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ASSIGNMENT
(Tutor Marked Assignment)

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Course Code: FST-1
Assignment Code: FST-1/TMA/2017
Max. Marks: 100

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Write detailed accounts on the following. 10x10

1. Tradition and social function of Science.

2. The method of Science.

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3. Formation of solar system.

4. Evidences of human evolution.

5. Management of forest and water resources.

6.

7.

8.
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Challenges for the agriculture sector in India.

Ancient and modern outlooks for the prevention of disease.

Media for open and distance mode of education.

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9. Ways of technology transfer.

10. How scientific development is influenced by social needs and perceptions.

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FST-1 Foundation Course in Science and Technology

Course Code: FST-1

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Assignment Code: FST-1/TMA/2017
Max. Marks: 100

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Write detailed accounts on the following.

1. Tradition and social function of Science.

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ANS. The study of science and technology has an educative influence on the
Society , and is of far-reaching importance. It makes one a lover of truth. It creates
realistic attitude to life. It is also the enemy of superstition. A scientist depends on
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his powers of observation, reason for his knowledge of truth. By applying his
reason to observed facts before believing in anything, he acquires patience and
diligence.
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He thus lays the foundation of true knowledge. Science education, particularly
training in multidisciplinary and team approaches to research, is also in need of
reinforcement. Many science education programs still focus on individual society
assignments and individual evaluation, whereas the trend in both the public and
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private sector is toward team work, and the needs of society are increasingly met
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by the concerted efforts of many areas of investigation.

2. The method of Science.

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ANS. The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring
new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledgeTo be termed scientific, a method
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of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of

reasoningThe Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as "a method or procedure that
has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification
of hypotheses"Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the
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scientific method is the experiment

The scientific method is a continuous process, which usually begins with observations about the natural
world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they
see or hear and often develop ideas (hypotheses) about why things are the way they are. The best
hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, including making further

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observations about nature. In general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled
and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the
predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a

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particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed

Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features are frequently
shared in common between them. The overall process of the scientific method involves
making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then

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carrying out experiments based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge
obtained while formulating the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad.
Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments. Under modern interpretations, a scientific
hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an
experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis
cannot be meaningfully tested

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The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the
predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to
CERN's Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.
Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set
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of general principles.Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (or to the same degree), and are
not always in the same order. Some philosophers and scientists have argued that there is no scientific
method, such as Lee Smolin and Paul Feyerabend (in his Against Method). Nola and Sankey remark that
"For some, the whole idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-year's debate"
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3. Formation of solar system.

Ans. Scientists believe that the solar
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system was formed when a cloud of gas

and dust in space was disturbed, maybe by
the explosion of a nearby star (called
a supernova). This explosion made waves in

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space which squeezed the cloud of gas and dust. Squeezing made the cloud start to
collapse, as gravity pulled the gas and dust together, forming a solar nebula. Just like a
dancer that spins faster as she pulls in her arms, the cloud began to spin as it collapsed.

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Eventually, the cloud grew hotter and denser in the center, with a disk of gas and dust
surrounding it that was hot in the center but cool at the edges. As the disk got thinner and
thinner, particles began to stick together and form clumps. Some clumps got bigger, as
particles and small clumps stuck to them, eventually forming planets or moon . Near the

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center of the cloud, where planets like Earth formed, only rocky material could stand the
great heat. Icy matter settled in the outer regions of the disk along with rocky material,
where the giant planets like Jupiter formed. As the cloud continued to fall in, the center
eventually got so hot that it became a star, the Sun, and blew most of the gas and dust of
the new solar system with a strong stellar wind. By studying meteorites, which are thought
to be left over from this early phase of the solar system, scientists have found that the

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solar system is about 4600 million years old!

4. Evidences of human evolution.

ANS.Evidence of Evolution
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Scientists have discovered a wealth of evidence concerning human evolution, and this evidence comes
in many forms. Thousands of human fossils enable researchers and students to study the changes that
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occurred in brain and body size, locomotion, diet, and other aspects regarding the way of life of early
human species over the past 6 million years. Millions of stone tools, figurines and paintings, footprints,
and other traces of human behavior in the prehistoric record tell about where and how early humans
lived and when certain technological innovations were invented. Study of human genetics show how
closely related we are to other primates in fact, how connected we are with all other organisms and
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can indicate the prehistoric migrations of our species, Homo sapiens, all over the world. Advances in
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the dating of fossils and artifacts help determine the age of those remains, which contributes to the big
picture of when different milestones in becoming human evolved.

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Exciting scientific discoveries continually add to the broader and deeper public knowledge of human
evolution. Find out about the latest evidence in our Whats Hot in Human Originssection.

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5. Management of forest and water resources.

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ANS.

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6. Challenges for the agriculture sector in india.

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ANS. Small and fragmented land-holdings:

The seemingly abundance of net sown area of 141.2 million hectares and total cropped area of 189.7

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million hectares (1999-2000) pales into insignificance when we see that it is divided into economically
unviable small and scattered holdings.

The average size of holdings was 2.28 hectares in 1970-71 which was reduced to 1.82 hectares in 1980-
81 and 1.50 hectares in 1995-96. The size of the holdings will further decrease with the infinite Sub-

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division of the land holdings.

