes, beams with cover plate and composite
beams (I shapes with concrete slab on top).
For steel design, STAAD compares the actual stresses with the allowable stresses as defined
by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Code. The ninth edition of the AISC Code, as
published in 1989, is used as the basis of this design (except for tension stress). Because of the size
and complexity of the AISC codes, it would not be practical to describe every aspect of the steel
design in this manual. Instead, a brief description of some of the major allowable stresses are
described herein.
2.2.1. Section Classification
The LRFD specification allows inelastic deformation of section elements. Thus local buckling
becomes an important criterion. Steel sections are classified as compact, non-compact or slender
element sections depending upon their local buckling characteristics. This classification is a function
of the geometric properties of the section. The design procedures are different depending on the
section class. STAAD Pro is capable of determining the section classification for the standard shapes
and design accordingly. The Section Classification is done as per section B5 and Table B5.1, for
Stiffened and Un-Stiffened Elements of a section.
2.2.2. Axial Tension
The design strength of tension members, (tPn or Pn/t) shall be the lower value obtained according
to the limit states of yielding in the gross section and fracture in the net section.
Tensile Yielding in Gross Section
The limit state of yielding in the gross section is intended to prevent excessive elongation of the
member, and the corresponding check is done as per section D2-(a) of the code.
Pn = Fy Ag For LRFD design, t = 0.90 and for ASD design t = 0.60
Tensile Rupture of Net Section.
The second limit state involves fracture at the section with the minimum effective net area, and
the corresponding check is done as per section D2-(b) of the code.
Pn = Fu Ae For LRFD design, t = 0.75 and for ASD design t = 0.50.
where
Ae = effective net area, (mm2)
Ag= gross area of member, (mm2)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, (MPa)
Fu= specified minimum tensile strength, (MPa).
STAAD calculates the tension capacity of a given member based on these two limit states.
The Net Section Area may be specified by the user through the use of the parameter NSF. The
Effective Net Area of tension members can be determined by using the Shear Lag Factor. We can also
input the shear lag factor through the use of the parameter SLF.
When members without holes are fully connected by welds, the effective net section used in
Equation D1-2 shall be as defined in Section B3. When holes are present in a member with welded-
end connections, or at the welded connection in the case of plug or slot welds, the net section
through the holes shall be used in Equation D1-2.
The longitudinal spacing of connectors between elements in continuous contact consisting of
a plate and a shape or two plates shall not exceed: neither 24 times the thickness of the thinner
plate nor 300mm, for painted members or unpainted members not subject to corrosion. 14 times
the thickness of the thinner plate nor 175mm, for unpainted members of weathering steel subject to
atmospheric corrosion. A tension member the longitudinal spacing of fasteners and intermittent
welds connecting two or more shapes in contact shall not exceed 600mm.
The longitudinal spacing of connectors between components should preferably limit the
slenderness ratio in any component between the connectors to 300.
Either perforated cover plates or tie plates without lacing are permitted to be used on the
open sides of built-up tension members. Tie plates shall have a length not less than two-thirds the
distance between the lines of welds or fasteners connecting them to the components of the
member. The thickness of such tie plates shall not be less than one-fiftieth of the distance between
these lines. The longitudinal spacing of intermittent welds or fasteners at tie plates shall not exceed
150 mm. The spacing of tie plates shall be such that the slenderness ratio of any component in the
length between tie plates should preferably not exceed 300.
2.2.3. Axial Compression
This section applies to compact and non-compact prismatic members subject to axial
compression through the centroidal axis. The Design Compressive Strength (LRFD), (c xPn), and the
Allowable Compressive Strength (ASD), (Pn/c), are calculated by the program. The Nominal
Compressive Strength, Pn, shall be the minimum value obtained according to the Limit States of
Flexural Buckling,
Torsional Buckling, and
Flexural-Torsional Buckling.
The Nominal Compressive Strength, Pn, for a particular member is calculated by STAAD
according to the procedure below. For slender elements, the procedure described below. Effective
length for calculation of compression resistance may be provided through the use of the parameters
KY, KZ. If not provided, the entire member length will be taken into consideration.
In addition to the compression resistance criterion, compression members are required to
satisfy slenderness limitations which are a function of the nature of use of the member (main load
resisting component, bracing member, etc.). In both the member selection and code checking
process, STAAD immediately does a slenderness check on appropriate members before continuing
with other procedures for determining the adequacy of a given member.
For members whose design is based on compressive force, the slenderness ratio Kllr
preferably should not exceed 200. Allowable compressive stress on the gross section of axially loaded
compression members is calculated based on the formula E-1 in the AISC Code, when the largest
effective slenderness ratio (Kl/r) is less than Cc. If Kl/r exceeds Cc, allowable compressive stress is
decreased as per formula 1E2-2 of the Code.

cc=
2 2 E
Fy
The maximum diagonal spacing of bolts, rivets or intermittent welds connection two rolled in
contact shall not exceed 600mm In addition, for painted members and unpainted members not
subject to corrosion where the outside component consists of a plate, the maximum longitudinal
spacing shall not exceed:
127/ F y times the thickness of the outside plate nor 300mm when fasteners are not
staggered along adjacent gage lines.
190/ F y times the thickness of the outside plate nor 450mm when fasteners are staggered
along adjacent gage lines.
Compression members composed of two or more rolled shapes separated by intermittent
fillers shall be connected at these fillers at intervals such that the slenderness ratio KlIr of either
shape, between the fasteners, does not exceed 3/4 times the governing slenderness ratio of the
built-up member. Open sides of compression members built up from plates or shapes shall be
provided with lacing having tie plates at each end and at intermediate points if the lacing is
interrupted. Tie plates shall be as near the ends as practicable. In main members carrying calculated
stress, the end tie plates shall have a length of not less than the distance between the lines of
fasteners or welds connecting them to the components of the member. Intermediate tie plates shall
have a length not less than Yz of this distance. The thickness of tie plates shall not be less than 1/50
of the distance between the lines of fasteners or welds connecting them to the components of the
member. In bolted and riveted construction, the spacing in the direction of stress in tie plates shall
not be more than 6 diameters and the tie plates shall be connected to each component by at least 3
fasteners. In welded construction, the welding on each line connecting a tie plate shall aggregate not
less than 1/3 the length of the plate.
Lacing includes flat bars, angles, channels or other shapes employed as lacing, shall be so
spaced that the ratio l/r of the flange included between their connections shall not exceed 3/4 times
the governing ratio for member as a whole. Lacing shaII be proportioned to resist a shearing stress
normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the total compressive stress in the member. The
ratio l/r for lacing bars arranged in single systems shall not exceed 140. For double lacing this ratio
shall not exceed 200. Double lacing bars shall be joined at their intersections. For lacing bars in
compression the unsupported length of the lacing bar shall be taken as the distance between
fasteners or welds connecting it to the components of the built-up member for single lacing, and
70% of that distance for double lacing. The inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the member shall
preferably be not less than 600 for single lacing and 450 for double lacing. When the distance
between the lines of fasteners or welds in the flanges is more than 15 in., the lacing preferably shall
be double or be made of angles. the ratio of length (in direction of stress) to width of holes shall not
exceed 2; the clear distance between holes in the direction of stress shall be not less than the
transverse distance between nearest lines of connecting fasteners or welds; and the periphery of the
holes at all points shall have a minimum radius of 38mm.
2.2.4. Bending Stress
This chapter applies to compact and non-compact prismatic members subject to flexure and
shear. Beams shall be distinguished from plate girders on the basis of the web slenderness ratio h/t,.
When this value is greater than 970/(Fy) the allowable bending stress is given in Chapter G6.
The purpose of bending coefficient Cb is to account for the influence of the moment gradient
on lateral-torsional buckling. This coefficient can be specified by the user through the use of
parameter CB (see Table 2.6) or may be calculated by the program (if CB is specified as 0.0). In the
absence of the parameter CB, a default value of 1.0 will be used. The procedure for calculation of
design strength for flexure also accounts for the presence of residual stresses of rolling. To specify
laterally unsupported length, either of the parameters UNB and UNT can be used.
ASD(Allowable Stress Design)
(i). When Lb Lr
When Allowable bending stress for tension and compression for a symmetrical member
loaded in the plane of its minor axis, Fb = 0.66Fy
If meeting the requirements of this section of:
Compact sections (bf/2tf 65/(Fy) and bf/tf 190/(Fy), d/t 640(1 - 3.74 (fa/Fy))/(Fy) when
(fa/Fy) < 0.16, or than 257/(Fy) if (fa/Fy) > 0.16 )
 Lb Lr (The laterally unsupported length shall not exceed 76.0 bf/Fy (except for pipes or tubes),
nor 20,000/(d Fy/Af))
If for these symmetrical members, the section is Semi-compact section (bf/2tf exceeds
65/(Fy), but is less than 95/(Fy)),

(
Fb =F v 0.790.002
( ))
bf
2tf
Fy

(ii). When Lb > Lr

For other symmetrical members which do not meet the above, Fb is calculated as the larger
value computed as per AISC formulas F1-6 or F1-7 and F1-8 as applicable, but not more than 0.60Fy.
When Lb > Lr (The laterally unsupported length exceeds 76.0 bf/Fy (except for pipes or tubes),
nor 20,000/(d Fy/Af)).

When
102 103 Cb l
Fy

rT
510 103 C b
Fy
[ ]
2

Fb =
2

T
Fy
( rl )
F 0.6 F y
3 1530 103 C b y

When l
rT
>

510 103 Cb
Fy

[ ]
3
170 10 C b
Fb = 2
0.6 F y
l
( )
rT
where
I = distance between cross sections braced against twist or lateral displacement of the compression
flange, in. For cantilevers braced against twist only at the support, 1 may conservatively be taken as
the actual length.
r, = radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange plus 1/3 of the compression
web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web, in.
2
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 (M1/M2) + 0.3 (M1/M2) , but not more than 2.3
Tension and compression for the double symmetric (I & H) sections with bf/2tf less than
65/(Fy) and bent about their minor axis, Fb = 0.75 Fy. If bf/2tf exceeds 65/(Fy), but is less than
95/(Fy), Fb = Fy(1.075 - 0.005(bf/2tf)(Fy).
LRFD(Load and Resistance Factor Design)
In LRFD, the flexural design strength of a member is determined by the limit state of lateral
torsional buckling. Inelastic bending is allowed and the basic measure of flexural capacity is the
plastic moment capacity of the section. The flexural resistance is a function of plastic moment
capacity, actual laterally unbraced length, limiting laterally unbraced length, buckling moment and
the bending coefficient. The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and buckling moment Mr are
functions of the section geometry and are calculated as per the procedure of Chapter F.
 The nominal flexural strength (Mn) is the lowest value obtained according to the limit states
of: (a) yielding; (b) lateral-torsional buckling; (c) flange local buckling; and (d) web local buckling. For
laterally braced compact beams with Lb Lp, only the limit state of yielding is applicable. For
unbraced compact beams and non-compact tees and double angles, only the limit states of yielding
and lateral-torsional buckling are applicable. The lateral-torsional buckling limit state is not
applicable to members subject to bending about the minor axis, or to square or circular shapes. This
section applies to homogeneous and hybrid shapes with at least one axis of symmetry and which are
subject to simple bending about one principal axis. For simple bending, the beam is loaded in a plane
parallel to a principal axis that passes through the shear centre or the beam is restrained against
twisting at load points and supports. Only the limit states of yielding and lateral-torsional buckling
are considered in this section. The lateral-torsional buckling provisions are limited to doubly
symmetric shapes, channels, double angles, and tees.
1. For Yielding
Mn = 1.5 My = 1.5 (Fy x S)
2. For Lateral Torsional Buckling
(i). When Lb Lr

[
M n=C b M p (M p M r )
[ ]]
LbL p
Lr L p
Mp

(ii). When Lb > Lr

[ [ ] ]
2
C E
M n= b EI y GJ + I yCw M p
Lb Lb
Where,
Lb = distance between points braced against lateral displacement of the compression flange, or
between points braced to prevent twist of the cross section, in. (mm)
Lp = limiting laterally unbraced length as defined below, in. (mm)
Lr = limiting laterally unbraced length as defined below, in. (mm)
Mr = limiting buckling moment as defined below, kip-in. (N-mm)
In the above equation, Cb is a modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams where,
when both ends of the beam segment are braced:
12.5 M max
Cb =
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C
where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the unbraced beam segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced beam segment, kip-in. (N-
mm)
Cb is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases. Equations F1-4 and F1-6 are
conservatively based on Cb = 1.0. For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is unbraced, Cb =
1.0.
The limiting unbraced length, Lp, shall be determined as follows.

L p=1.76 r y
E
F yf
The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment Mr shall be
determined as follows.
r y X1
Lr =
FL
1+ 1+ X 2 F 2L
M r=F L S x

X 1=
Sx
EGJA
2
2

X 2=
I y GJ[ ]
4 Cw S x

Where,
Sx = section modulus about major axis, (mm3)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, (200 000 MPa)
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel, (77 200 MPa)
FL = smaller of (Fyf _ Fr) or Fyw ,(MPa)
Fr = compressive residual stress in flange 69 MPa for rolled shapes, 114 MPa for welded built-up
shapes.
Fyf = yield stress of flange, (MPa)
Fyw = yield stress of web, (MPa)
Iy = moment of inertia about y-axis, (mm4)
Cw = warping constant, (mm6)
2.2.5. Design for Shear
The Design Shear Strength (LRFD), (v x Vn), and the Allowable Shear Strength (ASD), (Vn/v), are
calculated by the program, as per the AISC 9th edition specifications.
This section applies to unstiffened webs of singly or doubly symmetric beams, including
hybrid beams, and channels subject to shear in the plane of the web. For the design shear strength
of webs with stiffeners, see Appendix F2 or Appendix G3.
ASD(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN)
For h/tw < 380/(Fy), on the overall depth times the web thickness, the allowable shear
stress is Fv = 0.40 Fy
For 380/(Fy) < h/tw < 260, the allowable shear stress is on the clear distance between
Fy
flanges times the web thickness is F v= ( C ) 0.40 F y
2.89 v
45000 k v
C v= 2
Where, h , When Cv < 0.8
Fy
( )
tw

190
h
tw
kv
Fy , When Cv >0.8.

5.34
Where, Kv = 4.00 + a 2 when a/h <1
h ()
 4.00
2
= 5.34 + a when a/h >1
()
h
tw = thickness of web, in.
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, in.
h = clear distance between flanges at the section under investigation, in.
LRFD(Load and Resistance Factor Design
The design shear strength of unstiffened webs, with h / tw 260, v = 0.90
(a) For h / tw < 2.45 E / Fyw
Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
(b) For 2.45 E / Fyw < h / tw < 3.07 E / Fyw

( )
E
2.45
F yw
V n=0.6 F yw A w
h
tw
The general design shear strength of webs with or without stiffeners is given in Appendix
F2.2. The Nominal Shear Strength, Vn, of un-stiffened or stiffened webs, is calculated taking care of
limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling. The sections G4 to G7 of the code specifications are
used to evaluate Nominal Shear Strength, Vn for different types of rolled sections.
2.2.6. Design for Combined Forces
The strength of members subjected to combined stresses shall be determined according to the
provisions of this chapter H. The interaction of flexure and axial forces in singly and doubly
symmetric shapes is governed by sections H1 and H3. These interaction formulas cover the general
case of biaxial bending combined with axial force and torsion. They are also valid for uni-axial
bending and axial force.
ASD(allowable stress design)
Axial Compression and Bending:
Members subjected to both axial compression and bending stresses shall be proportioned to satisfy
the following requirements:
fa Cmx f bx C my f by
+ + 1.0
Fa fa fa
( 1
F '
ex
) (
F bx 1
F '
ey
) F by
(H1-1)

fa f f
+ bx + by 1.0 (H1-2)
0.6 F y F bx F by

When fa/Fa 0.15, Equation (Hl-3) is permitted in lieu of Equations (Hl-1) and (Hl-2):

f a f bx f by
+ + 1.0 (H1-3)
F a F bx F by

Where,
Fa = axial compressive stress that would be permitted if axial force alone existed, ksi
Fb = compressive bending stress that would be permitted if bending moment alone existed, ksi
'
Fey = Euler stress divided by a factor of safety, ksi (In the expression for FL, Eb is the actual
unbraced length in the plane of bending and rb is the corresponding radius of gyration. K is the

12 2 E
K lb 2
effective length factor in the plane of bending.) =
23
( )rb
fa = computed axial stress, ksi
fb = computed compressive bending stress at the point under consideration, ksi
Cm= Coefficient whose value shall be taken as follows:
a. For compression members in frames subject to joint translation (sidesway), Cm = 0.85.
b. For rotationally restrained compression members in frames braced against joint translation and
not subject to transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm =0.60.4 (M 1/ M 2)
where M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger moments at the ends of that portion of the
member unbraced in the plane of bending under consideration. M,/M2 is positive when the
member is bent in reverse curvature, negative when bent in single curvature.
c. For compression members in frames braced against joint translation in the plane of loading and
subjected to transverse loading between their supports, the value of Cm may be determined by
an analysis. However, in lieu of such analysis, the following values are permitted:
For members whose ends are restrained against rotation in the plane of bending, Cm = 0.85
For members whose ends are unrestrained against rotation in the plane of bending, Cm = 1.0
Axial Tension and Bending:
Members subject to both axial tension and bending stresses shall be proportioned at all points along
their length to satisfy the following equation:
f a f bx f by
+ + 1.0
F t F bx Fby
where fb is the computed bending tensile stress, fa is the computed axial tensile stress, Fb is the
allowable bending stress and Ft is the governing allowable tensile stress.
LRFD(Load and Resistance Factor Design)
Axial Tension and Bending:
The interaction of flexure and tension in symmetric shapes shall be limited by Equations H1-1a and
H1-1b.
Pu Pu 8 M ux M uy
i. For
Pn
0.2, + ( +
Pn 9 b M nx b M ny )
1.0

Pu Pu M ux M uy
i. For
Pn
< 0.2, + ( +
2 Pn b M nx b M ny )
1.0

where
Pu = required tensile strength, kips (N)
Pn = nominal tensile strength determined in accordance with Section D1, kips (N)
Mu = required flexural strength determined in accordance with Section C1, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mn = nominal flexural strength determined in accordance with Section F1, kip-in. (N-mm)
x = subscript relating symbol to strong axis bending
y = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
 = t = resistance factor for tension (see Section D1)
b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
Axial Compression and Bending:
The interaction of flexure and compression in symmetric shapes shall be limited by above equations.
where
Pu = required compressive strength, kips (N)
Pn = nominal compressive strength determined in accordance with Section E2, kips (N)
= c = resistance factor for compression = 0.85 (see Section E2)
b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90