The problem of small and fragmented holdings is more serious in densely populated and intensively
cultivated states like Kerala, West Bengal, Bihar and eastern part of Uttar Pradesh where the average
size of land holdings is less than one hectare and in certain parts it is less than even 0.5 hectare.

Rajasthan with vast sandy stretches and Nagaland with the prevailing Jhoom (shifting agriculture) have

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larger average sized holdings of 4 and 7.15 hectares respectively. States having high percentage of net
sown area like Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh have holding
size above the national average.

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Further it is shocking to note that a large proportion of 59 per cent holdings in 1990- 91 were marginal
(below 1 hectare) accounting for 14.9 per cent of the total operated area. Another 19 per cent were
small holdings (1-2 hectare) taking up 17.3 per cent of the total operated area.

Seeds:
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Seed is a critical and basic input for attaining higher crop yields and sustained growth in agricultural
production. Distribution of assured quality seed is as critical as the production of such seeds.
Unfortunately, good quality seeds are out of reach of the majority of farmers, especially small and
marginal farmers mainly because of exorbitant prices of better seeds.
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In order to solve this problem, the Government of India established the National Seeds Corporation
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(NSC) in 1963 and the State Farmers Corporation of India (SFCI) in 1969. Thirteen State Seed
Corporations (SSCs) were also established to augment the supply of improved seeds to the farmers.

High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) was launched in 1966-67 as a major thrust plan to increase the
production of food grains in the country. 6 IGNOU ASSIGNMENT GURU Page-

The Indian seed industry had exhibited impressive growth in the past and is expected to provide further
potential for growth in agricultural production: The role of seed industry is not only to produce
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adequate quantity of quality seeds but also to achieve varietal diversity to suit various agro-climatic
zones of the country.

The policy statements are designed towards making available to the Indian farmer, adequate quantities
of seed of superior quality at the appropriate time and place and at an affordable price so as to meet
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the countrys food and nutritional security goals.

Indian seeds programme largely adheres to limited generation system for seed multiplication. The
system recognises three kinds of generation, namely breeder, foundation and certified seeds. Breeder

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seed is the basic seed and first stage in seed production. Foundation seed is the second stage in seed
production chain and is the progeny of breeder seed.

7. Ancient and modern outlooks for the prevention of disease.

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Ans. Washing of hands before and after meals, daily bathing, not carrying
footwear into living rooms, denial of permission to enter place where food is
cooked, especially for persons who have not had a bath. These practices

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must have evolved through observations over a long period, that certain
practices helped in preventing diseases. Isolation of mother and the new
born, soon after delivery was a a common custom which also helped in
preventing infection of the mother and the baby. Excavation of Mohenjo-daro
and Harappa have revealed the existence of a covered drainage system and

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water supply. House drains emptied all waste water into the street drains.
They also had arrangements for proper sanitation. Similarly, ancient
civilizations of Egypt Greece and China had medical systems. Egyptians had

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arrangements for public baths and underground drainage.The use of
mosquito nets and association of plague with rats were known to them.
Hippocrates, the most illustrious Greek physician of the 5th century b.c.
examined significance of climate water clothing eating and drinking to health.
He was truly a man concerned with hygiene. The ancient Indian and Chinese
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system of medical care knew about immunization also.Inoculation with live
small pox germs to prevent small pox was known to them.In 1848, England
promulgated its public health act, which defined the role of the state in
people's health and led to a great awareness about sanitary matters. In 1875
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the Public Health Act defined the steps for a clean environment and clean
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water, surroundings houses and for control of offensive trades such as

carrying of garbage or excreta. In this way, the spread of many diseases were
controlled to a great extent. Clearing away decaying matter and dirt, removing 7 IGNOU ASSIGNMENT GURU Page-
breeding grounds for microbes which foul the air were taken up. However,
these measures could not bring effective control of epidemics in urban areas.
While these environmental measures were promoting health of people,
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specific measures to prevent disease in an individual or in the community

were also being attempted.
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8. Media for open and distance mode of education.

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ANS.
Distance education established its roots as a form of instruction at least 150 years ago as
correspondence study. Distance learning was not new. Open universities that numerous

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governments set up following the pioneering example of the United Kingdom is testimony to
this. Distance learning, in the 1960s and 1970s, was already widespread; it was called
correspondence education however, university correspondence branches were more eager to
plough money back into the campus than to help correspondence students complete their
studies. To serve students better the open universities have created student support networks

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that rely on collaboration with other institutions for study centers and tutors

With the advancements in telecommunications technologies, distance learning programs rapidly

expanded so distance education is now defined as "the acquisition of knowledge and skills
through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of

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learning at a distance. The history of distance education in the Indian context is valuable in that
is shows there was more than one historical path of distance education and that the evolution of
distance education has not been that easy for we had many obstacles to clear, blocks to break
and barriers to overcome. Many of the same problems facing implementation and acceptance
of educational innovations today along with new problems such as teacher shortages,
overcrowded and unsafe schools, and unequal access to educational technology join other
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perennial issues in education such as gender bias and the bilingual education have been faced
by distance education throughout its history.