2.2.7. Torsion per Publication T114

The AISC 89 code of specifications for steel design currently does not have any provisions specifically
meant for design of sections for Torsion. However, AISC has published a separate document called
Torsional Analysis of Steel Members which provides guidelines on transforming torsional moments
into normal stresses and shear stresses which can then be incorporated into the interaction
equations explained in Chapter H of the AISC 89 code. The guidelines of the publication have now
been incorporated into the AISC-89 steel design modules of STAAD.
To consider stresses due to torsion in the code checking or member selection procedure, specify the
parameter TORSION with a value of 1.0. See Table 2.1 for more details.
Methodology
If the user were to request design for torsion, the torsional properties required for calculating the
warping normal stresses, warping shear stresses and pure shear stresses are first determined. These
depend of the "boundary" conditions that prevail at the ends of the member. These boundary
conditions are defined as "Free", "Pinned" or "Fixed". They are explained below:
Free
represents the boundary condition such as that which exists at the free end of a cantilever beam. It
means that there is no other member connected to the beam at that point.
Pinned
represents the condition that corresponds to either a pinned support defined at the joint through
the Support command or a release of any of the moments at the joint through a Member Release
Specification.
Fixed
represents the condition where a fixed support exists at the joint. In the absence of a support at that
joint, it represents a condition where a rigid frame connection exists between the given member and
at least one other member connected to that joint. Also, no member releases should be present at
that joint on the given member.
After the boundary conditions are determined, the normal and shear stresses are determined. The
guidelines specified in the publication T114 for concentrated torsional moments acting at the ends of
the member are used to determine these stresses.
The warping normal stresses are added to the axial stresses caused by axial load. These are then
substituted into the interaction equations in Chapter H of the AISC 89 code for determining the ratio.
The plane shear and warping shear stresses are added to the shear stresses causes by actual shear
forces and compared against the allowable shear stresses on the cross section.
Torsional boundary conditions at a joint where a FIXED BUT type of support is specified
 If the end of a the member is declared a FIXED BUT type of support, the torsional boundary
conditions at that end are determined in the following manner. If the member framing into that
support does not have any "member releases" specified at that node, then,
a. If all of the 3 translational degrees of freedom at that support are either free to displace, or
have a spring, then, that end of the member is considered torsionally FREE.
Example: 45 FIXED BUT MX MY MZ KFX 75 KFY 115
In this example, at joint 45, a spring has been specified along KFX and KFY, and, no restraint is
provided for translation along global Z. So, the member which has joint 45 as one of its nodes is
considered torsionally free at joint 45.
b. If any of the 3 translational degrees of freedom at that support are restrained, and, any of the
moment degrees of freedom are unrestrained or have a spring, then, that end of the member is
considered torsionally PINNED.
Examples: 78 FIXED BUT FX MZ
In this example, joint 78 is prevented from translation along global Y and Z, and free to rotate
about global Z. So, the member which has joint 78 as one of its nodes is considered torsionally
PINNED at joint 78.
Examples: 17 FIXED BUT MX MY
In this example, joint 17 is prevented from translation along global X, Y and Z, and free to rotate
about global X and Y. So, the member which has joint 17 as one of its nodes is considered
torsionally PINNED at joint 17.
Examples: 85 FIXED BUT FZ MZ KFY 1.0E8 KMX 1.6E6
In this example, the joint is prevented from translation along global X, has a rotational spring for
resisting moments about global X and is free to rotate about global Z. So, the member which has
joint 85 as one of its nodes is considered torsionally PINNED at joint 85.
Restrictions:
This facility is currently available for Wide Flange shapes (W, M & S), Channels, Tee shapes,
Pipes and Tubes. It is not available for Single Angles, Double Angles, members with the PRISMATIC
property specification, Composite sections (Wide Flanges with concrete slabs or plates on top), or
Double Channels. Also, the stresses are calculated based on the rules for concentrated torsional
moments acting at the ends of the member.
2.2.8 Design Parameters
The program contains a large number of parameter names which are needed to perform designing
and code checking. These parameter names, with their default values, are listed in below table.
These parameters communicate design decisions from the engineer to the program. The default
parameter values have been selected such that they are frequently used numbers for conventional
design. Depending on the particular design requirements of an analysis, some or all of these
parameter values may have to be changed to exactly model the physical structure.
Parameter Name Default Value Description
CODE ---- Used to designate this code
CODE AISC
BEAM 1.0 0.0 = design at ends and those locations specified by the
SECTION command.
1.0 = design at ends and at every 1/12th point along
member length (default).
CB 1.0 Cb value as used in Section 1.5 of AISC. Use 0.0 to direct
the program to calculated Cb. Any other value be used in
 lieu of the program calculated value.
CMY & CMZ 0.85 for side sway Cm value in local y and z axes, respectively.
and calculated for no
side sway
DFF None (Mandatory for "Deflection Length" / Maximum allowable local deflection.
deflection check)
DINC 1 Incremental depth value used in the design of tapered
sections.
FYLD 250 MPA Yield Strength of Steel in current units.
KX 1.0 K value used in computing KL/r for flexural torsional
buckling for tees and double angles.
KY 1.0 K value in local Y-axis. Usually, the Minor Axis.
KZ 1.0 K value in local Z-axis. Usually, the Major Axis.
LX Member Length Length value used in computing KL/r for flexural torsional
buckling for tees and double angles.
LY Member Length Length to calculate Slenderness Ratio for
buckling about local Y axis.
LZ Member Length Length to calculate Slenderness Ratio for
buckling about local Z axis.
MAIN 0.0 Toggles the slenderness check
0.0 = check for slenderness
1.0 = suppress slenderness
Check Any value greater than 1 = Allowable KL/r in
compression.
RATIO 1.0 Permissible ratio of the actual to allowable
stresses.
OVR 1.0 Overstress factor. All the allowable stress are multiplied by
this number. It may be assigned any value greater than
0.0. It is used to communicate increases in allowable
stress for loads like wind and earthquake.
NSF 1.0 Net Section Factor for tension members, equal to An/Ag,
used to account for reduction in section used for tension.
RDIM 0.0 Dimensions of rectangular openings (at each section,
RDIM has a length term and a depth term see syntax
below). If a member has more than one rectangular
opening they can have different dimensions.
RHOLE None Section locations of rectangular openings along the length
of the member. Maximum three locations can be specified
for each member when there is no circular opening.
SHE 0.0 Option for calculating actual shear stress.
0 = Compute the shear stress using VO/Ib
1 = Computer the shear stress
based on the area of the section element.
STP 1.0 Section Type to determine Fr (compression residual stress
in flange)
1.0 = Rolled section
2.0 = Welded section
TAPER 1.0 Design basis for tapered members
0.0 = Design tapered I-section based on rules of Chapter F
and Appendix B of AISC only. Do not use the rules in
Appendix F of AISC-89.
 1.0 = Design tapered I-sections based on the rules of
Appendix F of AISC-89.
TRACK 0 Controls the levels of detail to which results are reported.
0 = Minimum detail, 1 = Intermediate detail level, 2 =
Maximum detail
TMAIN 300 Allowable slenderness limit for tension members.
TORSION (AISC 360-10 only) Specifies design for torsion per AISC
Design Guide 9.
0 = Do not perform torsion checks
1.0 = Perform torsion check based on rules of AISC T114.
UNB Member Length Unsupported length of the bottom flange for calculating
flexural strength. Will be used only if compression is in the
bottom flange.
UNT Member Length Unsupported length of the top flange for calculating
flexural strength. Will be used only if compression is in the
top flange.

2.2.11. Design Parameters

Steel member design per ANSI/AISC 360-05 and 360-10, Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings,
has been implemented in STAAD.Pro. These specifications are published as part of the AISC Steel
Construction Manual. Since the ASD and the LRFD method are both addressed in those
specifications, they are referred to as UNIFIED.
To use the 2010 edition (default), specify the command:
CODE AISC UNIFIED
CODE AISC UNIFIED 2010
To use the 2005 edition, specify the command:
CODE AISC UNIFIED 2005
Design can be performed according to the provisions for Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
or to the provisions for Allowable Strength Design (ASD), as per section B3 of the code. This
selection of the design methodology can be done through the METHOD parameter.
Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Design according to the provisions for Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) satisfies the
requirements of the AISC, when the design strength of each structural component equals or exceeds
the required strength determined on the basis of the LRFD load combinations.
Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation B3-1 of the Code:
Ru Rn
Where:
Ru = Required Strength (LRFD)
Rn = Nominal Strength,
 = Resistance Factor,
Rn = Design Strength
Design for Strength Using Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
Design according to the provisions for Allowable Strength Design (ASD) satisfies the
requirements of the AISC when the allowable strength of each structural component equals or
exceeds the required strength determined on the basis of the ASD load combinations.
Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation B3-2 of the Code:
Ra Rn/
Where:
Ra = Required Strength (ASD)
Rn = Nominal Strength,
= Safety Factor,
Rn/ = Allowable Strength
2.3.2 Section Classification
The LRFD specification allows inelastic deformation of section elements. Thus local buckling becomes
an important criterion. Steel sections are classified as compact, non-compact or slender element
sections depending upon their local buckling characteristics. This classification is a function of the
geometric properties of the section. The design procedures are different depending on the section
class. STAAD Pro is capable of determining the section classification for the standard shapes and
design accordingly.
The Section Classification is done as per section B4 and Table B4.1, for Stiffened and Un-Stiffened
Elements of a section. Sections are classified as compact, non-compact, or slender-element sections.
For a section to qualify as compact its flanges must be continuously connected to the web or webs
and the width-thickness ratios of its compression elements must not exceed the limiting width-
thickness ratios p from Table B4.1. If the width thickness ratio of one or more compression
elements exceeds p, but does not exceed r from Table B4.1, the section is non-compact. If the
width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds r , the section is referred to as a slender-element
section.
For unstiffened elements supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the
compression force, the width shall be taken as (For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the width)
b is one-half the full-flange width, bf .
For stiffened elements supported along two edges parallel to the direction of the
compression force, the width shall be taken as follows: For webs of built-up sections, h is the distance
between adjacent lines of fasteners or the clear distance between flanges when welds are used, and
hc is twice the distance from the centroid to the nearest line of fasteners at the compression flange
or the inside face of the compression flange when welds are used; hp is twice the distance from the
plastic neutral axis to the nearest line of fasteners at the compression flange or the inside face of the
compression flange when welds are used.

Element Description Compact Non compact

Flexure in flanges of I shaped
sections (singly or doubly

symmetric) ()b
0.38
E
Fy
0.38
Kc E
FL
t
Flexure in web of I shaped
sections (singly or doubly
h
3.76
E
Fy
5.70
E
Fy
symmetric) ( )
tw
As per Table B4.1
Where,
4
K C=

h , but shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
FL = 0.7Fy for minor-axis bending, major axis bending of slender-web built-up I-shaped members,
and major axis bending of compact and non-compact web built-up I-shaped members with Sxt /Sxc
0.7; FL = FySxt /Sxc 0.5Fy for major-axis bending of compact and non-compact web built-up I-
shaped members with Sxt /Sxc < 0.7.
2.3.3 Limit States
2.3.3.1 Axial Tension
The design tensile strength, t Pn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/ t , of tension
members, shall be the lower value obtained according.
Tensile Yielding in Gross Section.
Pn=F y A g
t =0.9 ( LRFD ) t =1.67( ASD)
Tensile Rupture of Net Section.
Pn=F u A e
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00( ASD)
where
Ae = effective net area, in.2 (mm2)
Ag = gross area of member, in.2 (mm2)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, (MPa)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel being used,(MPa)
The limit state of yielding in the gross section is intended to prevent excessive elongation of
the member, and the corresponding check is done as per section D2-(a) of the code.
The second limit state involves fracture at the section with the minimum effective net area,
and the corresponding check is done as per section D2-(b) of the code. The effective area of tension
members shall be determined as follows: Ae = AnxU
where U, the shear lag factor, is determined as shown in Table. Members such as single
angles, double angles and WT sections shall have connections proportioned such that U is equal to or
greater than 0.60. with 4 or more fasteners per line in direction of loading, U = 0.80. with 2 or 3
fasteners per line in the direction of loading, U = 0.60.
For members designed on the basis of tension, the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not
exceed 300. This suggestion does not apply to rods or hangers in tension.
STAAD calculates the tension capacity of a given member based on these two limit states.
The Net Section Area may be specified by the user through the use of the parameter NSF . The
Effective Net Area of tension members can be determined by using the Shear Lag Factor. You can also
input the shear lag factor through the use of the parameter SLF.
Tensile Strength
The design tensile strength, ft Pn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/_t, of pin-connected
members, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of tensile rupture, shear
rupture, bearing, and yielding.
Tensile Yielding in Gross Section.
Pn=F y A g
t =0.9 ( LRFD ) t =1.67( ASD)
For tensile rupture on the net effective area
Pn=2 tb eff Fu
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00( ASD)
For shear rupture on the effective area
Pn=0.6 F u A sf
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00( ASD)
where
Asf = 2t(a + d/2), (mm2)
a = shortest distance from edge of the pin hole to the edge of the member measured parallel to the
direction of the force, (mm)
beff = 2t + 0.63, in. (= 2t + 16, mm) but not more than the actual distance from the edge of the hole
to the edge of the part measured in the direction normal to the applied force.
d = pin diameter, (mm)
t = thickness of plate, (mm)

2.3.3.2 Axial Compression

The Design Compressive Strength (LRFD), c.Pn, and the Allowable Compressive Strength
(ASD), Pn/c, are calculated by the program. The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be the
lowest value obtained according to the limit states of flexural buckling, torsional buckling and
flexural-torsional buckling.
(a) For doubly symmetric and singly symmetric members the limit state of flexural buckling is
applicable.
(b) For singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and certain doubly symmetric members, such
as cruciform or built-up columns, the limit states of torsional or flexural-torsional buckling are also
applicable.
t =0.90 ( LRFD ) t =1.67( ASD)

Limit state of flexural buckling: The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined based on
the limit state of flexural buckling.
Pn=F cr A g
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:
KL
E
[ ]F
QF y
i. When 4.71 , Fe
r QF y FCr =Q 0.658 y

ii.

Where,
When
KL
r
> 4.71
E
QF y
, FCr =0.877 F e
 2
E
2
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress = KL
( ) r
Limit states of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling: The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall
be determined based on the limit states of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling, as follows:
Pn=F cr A g
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:
KL E
[ ]F
QF y
i. When 4.71 , Fe
r QF y FCr =Q 0.658 y

ii.

Where,
When
KL
r
> 4.71
E
QF y , FCr =0.877 F e

[( ]
2
E Cw 1
+GJ
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress = KL
2
Ix+I y
r )
Ag = gross area of member, (mm2)
Cw = warping constant, (mm6)
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel = 77 200 MPa
Ix , Iy = moment of inertia about the principal axes, (mm4)
J = torsional constant, (mm4)
Q = 1.0 for members with compact and non-compact sections, as defined in Section B4, for uniformly
compressed elements
= QsQa for members with slender-element sections, as defined in Section B4, for uniformly
compressed elements.
For cross sections composed of only unstiffened slender elements, Q = Qs (Qa = 1.0). For
cross sections composed of only stiffened slender elements, Q = Qa (Qs = 1.0). For cross sections
composed of both stiffened and unstiffened slender elements, Q = QsQa.
Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

i.
b
When 0.64
t
E KC
Fy , Qs=1

ii. When 0.64

E KC b
< 1.17
Fy t
E KC
Fy ,

0.90 E K c
Qs=1.4150.65 ( bt ) EKF
y

iii.
b
When > 1.17
t
E KC
Fy ,
Q s=
Fy () b
t
2

where
4
kc=

h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes
tw
Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa
The reduction factor, Qa, for slender stiffened elements is defined as follows:
 A
Q a=
Aeff
where
A = total cross-sectional area of member, (mm2)
Aeff = summation of the effective areas of the cross section based on the reduced effective width, be,
(mm2)
The reduced effective width, be, is determined for uniformly compressed slender elements,

[ ( ) ]
E 0.34 E
be =1.92 t 1 b
with
b
t
1.49
E
f
, f b
t
f

where f is taken as Fcr with Fcr calculated based on Q = 1.0.

The Nominal Compressive Strength, Pn, for a particular member is calculated by STAAD
according to the procedure outlined in Chapter E, section E3 to E5, of the unified code specifications.
For slender elements, the procedure described in section E7 is used. Effective length for calculation
of compression resistance may be provided through the use of the parameters KY, KZ. If not
provided, the entire member length will be taken into consideration. In addition to the compression
resistance criterion, compression members are required to satisfy slenderness limitations which are a
function of the nature of use of the member (main load resisting component, bracing member, etc.).
For members designed on the basis of compression, the slenderness ratio KL/r preferably should not
exceed 200. In both the member selection and code checking process, STAAD immediately does a
slenderness check on appropriate members before continuing with other procedures for determining
the adequacy of a given member.
2.3.3.3 Flexural Design Strength
This chapter applies to members subject to simple bending about one principal axis. For
simple bending, the member is loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes through the
shear centre or is restrained against twisting at load points and supports.
The Design Flexural Strength (LRFD), bMn, and the Allowable Flexural Strength (ASD),
Mn/b, are being calculated by the program. The Nominal Flexural Strength, Mn, is determined
according to Sections F2 through F12 of unified code specifications, for different types of sections.
The design flexural strength, fbMn, and the allowable flexural strength, Mn/_b, shall be
determined as follows:
(1) For all provisions in this chapter
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00 ( ASD )
and the nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be determined according to Sections F2 through F5.
(2) The provisions in this chapter are based on the assumption that points of support for beams and
girders are restrained against rotation about their longitudinal axis.
The following terms are common to the equations in this chapter except where noted:
Cb = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams when both
ends of the unsupported segment are braced.
12.5 M max
Cb = R 3.0
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C m
where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment, (N-mm)
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, (N-mm)
MB = absolute value of moment at centre line of the unbraced beam segment, (N-mm)
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced beam segment, (N mm)
Cb is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases. For cantilevers or overhangs
where the free end is unbraced, Cb = 1.0. The program internally calculates the Lateral-Torsional
Buckling Modification Factor (Cb) for non-uniform moment diagrams when both ends of the
unsupported segment are braced. The purpose of this factor is to account for the influence of the
moment gradient on lateral-torsional buckling. To specify laterally unsupported length, the
parameter UNF can be used, by default which takes the value of the member length.
Rm = cross-section mono-symmetry parameter = 1.0, doubly symmetric members and singly
symmetric members subjected to single curvature bending
Iy = moment of inertia about the principal y-axis, (mm4)
Iyc = moment of inertia about y-axis referred to the compression flange, or if reverse curvature
bending, referred to the smaller flange, (mm4)
The chapter is organized as follows:
F2: Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members Bent about Their Major Axis
F3: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender Flanges
Bent about Their Major Axis
F4: Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Non-compact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis
F5: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis
F6: I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis.
The Nominal Flexural Strength of a member is determined by the limit states of Yielding (Y),
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB), Flange Local Buckling (FLB), Web Local Buckling (WLB), Tension
Flange Yielding (TFY), Leg Local Buckling (LLB), and Local Buckling (LB).
Y = yielding, LTB = lateral-torsional buckling, FLB = flange local buckling, WLB = web local buckling, TFY = tension flange
yielding, LLB = leg local buckling, LB = local buckling, C = compact, NC = non-compact, S = slender

F2: Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members Bent about Their Major Axis
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
yielding (plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling.
1. Yielding
M n=M p=F y Z x
Where,
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, ksi (MPa)
Zx = plastic section modulus about the x-axis, in.3 (mm3)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(i) When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(ii). When LP < Lb Lr

[
M n=C b M p (M p0.7 F y S x )
[ Lb L p
LrL p ]]
Mp

(iii). When Lb > Lr

M n=F cr S x M p
Where,
Lb = length between points that are either braced against lateral displacement of compression flange
or braced against twist of the cross section, (mm)
 ) [ [ ]]
2
Cb 2 E Jc Lb
Fcr = 1+0.078 Mp
Lb 2
S x h0 r ts , The square root term in the equation may be
( r ts
conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
Where,
E = modulus of elasticity of steel = (200 000 MPa)
J = torsional constant, (mm4)
Sx = elastic section modulus taken about the x-axis, in.3 (mm3)
Lp = The limiting unbraced length, Lp, shall be determined as follows.

L p=1.76 r y
E
Fy
Lr = The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment Mr shall be
determined as follows.

2
Lr=1.95 r ts
E

Jc
0.7 F y S x h0
1+ 1+6.76
0.7 F y S x h0
E Jc ( )
If the square root term in above equation is conservatively taken equal to 1, the above

equation becomes

Where,
Lr= r ts
E
0.7 F y
, this approximation can be extremely conservative.

r ts =
I y Cw
Sx
c = 1, for a doubly symmetric I-shape
ho = distance between the flange centroids, (mm)
Sx = section modulus about major axis, (mm3)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, (200 000 MPa)
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel, (77 200 MPa)
Fy = yield stress of steel, (MPa)
Iy = moment of inertia about y-axis, (mm4)
Cw = warping constant, (mm6)
F3: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender
Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit
states of lateral-torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling.
1. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of above Section shall apply.
2. Compression Flange Local Buckling
(i) For sections with non-compact flanges

[
M n=C b M p (M p0.7 F y S x )
[ pf
rf pf ]]
Mp

(ii) For sections with slender flanges

 0.9 EK c S x
M n= 2

bf
=
2tf
pf = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rf = r is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange.
4
kc=

h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
F4: Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Non-compact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
states of compression flange yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local buckling
and tension flange yielding.
1. Compression Flange Yielding
M n=R pc M yc =R pc F y S xc
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(i) When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(ii). When LP < Lb Lr

[
M n=C b R pc M yc (R pc M ycF L S xc )
[ LbL p
Lr L p]]
R pc M yc

(iii). When Lb > Lr

M n=F cr S xc R pc M yc
where
M yc=F y S xc

) [ [ ]]
2 2
Cb E J Lb
Fcr = 1+0.078 Mp
Lb
2
S xc h0 rt , The square root term in the equation may be
( rt
conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
For Iyc/Iy 0.23, J shall be taken as zero.
The stress, FL, is determined as follows:
S xt
(i) For 0.7, F L=0.7 F y
S xc
S xt S
(ii) For < 0.7, F L =F y xt 0.5 F y
S xc S xc
The limiting unbraced length, Lp, shall be determined as follows.

L p=1.1 r t
E
Fy
The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment Mr shall be
determined as follows.