The Positive Side: India is more illiterate now than it was fifty or a hundred years ago. Preparing
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students today for tomorrow's workforce has a lot to do with teaching about how to use and
evaluate knowledge.

The average Indian student of today is much better than that of yesterday. He is committed to
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the coursework, usually for the purpose of advancing in his career. For this reason, we can
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expect quality work and diligent participation from students of today especially in the distance
learning context.

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The distance education offers flexible learning through both online and print-based materials.
Distance education courses are designed to provide one of the study options to students and
others who are unable to attend scheduled classes on campus or who want to experience
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distance learning as part of their program.

The Current Age

The Internet is rapidly becoming the biggest repository of information we have ever known. The
key will be our ability to find, evaluate and use the information it provides...Students must know
how to evaluate data.
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Online learning can be a lifeline to those who have obstacles, such as geographical distances
or physical disabilities. Distance education suggests that collaboration and competition are two
sides of a spinning coin

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And finally to extend the media of distance learning beyond print due to changing work patterns
, changing social patterns, changing education patterns therefore policy makers need to make

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wise philosophical and policy decisions about using distance education.

Role of Media in Distance Education

Distance education is inevitably linked to media and technology. The organizational pattern and
operating practices of a distance education facility are generally based upon the same
educational philosophy as conventional system. However the use of media is greater in

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Distance Learning.

Technologies and Media:

one of the greatest strengths of Open Distance Learning is its ability to harness the latest
technologies to reach the unreached Employing mass media technologies distance education

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institutions have bridged distance and made education more accessible. Various technologies
and delivery media are available for distance education. Different media types are used to
deliver information. Each medium and each technology has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Many factors control these media technologies. How a medium is used is more important than
what particular technologies are selected. The use of the medium is part of the design of the

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distance education program itself. Certain resources may provide a better framework and cater
to the different perspectives of the distance education learner: That is, the sender and receiver
do not communicate at the same time."
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9. Ways of technology transfer.
Ans. Technology transfer, also called transfer of technology (TOT), is
the process of transferring (disseminating) technology from the places
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and ingroups of its origination to wider distribution among more people and
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places. It occurs along various axes: among universities, from universities

to businesses, from large businesses to smaller ones, from governments to
businesses, across borders, both formally and informally, and both openly
and surreptitiously. Often it occurs by concerted effort to share skills, 9 IGNOU ASSIGNMENT GURU Page-
knowledge, technologies, methods of manufacturing, samples of
manufacturing, and facilities among governments or universities and other
institutions to ensure that scientific and technological developments are
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accessible to a wider range of users who can then further develop and
exploit the technology into new products, processes, applications,
materials, or services. It is closely related to (and may arguably be
considered a subset of) knowledge transfer. Horizontal transfer is the
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movement of technologies from one area to another. At present transfer of

technology (TOT) is primarily horizontal. Vertical transfer occurs when
technologies are moved from applied research centers to research and
development departments

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Technology transfer is promoted at conferences organized by such groups

as the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation and the Association of
University Technology Managers, and at "challenge" competitions by

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organizations such as the Center for Advancing Innovation in Maryland.
Local venture capital organizations such as the Mid-Atlantic Venture
Association (MAVA) also sponsor conferences at which investors assess
the potential for commercialization of technology.

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Technology brokers are people who discovered how to bridge the
emergent worlds and apply scientific concepts or processes to new
situations or circumstances A related term, used almost synonymously, is
"technology valorisation". While conceptually the practice has been utilized
for many years (in ancient times, Archimedes was notable for applying
science to practical problems), the present-day volume of research,

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combined with high-profile failures at Xerox PARC and elsewhere, has led
to a focus on the process itself.
Whereas technology transfer can involve the dissemination of highly
complex technology from capital-intensive origins to low-capital recipients
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(and can involve aspects of dependency and fragility of systems), it also
can involve appropriate technology, not necessarily high-tech or expensive,
that is better disseminated, yielding robustness and independence of
systems.
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10. How scientific development is influenced by social needs
and perceptions.
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Ans. Social influence occurs when a person's emotions, opinions, or

behaviors are affected by others Social influence takes many forms and
can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer
pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. In 10 IGNOU ASSIGNMENT GURU Page-
1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties
of social influence
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1. Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually

keep their dissenting opinions private.
2. Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is
liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity.
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3. Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree

both publicly and privately.
Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that
lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our
need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked

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(normative social influence). Informational influence (or social proof) is an

influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality.
Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either

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because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social
disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the
positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative
influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads
to private acceptance

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There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard
psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict
Resolution The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects
of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private
acceptance (personal belief).

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1) Compliance
Main article: Compliance (psychology)

Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered

by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily
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in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold
private thoughts due to social pressures According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the
satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting
influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion)
2) Identificatio
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Main article: Identification (psychology)

Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone

who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their
products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired
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relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change

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3) Internalization
Main article: Internalization

Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or

groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence 11 IGNOU ASSIGNMENT GURU Page-
because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent
with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of
internalization is "the content of the new behavior"
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