2
Lr=1.95 r t
E Jc

F L S xc h 0
F S h
1+ 1+6.76 L xc 0
E J ( )
The web plastification factor, Rpc, is determined as follows:
hc M
(i) For pw , R pc = p
tw M yc

(ii) For
hc
tw
> pw , R pc =
[ (
Mp

Mp
M yc M yc
1
pw
)(
rw pw
M
p
M yc )]
Where,
M p=Z x F y 1.6 S xc F y
Sxc, Sxt = elastic section modulus referred to tension and compression flanges, respectively,(mm3)
hc
= ,
tw
pw = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rw = r is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange.
The effective radius of gyration for lateral-torsional buckling, rt, is determined as follows:
b fc
rt =

where
12
( h0 aw h 2
+
d 6 h0 d )
hc t w
a w= ,
bfc t fc
bfc = compression flange width, in. (mm)
tfc = compression flange thickness, in. (mm)
3. Compression Flange Local Buckling
(a) For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of local buckling does not
apply.
(b) For sections with non-compact flanges

[
M n=C b R pc M yc (R pc M ycF L S xc )
[ pf
]]
rf pf
R pc M yc

(c) For sections with slender flanges

0.9 EK c S cx
M n=
2
bf
=
2tf
pf = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rf = r is the limiting slenderness for a non-compact flange.
4
kc=

h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
The web plastification factor, Rpc, is determined as follows:
hc Mp
(i) For pf , R pc=
tw M yc
(ii) For
hc
tw [ (
> pf , R pc =
Mp

Mp
M yc M yc
1
)( )]
pf
rf pf
M
p
M yc
4. Tension Flange Yielding
(a) When Sxt Sxc, the limit state of tension flange yielding does not apply.
(b) When Sxt < Sxc, M n=R pt M yt
where,
M yt =F y S xt
The web plastification factor, Rpt, is determined as follows:
hc M
(i) For pw , R pt = p
tw M yt

(ii) For
hc
tw [ ( )(
> pw , R pt =
Mp
M yt

Mp
M yt
1
pw
rw pw
M
p
M yt)]
Where,
hc
= ,
tw
pw = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rw = r is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange.
F5: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
states of compression flange yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local buckling
and tension flange yielding.
1. Compression Flange Yielding
M n=R pg F y S xc
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
M n=R pg F cr S xc
(a) When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(b) When L p < Lb Lr ,

[
Fcr =C b ( F y 0.3 F y )
[ LbL p
]]
Lr L p
Fy

(b) When Lb > Lr ,

C b 2 E
Fcr = Fy
Lb 2
( )
rt
Where,

L p=1.1 r t
E
Fy

Lr= r t
E
0.75 F y
 aw hc
Rpg is the bending strength reduction factor:

where
R pg=1
1200+300 a w t w (
5.7
E
Fy
1.0
)
hc t w
a w= , but shall not exceed 10
bfc t fc
bfc = compression flange width, in. (mm)
tfc = compression flange thickness, in. (mm)
rt is radius of gyration of the flange components in flexural compression plus one-third of the web
area in compression due to application of major axis bending moment alone,(mm)
3. Compression Flange Local Buckling
M n=R pg F cr S xc
(a) For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of compression flange local
buckling does not apply.

(b) For sections with non-compact flanges,

[
Fcr = (F y 0.3 F y )
[ pf
rf pf ]]
0.9 E k c
Fcr = 2
(c) For sections with slender flange sections, Lb
( )
rt
bf
=
2tf
pf = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rf = r is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange.
4
kc=

h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
4. Tension Flange Yielding
(a) When Sxt Sxc, the limit state of tension flange yielding does not apply.
(b) When Sxt < Sxc, M n=F y S xt
F6: I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
yielding ( plastic moment) and flange local buckling.
1. Yielding
M n=M P F y Z y 0.6 F y S y
2. Flange Local Buckling
(a) For sections with compact flanges the limit state of yielding shall apply.
(b) For sections with non-compact flanges

[
M n= M p( M p0.7 F y S y )
[ pf
rf pf ]]
(c) For sections with slender flanges
M n F cr S y
Where,
 0.69 E
Fcr = 2
bf
( )
2tf
b
=
t
pf = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rf = r is the limiting slenderness for a non-compact flange.

In addition to the limit states specified in other sections of this Chapter, the nominal flexural
strength, Mn, shall be limited according to the limit state of tensile rupture of the tension flange.
(a) For Fu A f n Yt Fy Afg, the limit state of tensile rupture does not apply.
(b) For Fu Afn < Yt Fy Afg, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, at the location of the
F u A fn
holes in the tension flange shall not be taken greater than: M n= S
A fg x
where
Afg = gross tension flange area, calculated in accordance with the provisions of Section D3.1, (mm2)
Afn = net tension flange area, calculated in accordance with the provisions of Section D3.2,(mm2)
Yt = 1.0 for Fy/Fu 0.8 = 1.1 otherwise

2. Proportioning Limits for I-Shaped Members

I-shaped members with slender webs shall also satisfy the following limits:

(i) For
a
h
1.5,
h
( )
tw max
=11.7
E
Fy
a h 0.42 E
(i) For >1.5, ( ) =
h t
w max Fy
Where,
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, (mm)
In unstiffened girders h/tw shall not exceed 260.
2.3.3.4 Design for Shear
Two methods of calculating shear strength are presented below. The method presented in Section G2
does not utilize the post buckling strength of the member (tension field action). The method
presented in Section G3 utilizes tension field action. The Design Shear Strength (LRFD), vVn, and
the Allowable Shear Strength (ASD), Vn/v, are calculated by the program, as per section G2 of the
unified code specifications.
For all provisions in this chapter
v =0.90 ( LRFD ) v =1.67 ( ASD )
1. Nominal Shear Strength without tension field action
This section applies to webs of singly or doubly symmetric members and channels subject to shear in
the plane of the web. The nominal shear strength, Vn, of unstiffened or stiffened webs, according to
the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling, is
V n 0.6 F y A w Cv
For webs of all doubly symmetric shapes and singly symmetric shapes
(i) For
h
tw
1.10

kv E
Fy
,C v =1

(ii) For 1.10

kv E h
< 1.37
Fy t w
kv E
Fy
,C v =
1.10

h
kv E
Fy

tw
h
(iii) For t w
> 1.37

kv E
Fy
,C v =
1.51 E k v
h 2
( )
tw
Fy

where
Aw = the overall depth times the web thickness, dtw , in.2 (mm2)
The web plate buckling coefficient, kv , is determined as follows:
(i) For unstiffened webs with h/tw < 260, kv = 5
(ii) For stiffened webs,
5
k v =5+ 2
a when a/h < 3.0
()
h
5 when a/h > 3.0
2. Nominal Shear Strength with Tension Field Action
When tension field action is permitted according to Section G3.1, the nominal shear strength, Vn,
with tension field action, according to the limit state of tension field yielding, shall be

(i) For
h
tw
1.10

kv E
Fy
,V n 0.6 F y A w

(ii) For
h
tw
> 1.10

kv E
Fy (
, V n 0.6 F y Aw C v +
1C v
1.15 1+(a h)2 )
Where, Kv and Cv are explained before.
WEAK AXIS SHEAR IN SINGLY AND DOUBLY SYMMETRIC SHAPES
For singly and doubly symmetric shapes loaded in the weak axis without torsion, the nominal shear
strength, Vn, for each shear resisting element shall be determined using above equations (Equation
G2-1 and Section G2.1(b)) with Aw = b f t f and kv = 1.2.
2.3.3.5 Design for Combined Forces
The interaction of flexure and axial forces in singly and doubly symmetric shapes is governed by
sections H1 and H3. These interaction formulas cover the general case of biaxial bending combined
with axial force and torsion. They are also valid for uniaxial bending and axial force. H1 deals Doubly
and Singly Symmetric Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force. H3 deals Members under Torsion
and Combined Torsion, Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force.
Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Flexure and Compression
The interaction of flexure and compression in doubly symmetric members and singly symmetric
members for which 0.1 (Iyc/Iy ) 0.9, that are constrained to bend about a geometric axis (x and/or
y) shall be limited by Equations H1-1a and H1-1b, where Iyc is the moment of inertia about the y-axis
referred to the compression flange, in.4 (mm4).
Pr P 8 M rx M ry
(i) For
Pc
0.2 , r + ( +
Pc 9 M cx M cy
1.0 )
 Pr P M M
(ii) For
Pc (
<0.2 , r + rx + ry 1.0
2 P c M cx M cy )
where
Pr = required axial compressive strength, kips (N)
Pc = available axial compressive strength, kips (N)
Mr = required flexural strength, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mc = available flexural strength, kip-in. (N-mm)
x = subscript relating symbol to strong axis bending
y = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Flexure and Tension
The interaction of flexure and tension in doubly symmetric members and singly symmetric members
constrained to bend about a geometric axis (x and/or y) shall be limited by Equations H1-1a and H1-
1b,
Pr P 8 M rx M ry
(i) For
Pc
0.2 , r + ( +
Pc 9 M cx M cy
1.0 )
Pr P M M
(ii) For
Pc (
<0.2 , r + rx + ry 1.0
2 P c M cx M cy )
In LRFD, for doubly symmetric members, Cb in Chapter F may be increased by
1+

tension that acts concurrently with flexure. In ASD, for doubly symmetric members, Cb in Chapter F
Pu
Pey
for axial

may be increased by
1+
1.5 Pa
Pey
for axial tension that acts concurrently with flexure. Where,

e EI y
Pey=
Lb 2
Strength of Non-HSS Members under Torsion and Combined Stress
The design torsional strength, fT Fn, and the allowable torsional strength,Fn/_T , for non-HSS
members shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit states of yielding under normal
stress, shear yielding under shear stress, or buckling, determined as follows:
T =0.90 ( LRFD ) T =1.67 ( ASD )
(a) For the limit state of yielding under normal stress
Fn F y
(b) For the limit state of shear yielding under shear stress
Fn 0.6 F y
(c) For the limit state of buckling
Fn F cr
where
Fcr = buckling stress for the section as determined by analysis, ksi (MPa).
The calculation of Fv and Fn is based on AISC Design Guide 9 Torsional Analysis of Structural
Steel Members (DG-9). In general terms, in case of shear stress, Fv will comprise of components of
shear stress due to shear about both axes, warping shear stress and shear stress due to pure torsion.
In case of normal stress Fn, stress due to axial force and stress due to flexure about both axes is
considered. For some sections, like Single Angles and Tees, the component due to warping is
negligible with respect to stress for pure torsion (Ref. Section 4.2 and 4.3 of Design Guide 9).
STAAD.Pro will perform these torsion design checks when the TORSION parameter has been set to 1
(these are not checked by default). When torsion checks are performed, TRACK 3 output may be
used to provide detailed torsion design output for Design Guide 9 checks.
2.3.4 Design Parameters
Design per AISC 360-05 and 360-10 (Unified) specifications is requested by using the CODE
parameter. Other applicable parameters are summarized in the following Table. These parameters
communicate design decisions from the engineer to the program and thus allow the user to control
the design process to suit an application's specific needs. The default parameter values have been
selected such that they are frequently used numbers for conventional design. Depending on the
particular design requirements, some or all of these parameter values may be changed to exactly
model the physical structure.

Parameter Name Default Value Description

CODE AISC UNIFIED Used to designate this code (default is the 2010 edition).
CODE AISC UNIFIED 2005
CODE AISC UNIFIED 2010
BEAM 1.0 0.0 = design at ends and those locations specified by the
SECTION command.
1.0 = design at ends and at every 1/12th point along
member length (default).
CB2 1.0 Coefficient Cb per Chapter F. If Cb is set to 0.0, it will be
calculated by the program. Any other value will be directly
used in the design.
DFF None (Mandatory for "Deflection Length" / Maximum allowable local deflection.
deflection check)
FYLD 250 MPA Yield Strength of Steel in current units.
KX 1.0 Effective Length Factor for Lateral Torsional Buckling
KY 1.0 K value in local Y-axis. Usually, the Minor Axis.
KZ 1.0 K value in local Z-axis. Usually, the Major Axis.
LX Member Length Effective Length for Lateral Torsional Buckling
LY Member Length Length to calculate Slenderness Ratio for
buckling about local Y axis.
LZ Member Length Length to calculate Slenderness Ratio for
buckling about local Z axis.
MAIN 200 Allowable Slenderness Limit for Compression Member
METHOD LRFD Used to specify LRFD or ASD design methods.
RATIO 1.0 Permissible ratio of the actual to allowable
stresses.
NSF 1.0 Net Section Factor for tension members, equal to
An/Ag,used to account for reduction in section used for
tension checks (clause B 4.3b.) combined with the SLF
parameter to determine the rupture strength. (see also
SLF parameter)
SLF 1.0 Shear Lag Factor, value U normally taken from table D3.1,
combined with the NSF parameter to determine the Net
Effective Area used to calculate the section rupture
strength. (see also NSF parameter)
STP 1.0 Section Type to determine Fr (compression residual stress
 in flange)
1.0 = Rolled section
2.0 = Welded section
TRACK 0 Controls the levels of detail to which results are reported.
0 = Minimum detail, 1 = Intermediate detail level, 2 =
Maximum detail
TMAIN 300 Allowable slenderness limit for tension members.
TORSION (AISC 360-10 only) Specifies design for torsion per AISC
Design Guide 9.
0 = Do not perform torsion checks
1 = Perform torsion checks
Note: When torsion checks are performed, TRACK 3
output may be used to provide detailed torsion design
output for Design Guide 9 checks.
UNB Member Length Unsupported length of the bottom flange for calculating
flexural strength. Will be used only if compression is in the
bottom flange.
UNT Member Length Unsupported length of the top flange for calculating
flexural strength. Will be used only if compression is in the
top flange.

2.2.12. Notes
Non-default values of CB must be re-entered before every subsequent CHECK CODE or SELECT
command.
Top and Bottom represent the positive and negative side of the local Y axis (local Z axis if SET Z
UP is used).
NSF is the Net Section Factor as used in most of the Steel Design Codes of STAAD. It is defined as
the Ratio of Net cross section area / Gross section area for tension member design. The
default value is 1.0. For the AISC 360 code, it is described in section D.3.2.
SLF is the Shear Lag Factor, as used in Section D.3.3 of the AISC 360-05 code. This factor is used
to determine the Effective Net Area by multiplying this factor with Net Area of the cross section.
Please refer to Table D3.1 of the 360 code for a list of acceptable SLF values. In STAAD, the
default value for SLF is 1.0. The Effective Net Area is used to determine the Tensile Strength for
Tensile rupture in the Net Section, as per equation D.2.2.
To summarize, the Gross Area (Ag) is multiplied by NSF to get the Net Area (An) of the
section. The Net Area (An) is again multiplied by SLF to get the Effective Net Area (Ae) of the
section.
2.3.6 Tabulated Results of Steel Design
All the Sections within a Member are checked segment by segment and the most critical
point within the section is reported for bending & axial stresses, shear stresses & deflections. Since
Members are non-prismatic elements the critical buckling Load is determined for the whole member
using numerical integration techniques. This will simulate the actual buckling behaviour of the non
prismatic member accurately rather than analyzing the Member at each segment individually that
does not take into effect the interaction of all segments when they behave as one member.
Auto design of built up Section dimensions (widths and thicknesses) are available for some
codes but in general user defined dimensions are checked for stresses according to specified code,
some limitations must be taken into consideration while choosing the dimensions of the built up
section to be checked as indicated below.

2.4. Design Constraints

2.4.1. Built up section
Geometrical limitation were established to achieve the following targets
1. Ease shop fabrication
2. Limit the reduction of allowable stresses due to high (width / thickness) ratios resulting in non
economical designs.
3. To ensure sound designs and optimize material cutting and minimize material waste.
Below table illustrates the used web plates and flange plates used and the accepted
combination between them to form a built up sections. Hatched areas are not to be used.

2.4.2. Size Limitations:

Following are the size limitations of built-up members welded by this machine.
 Min Web thickness we can use as 4mm. and web depth as 250 mm.
Min flange thickness we can use as 5mm and flange width as 120mm.
Up to 12mm thick, we can cut by shear cutting and welding by machine. If the sizes are out of
the above 12mm, gas cutting and manual welding has to be undertaken.
Up to 32mm thickness, we can hole by punching. If it is above 32, we have to make hole by
drilling only.
Width of continuous Flange should be constant along the one welded piece. Also top and
bottom flange widths must be same.
Variation of thickness at any butt weld splice of continuous Flange / Web within the one welded
piece should be limited to maximum 4mm.
Butt web splices must be perpendicular to the straight flange.
Maximum bend angle for the flange is 28.44 o (normally top flange bends at peak while bottom
flange is straight in multi-span building frames)
In relation to the straight flange the maximum slope that welding head can follow at the other
flange is 15o.

2.4.3. Shipping Limitation

Maximum fabricated out-to-out length of the piece is 12m for transportation by truck and
11.7m for transportation by dry cargo container.

2.4.4. Other Limitations

1. At Knee connection column depth and rafter depth should be the same as applicable if not the
difference to be limited at 200mm.
2. For main column at Crane Bracket zone , preferably the depth of that column to be constant
starting at a minimum distance of 150 mm below the bracket, and extending all the way up to the
top of the column.

2.5. Optimization techniques

The following rules should be followed to produce the most economical frame profiles.
These rules result in lighter frames while satisfying fabrication, shipping and erection limitations.
1. Minimize number of splices in the columns and rafters by providing maximum possible lengths
regardless of the material savings that can be produced otherwise. Section lengths should be
multiple of 3m i.e., 3m, 6m, 9m and 12m or multiples of 1.5 i.e., 4.5m, 7.5m, 10.5 in order to
reduce the scrap.
2. Different frame should be adopted if saving of 5% on all frames with a minimum of 1.0ton is
ascertained.
3. When different frames have to be used due to different bay spacing, maintain the same web
cuts for all such frames.
4. Minimize the number of different flange widths in a frame. Maximum different widths of flanges
in all the frames should preferably be less than three.
5. As much as possible maintain uniformity in the base plate detail and anchor bolt sizes for all the
frames.
6. Try to locate the splices at the locations where the bending moment is least and/or where the
depth is least in a frame.
7. Try to follow the shape of bending moment diagram for the controlling load combination in the
configuration of the frame by maintaining the stress unity check ratios closer to 1.

2.5.1. Controlling Deflections:

Lateral Sway h:
1. If the lateral deflection governs the design,
a. Check the Heigth/Width Ratio. If H/W >0.75, then use fixed base.
b. For RF type frames, try to increase the column depth and then rafter depth.
c. For BC type frames, try to increase column depth at knee, then rafter depth at knee, and
then try to fix the outer columns, then try to fix middle columns also.
Vertical Deflection v:
2. If vertical deflection governs the design, For RF type frames increase the rafter depth at knee,
then column depth at knee and base, then increase the rafter depth at max vertical deflection
governing place.

2.5.2. Stress Unity Checks:

2.5.2.1. Combined Stress Unity Check:
Where fa, fbx and fby are actual axial, major axis bending and minor axis bending stresses
respectively. Fa, Fbx and Fby are corresponding allowable stresses. If combined stress unity ratio
exceeds 1.0, check whether vertical deflection/lateral sway limits are satisfied. If not first control the
deflection/lateral sway. If deflections are under control and still the section fails in combined unity
check then check the allowable stresses:-
1. If allowable stresses of top and/or bottom flanges are much lower than 0.6Fy then it implies
that the member is not properly braced then try one of the following:-
For rafters and exterior columns (with sheeted side walls) adding flange braces(1) with roof
purlins or wall girts will adjust the allowable stresses for the un-braced flange.
For exterior columns (without sheeted side walls) then providing strut tubes adequately
connected to bracing system at an appropriate height would reduce the un-braced length
and adjust the allowable stress.
For interior I-section columns they can also be braced by means of strut tubes if allowed
and adequately connected to bracing system.
For interior I-section columns that brace points cannot be added in the design then stress
ratios can be improved by increasing flanges width or by minor adjustment in the flange
thickness.
For columns connected with mezzanine beams/joists columns are considered braced at
mezzanine level.
For columns supporting top running crane beam the columns are considered laterally
braced at the level of carne beam top flange(2).
2. If allowable stresses are sufficiently high and still the section is failing in unity check, then unity
check ratio can be improved by increasing the following in the given order:-
Increasing the web depth
Increasing the flange width
Increasing the flange thickness

2.5.2.2. Shear Stress Unity Check:

If Shear stress unit ratio fv/Fv > 1.0 increase web thickness.
2.5.2.3. Slenderness Ratio Check:
The slenderness ratio (KLu)/r of a member under compression must be less than 200. Usually
in the minor axis this ratio may exceed the limit. Increasing the flange width in comparison to web
depth would improve the slenderness ratio.
 Chapter 4
Secondaries Design

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Secondary structural members span the distance between the primary building frames of
metal building systems. They play a complex role that extends beyond supporting roof and wall
covering and carrying exterior loads to main frames. Secondary structurals, as these members are
sometimes called, may serve as flange bracing for primary framing and may function as a part of the
buildings lateral loadresisting system. Roof secondary members, known as purlins, often form an
essential part of horizontal roof diaphragms; wall secondary members, known as girts, are frequently
found in wall bracing assemblies.
A third type of secondary framing, known by the names of eave strut, eave purlin, or eave
girt, acts as part purlin and part girtits top flange supports roof panels, its web, wall siding. Girts,
purlins, and eave struts exhibit similar structural behaviour. Since most secondary members normally
encountered in metal building systems are made of cold-formed steel, our discussion starts with
some relevant issues in design of cold-formed steel structures.
The main design standard for cold-formed framing is Specification for the Design of Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members by American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).1 The Specification,
Commentary, Design Examples, and other information constitute the AISI Manual materials suitable
for cold forming are usually quite thin and thus susceptible to local deformations under load. These
local deformations can take two forms: local and distortional buckling. In local buckling, some part of
the compression flange and the web buckles when the stresses reach a certain limit; that part then
ceases to carry its share of the load. In distortional buckling, the compression flange and the
adjacent stiffening lip move away from the original position as a unit, also weakening the section.
The flanges of light-gage sections cannot be assumed to be under a uniform stress
distribution, as the flanges of an I beam might be (the shear lag phenomenon). To account for both
the local buckling and the shear lag, the Specification utilizes a concept of effective design width, in
which only certain parts of the section are considered effective in resisting compressive stresses. This
concept is pivotal for stress analysis and deflection calculations performed for cold-formed members.
Another complication caused by a non-uniform stress distribution across thin, often non-
symmetrical, sections is their lack of torsional stability. Light-gage compression and flexural members
can fail in torsional-flexural buckling mode by simultaneous twisting and bending, a failure that can
occur at relatively low levels of stress. In plan, purlins that buckle laterally are displaced from their
original positions as shown in below Fig. The maximum lateral displacement typically occurs in the
middle of the span. Torsional-flexural buckling can be prevented by keeping the compressive stresses
very low or by plenty of bracing.
The complexities of light-gage member design do not stop at flexural and compression
calculations. Tedious shear calculations are often accompanied by even more cumbersome web
crippling checks. Web crippling failures most likely to occur at supports, where shear stresses are at
their maximum. Web crippling stresses are additive to bending stresses, and a combination of both
needs to be investigated.
Whenever web crippling stresses are excessive, bearing stiffeners are required at supports, in
which case it is common to assume that the total reaction force is transferred directly through the
stiffener into the primary framing, neglecting any structural contribution of the members web. A
small gap might even be left under the flange of a girt or purlin. The stiffeners are usually made of
clip angles, plates, or channel pieces. Some other clip designs, which not only help the purlin resist
web crippling stresses but also stabilize it laterally.

4.2. Available Sizes and Shapes

Cold-formed C and Z purlins are the workhorses of the industry. Configurations of these
members have originated at the bending pressthey represent the two basic ways to bend a sheet
of metal into a section with a web and two flanges.
Cold-formed purlins are normally made of high-strength steel. Uncoated cold-formed
members, still in the majority, usually conform to ASTM A 570 or A 607. Occasionally, galvanized
purlins are provided. The old designation for galvanized members, ASTM A 446, has been replaced
with a new ASTM Standard Specification A 653.7 The new standard includes the designations of zinc
coating, G60 and G90, which used to be a part of a separate standard, ASTM A 525.

Z Purlins with Lips

S.N Designation Lip Area- Weight- Ixx Zxx Rxx Iyy Zyy Ryy
o Size cm2 kg (cm4) (cm3) (cm) (cm4) (cm3) (cm)
1 150Z64X1.50 16 4.54 3.57 164.99 21.99 6.03 46.91 6.29 3.21
2 150Z64X1.75 16 5.28 4.15 190.88 25.45 6.01 54.24 7.29 3.20
3 150Z64X2.00 16 6.01 4.72 216.32 28.84 6.00 61.39 8.26 3.20
4 150Z64X2.50 16 7.46 5.86 265.81 35.45 5.97 75.34 10.18 3.18
5 200Z64X1.50 16 5.30 4.16 321.00 32.10 7.79 46.91 6.29 2.98
6 200Z64X1.75 16 6.16 4.84 371.86 37.18 7.77 54.24 7.29 2.97
7 200Z64X2.00 16 7.01 5.51 421.89 42.20 7.76 61.39 8.26 2.96
 8 200Z64X2.50 16 8.70 6.84 519.79 51.98 7.73 75.34 10.18 2.94
9 200Z64X3.15 16 10.87 8.54 642.58 64.25 7.69 92.61 12.55 2.92
10 250Z64X1.50 16 6.05 4.75 543.35 43.46 9.48 46.91 6.29 2.79
11 250Z64X1.75 16 7.03 5.52 629.93 50.39 9.46 54.24 7.29 2.78
12 250Z64X2.00 16 8.01 6.30 715.29 57.22 9.45 61.39 8.26 2.77
13 250Z64X2.50 16 9.96 7.82 882.79 70.61 9.42 75.34 10.18 2.75
14 250Z64X3.00 16 11.88 9.33 1045.82 83.66 9.38 88.70 12.01 2.73
15 250Z64X3.50 16 13.77 10.82 1204.32 96.34 9.35 101.5 13.80 2.72
6
C Channels with Lips
S.N Designation Lip Area- Weight- Ixx Zxx Rxx Iyy Zyy Ryy
o Size cm2 kg (cm4) (cm3) (cm) (cm4) (cm3) (cm)
1 100Z50X1.50 20 3.43 2.70 54.49 10.90 3.99 13.07 4.06 1.95
2 100Z50X1.75 20 3.97 3.12 62.60 12.52 3.97 14.94 4.64 1.94
3 100Z50X2.00 20 4.50 3.54 70.43 14.09 3.96 16.69 5.15 1.93
4 100Z50X2.50 20 5.54 4.35 85.20 17.04 3.92 19.90 6.08 1.90
5 150Z75X1.50 20 4.94 3.88 182.43 24.32 6.08 39.33 7.78 2.82
6 150Z75X1.75 20 5.72 4.50 210.61 28.09 6.07 45.12 8.90 2.81
7 150Z75X2.00 20 6.50 5.11 238.13 31.74 6.05 50.70 9.96 2.79
8 150Z75X2.50 20 8.04 6.32 291.20 38.82 6.02 61.39 12.00 2.76
9 200Z100X1.50 35 6.88 5.41 450.86 45.08 8.09 105.8 16.35 3.92
1
10 200Z100X1.75 35 8.00 6.29 522.04 52.21 8.08 121.9 18.81 3.90
6
11 200Z100X2.00 35 9.10 7.15 591.96 59.19 8.07 137.9 21.22 3.89
0
12 200Z100X2.50 35 11.28 8.87 728.53 72.86 8.03 168.4 25.81 3.86
9
13 250Z100X1.50 35 7.63 6.00 754.46 60.35 9.94 114.1 16.75 3.87
7
14 250Z100X1.75 35 8.87 6.97 874.21 69.94 9.93 131.7 19.29 3.85
0
15 250Z100X2.00 35 10.10 7.94 992.13 79.36 9.91 148.8 21.75 3.84
9
16 250Z100X2.50 35 12.54 9.85 1222.93 97.83 9.88 182.1 26.50 3.81
8

4.3. Design for Continuity

To achieve some degree of continuity, cold-formed sections are lapped and bolted together
for a distance of 108mm or 411mm or 706mm or 1059 or 1412mm; i.e., each member extends past
the support by 58mm or 353mm or 702mm. The degree of continuity may be increased with a
longer lap distance. Some researches indicates that load capacity of Z purlins continues to increase
until the length of the lap approaches one-half of the span, while other researches suggests that the
limit is much smaller than that.
A purlin can be attached to rafters in various ways, depending on the magnitude of crippling
stress in the purlins web. A simple bolting through the member flanges is acceptable if the web
crippling stress is not critical; otherwise support clips acting as web stiffeners are needed.
 Continuous framing, while offering significant material savings, requires careful
consideration. Further, continuous purlins are subjected to variable bending moments at different
spans, even from uniform loads: the most critical bending stresses in a continuous beam occur at the
end spans. It follows that the end-bay purlins must have stronger sections than the interior ones.
Alternatively, some manufacturers prefer to utilize the same purlins throughout the building and
provide additional splice lengths for the end-bay purlins. Either approach is fine; a potential red flag
might be raised only if the shop drawings indicate the same purlin sections and lap distances at all
locations, although it could simply mean that some cost efficiency has been forgone and all the
purlins are kept to the size controlled by the end spans.
Yet another economical solution is to make the exterior (end) spans shorter than the interior
ones. The opposite design, in which the end spans are longer than the interior, should be avoided,
although there are circumstances where this is necessary. Then, additional simple-span purlins may
be added in the end bays between the continuous purlin lines.
4.4. Prismatic versus Non-prismatic Analysis
There are two opposite approaches to this dilemma: the first one takes into account the
increased purlin stiffness, the second does not. The first approach, which considers the actual
(doubled) purlin section at the supports, is called non-prismatic or full-stiffness analysis model. The
second approach assumes the purlin section to be constant throughout and is known as prismatic or
reduced-stiffness analysis model.
The two analysis models yield similar but not identical results. For the same structure, the
maximum negative bending moments produced by non-prismatic analysis exceed those produced by
prismatic analysis, and the opposite is true for the maximum positive moments.
Note that any decrease in the maximum negative bending moment under a prismatic
analysis model also decreases the design moment at the splice location. The moment at the end of
the lap computed by the prismatic analysis procedure will be less than that computed by the
nonprismatic procedure. Accordingly, the purlin designed as a prismatic member could in some
cases become overstressed under a combination of moment and shear loading at the end of the lap.
Indeed, the end of the lap is a common critical location for purlin design (the others include the
supports and the point of maximum positive moment).

The point of inflection is where the moment diagram changes its sign, i.e., the moment is
zero. This is where the compression flange, which requires lateral bracing ceases to be in
compression. The adjoining part of the flange is loaded in tension and does not require lateral
bracing.
 An argument has been made that the point of inflection functions as a virtual purlin brace, so
that the laterally unbraced purlin length could be measured from this point, rather than from the end
of the splice. Measuring the unbraced length from the point of inflection often reduces the laterally
unsupported purlin length and potentially yields a more economical design. However, the point of
inflection is imaginary, and it may shift with the change in loading.
As can be seen here, the point of inflection does not prevent the bottom flange of a purlin
with continuously laterally supported top flange from moving sideways under the failure mode of
lateral- torsional buckling. Yura13 concludes that not only it is incorrect to assume that an inflection
point is a brace point but also that bracing requirements for beams with inflection points are greater
than [for] cases of single curvature.
In addition to the main design assumptions discussed above, a few more should be mentioned. It is
possible to regard the end of the splice as the point where the bolts are located and the purlins are
physically joined together. A more typical approach is to place the end of the splice at the actual end
of the overlapping purlin, which adds an extra 1.5 in or so on each side to the splice length and
correspondingly decreases the unbraced purlin length.
Another common design assumption is to consider the splice region between the support
and the end of the lap as being fully laterally braced (as stated, among other sources, in the AISI
Manuals design example). Despite its wide use, this assumption seems to make sense only if both
flanges of the purlins in the lapped area are effectively restricted from rotation and translation under
load. Restraint of this type can be provided by sturdy antiroll clips. Alternatively, the top purlin
flanges must be laterally braced by the roofing or purlin bracing. The bottom flange can be
considered restrained if it is connected directly to the support.
In real life, however, the purlins supporting standing-seam roofing are not always so
restrained. All too often, Z purlins are simply through-bolted to the supports and forcing them into
the splice tends to cause their rotation and are not restrained at the top by anything more than
standing-seam roofing with sliding clips. In dissecting this issue, Epstein et al. conclude: The
presently accepted assumption that the lapped region is laterally braceddoes not appear to be
justified and may significantly overestimate the calculated strength.
4.5. Purlin bracing:
As structural engineers have long known, an unbraced compression flange of any single-web
flexural member, even of a perfectly symmetrical one loaded through its web, has a tendency to
buckle laterally under vertical loading. A singly symmetrical (C section) or a point-symmetrical (Z
section) cold-formed purlin is even more susceptible to buckling because it has its shear centre in a
location quite different from the point of loading application, which is typically the middle of the top
flange. Plus, the principal axes of a Z section are inclined to the web, and any downward load
produces a lateral component. Because of these factors, the unbraced C and Z sections tend to twist
and to become unstable even under gravity loading on a perfectly horizontal roof.
The effective purlin and girt bracing should accomplish the three main objectives listed
below. The origin of the first two criteria is Section D3 of the AISI Specification 1, 4 and of the third,
the Commentary to Section D3.2.1. The braces must be designed and spaced to avoid local crippling
at the points of attachment
1. To provide lateral flange bracing. Depending on the load direction, either interior or exterior
member flange can be in compression, and lateral bracing may be needed for both flanges. The
closer the spacing of the braces, the smaller the unbraced length of the section in the weak
direction.
2. To restrain the purlin or girt from rotation and to relieve torsion. Member rotation tends to occur
under essentially any type of loading: gravity, wind, truly vertical or inclined. Pipes, ducts, conduits,
and similar items are often suspended from roof purlins. Unfortunately, these are often attached to
the bottom flanges of purlins with C clamps or eye bolts, exerting additional torsional loading on the
purlins. Purlin bracing should help relieve this torsion. (Still, it is best to attach suspended items from
the purlin web, rather than from the flanges. Another possibility is suspending them from a light
gage steel channel placed between two adjacent purlins. The channel would not only allow some
flexibility of hanger location, but also provide some added bracing for both purlins.)
3. To restrain the whole assembly of purlins and roofing from lateral translation. Even if each
member is properly braced laterally and torsionally, the whole single-slope roof assembly with
purlins oriented in the same direction will tend to move upslope as a unit. The bracing system,
therefore, must be anchored at the endsand strong enough to extinguish the accumulated bracing
forces. In double-slope roofs, this is typically accomplished by sturdy ridge channels or angles.
Alternatively, an effective roof diaphragm may be provided to span between, and carry all the
bracing forces to, the properly designed primary frames capable of resisting those forces. Not every
purlin bracing system used today is effective in meeting these three objectives.
First, continuous lateral bracing may be provided by some types of metal roofing, mainly of
the through-fastened variety. Even through-fastened roofing can potentially meet only the first
objective of purlin bracing to provide lateral flange restraint. Roofing cannot provide torsional
stability for purlins, and its diaphragm strength and rigidity might be insufficient to prevent the
whole assembly of purlins and roofing from lateral movement. Therefore, metal roofing must be
supplemented by some other purlin bracing to ensure that the remaining two objectives are met.
The second type of purlin bracing is provided by discrete braces, whose spacing is
determined by analysis. An additional purlin brace is normally provided at each concentrated load.
Perhaps the most effective discrete purlin bracing system is provided by closely spaced parallel lines
of channel sections bolted between the purlins. They represent a superior method of stabilizing
purlins against rotation, although this type of bracing may be more labour-intensive than other
systems. Less effective, but also less expensive, discrete purlin bracing can be provided by steel
angles or strapping running from eave to eave perpendicular to the purlins. These braces are
attached to each purlin and at the ends to the eave struts. The braces can be located either parallel
to the roof or in a diagonal fashion, running from the top flange of one purlin to the bottom flange of
the next.
4.6. Assumptions
The point of inflection is where the moment diagram changes its sign, i.e., the moment is
zero. This is where the compression flange, which requires lateral bracing as discussed in Sec. 5.4,
ceases to be in compression. The adjoining part of the flange is loaded in tension and does not
require lateral bracing. An argument has been made that the point of inflection functions as a virtual
purlin brace, so that the laterally unbraced purlin length could be measured from this point, rather
than from the end of the splice. Measuring the unbraced length from the point of inflection often
reduces the laterally unsupported purlin length and potentially yields a more economical design.
However, the point of inflection is imaginary, and it may shift with the change in loading. Another
argument against using the point of inflection as a bracing point is illustrated that the point of
inflection does not prevent the bottom flange of a purlin with continuously laterally supported top
flange from moving sideways under the failure mode of lateral-torsional buckling. Yura concludes
that not only it is incorrect to assume that an inflection point is a brace point but also that bracing
requirements for beams with inflection points are greater than cases of single curvature.
In addition to the main design assumptions discussed above, a few more should be
mentioned. First, a relatively minor point: if the unbraced purlin length is measured from the end of
the splice, it is possible to regard the end of the splice as the point where the bolts are located and
the purlins are physically joined together. A more typical approach is to place the end of the splice at
the actual end of the overlapping purlin, which adds an extra 706mm or so on each side to the splice
length and correspondingly decreases the unbraced purlin length.
Another common design assumption is to consider the splice region between the support
and the end of the lap as being fully laterally braced (as stated, among other sources, in the AISI
Manuals design example). Despite its wide use, this assumption seems to make sense only if both
flanges of the purlins in the lapped area are effectively restricted from rotation and translation under
load. Restraint of this type can be provided by sturdy antiroll clips. Alternatively, the top purlin
flanges must be laterally braced by the roofing or purlin bracing. The bottom flange can be
considered restrained if it is connected directly to the support. In real life, however, the purlins
supporting standing-seam roofing are not always so restrained. All too often, Z purlins are simply
through-bolted to the supportsand forcing them into the splice tends to cause their rotation and
are not restrained at the top by anything more than standing-seam roofing with sliding clips.

Lateral Stability of Metal Buildings: Typical Approach

A building lacking lateral stability against wind and earthquake loads will not be standing for
long. The most popular pre-engineered structure, rigid frame, relies on its own moment-resisting
ability to laterally support the building. Other frame systems, such as the familiar post-and-beam
construction, do not possess such rigidity of their own and, absent of any rigid walls, may collapse
like a house of cards if pushed laterally. Thus the second way to achieve lateral stability of the
building is to provide braced frames Vertical bracing not only resists lateral loads but also stiffens the
building in general, especially against the crane-induced loads, minimizes vibrations, and helps
during building erection.
The vertical bracing located in the end walls acts primarily in resisting lateral loads acting in
the direction parallel to the frames, while the sidewall bracing resists the loads in the perpendicular
direction.
Wall Bracing
Rigid frames offer little or no lateral resistance normal to their plane, unless fixed at the base
an infrequent and often undesirable solution. Instead, stability in that direction is typically
provided by sidewall bracing, spaced as shown fig. A typical sidewall bracing bay consists of steel rod
or cable diagonals, eave strut and columns on each side.
Naturally, in small buildings consisting of only two bays, wall bracing may be placed in either
bay. The manufacturers tend to avoid using standard wall bracing in the adjacent bays in order not to
complicate detailing and erection. The lateral loads are transmitted along the wall from brace to
brace by eave struts. The eave struts are designed for axial compression or for combined axial
compression and biaxial bending.
Portal Frames
As just mentioned, the portal frame is a rigid frame that fits between the main building
columns. Portal frames are typically placed in the side walls in the direction perpendicular to the
span of the main frames. A portal frame can be integrated into the metal building in one of two ways.
The frame can be placed as shown in fig, with its columns extending to the foundation and being
secured to it with anchor rods. At the top, the portal frame is bolted to the primary frame columns
by small brackets.

Alternatively, the portal frame columns could stop short of the foundation. This requires
attachment to the primary frame columns at both top and bottom. A major advantage of not
extending the portal frame columns to the floor is that it avoids enlarging the foundation piers,
something that could be appreciated by the foundation designer who may not know the exact
locations of the portal frames in advance.
The disadvantage of not extending the portal frame column all the way down is that the
bottom part of the primary building column would now have to provide the level of strength and
stiffness comparable to that of the portal frame. This goal may be difficult to achieve, given that the
primary column is oriented in the weak direction relative to the portal frame. The manufacturers
tend to dislike this detail and prefer the first one. The easiest portal frame attachment to the primary
frame column can be made by a single angle bracket, as in fig.
 Unfortunately, this detail suffers from two shortcomings. The first one: An angle piece
located eccentrically to the plane of the portal frame will likely introduce torsion into it. A better
detail is to align the bracket with the plane of the portal frame, or at least to use a stiffened angle
bracket, as in Fig. 3.31. The second problem is that the portal frame column is unrestrained against
rotation under load. The solution is again shown in fig: The interior flange of the portal frame can be
braced either by a pair of full-depth horizontal stiffeners or a flange brace.

Load Path
In a properly functioning building, structural loading is transferred between various building
elements, like a ball in a football game, until it is absorbed by the soil or otherwise extinguished. This
system of load transfer is known as the load path.
To illustrate its function, lets trace the path of a wind loading acting on a pre-engineered
buildings roof. wind acts normal to the roof, either toward the surface (pressure) or away from it
(uplift or suction). When wind pressure occurs, the roofing panels, the buildings first line of defence,
are pushed against the purlins and transfer the load by bearing. During wind uplift, the panels are
pulled away from the roof; the fasteners holding them in place, if improperly designed, may fail and
let the roofing fly. If the fasteners hold, the purlins get into flexural action, transferring the load into
the primary frames. Again, the connections must be adequate, or the whole assembly of the roofing
and purlins will be in the air.
The primary frames, in turn, resist the load by bending and might also fail if either their
strength or connections are deficient. If the frames hold, and the uplift force is not overcome by the
weight of the structure, the force travels to the anchor bolts attaching the frames to the foundations.
And finally, if the anchor bolts hold, the wind load is transferred to the foundation, which, hopefully,
has sufficient weight to counteract the wind uplift. Otherwise the whole building might be lifted up
like a giant tree with shallow roots.