2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

RIPPABILITY ASSESSMENT OF ROCK BASED ON SPECIFIC ENERGY

AND PRODUCTION RATE

Mohd For Mohd Amin1, Chan Sook Huei2, Zuhairi Abd. Hamid3, Mohd Khairolden Ghani4
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor
2
MSc. Student, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor
3
Executive Director, CREAM, CIDB, Kuala Lumpur
4
Manager, CREAM, CREAM, CIDB, Kuala Lumpur
e-mail: mohdfor@utm.my/mohdfor@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Ripping is a method commonly used to excavate rocks that are relatively weak to be blast but, too
strong to be removed by excavator. Despite of being a common method in earthwork, there is no
proper procedure currently available to assess ease of excavating rocks by ripping. As a result, ripping
is frequently subjected to disputes between relevant parties in construction. This study is aimed at
developing a proper procedure to assess rippability of rock. Relevant parameters, obtained from the
lab and field assessments, were used in the verification process. Specifically, these include laboratory
ripping test which indicates specific energy (SE) required to rip rock samples, and field ripping test
which verifies field production rate (Qr) to rip the in situ rock body. Good correlation exists between
SE and Qr hence, SE can be used as indicator for degree of difficulty to rip a rock mass in the field. For
the rock type and ripper dozer investigated, this is proposed in the form of rippability classification. A
comprehensive and objective procedure to assess rippability of rock is also given. Such procedure will
help to minimise disputes between project owners and contractors.

Keyword: Ripping, quartzite, specific energy, production rate

1. INTRODUCTION

Excavation of strong rocks by drill and blast, and removal of soils using normal excavator are rarely being
disputed. However, if hard materials encountered do not fit these two well-defined earth materials,
uncertainty on their method of excavation may arise. These materials include some moderately strong
rocks (e.g. sedimentary and metamorphic rocks) that are relatively weak to be excavated by blasting but
too strong to be removed by excavator. In surface excavation, ripping is the common method used to
excavate these rocks, a decision which is frequently based on experience and trial excavation on site. With
no proper procedure currently available to justify this decision, ripping is often exposed to elements of
dispute and exploitation. For instance, contractors are more inclined to opt for the expensive method (i.e.
blasting) although these rocks are cheaper to be excavated by ripping. Client on the other hand, tends to
demand for a cheaper method, or may insist on proper assessment procedure to substantiate the
suitability of ripping. This paper highlights a study on assessing rippability of rocks, specifically on
appropriate approach and methods to be adopted in the assessment process.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The ease of excavating (excavatability) earth materials must be assessed so that earthwork can be planned
and priced accordingly. Basic classification as soils or rocks is often insufficient to justify the reason for
adopting specific excavation method. For hard materials like rocks, in addition to lithologic classification,
a clear conception of their properties that affect excavatability must be addressed (Legget & Hatheway,
1988). Different method of excavation utilises different mechanisms to loosen a rock body, and various
rock types exhibit different strengths against fracturing. In other words, if factors like volume and shape of
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

excavation permit, each method is only effective for some rock types. Lack of understanding on this
matter, and with deficiencies in the existing specifications on earthwork, excavation in some rocks may
lead to disputes between project owner and contractor. Observations indicate that suitability of ripping on
some rocks is the most common matter being disputed. Issues are mainly confined to the classification of
hard materials encountered, and the justifications for adopting ripping to excavate these materials.

2.1 Rock properties and ripping method

Ripping is a mechanical method that uses steel tyne/shank which is attached to a ripper dozer (Fig. 1) to
loosen a rock body. It is cheaper than blasting for breaking discontinuous weak rock masses (Bell, 2004).
As the tyne is dragged in the rock mass it creates sets of stresses which breaks the rock, along the cut
groove, into smaller fragments (Fig. 2). Further loosening is achieved by cutting subsequent grooves that
are parallel to each other. The rate of excavation depends on strengths of the in situ rock and capacity of
dozer used. Due to its mode of excavation ripping is suitable for shallow excavation (stripping) in large
area, e.g. site preparation and road construction.
For some rock types and shape of excavation, ripping is more suitable than blasting as some physical
properties of rocks may give rise to difficult blasting (Pettifer & Fookes, 1994). Weaker sedimentary rocks
(compressive strength < 15 MPa) like mudstones are not readily removed by blasting, since they
pulverized easily (due to low strength) when the blasting waves have dissipated. Rocks that possess
marked anisotropy (e.g. schist) also give rise to difficult blasting as these rocks split more easily along the
lineation rather than across it. Rocks displaying uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) between of 2 and 70
MPa are rippable however, the degree of difficulty or toughness (Pettifer & Fookes, 1994) increases with
UCS. Rocks exhibiting seismic velocity (V) less than 2000 m/s are rippable using D7 and D8 ripper
(Caterpillar, 2008), these include some sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and highly weathered and
fractured strong rocks. Other rock properties that affect excavatability include surface hardness, density
(compactness) and tensile strength (Peter & Fookes, 1994; Singh & Goel, 1999).

Fig. 1: Single-shank CAT D6 ripper dozer Fig. 2: Cut produced by single-shank ripper

Large-scale discontinuities like beddings and joints are also known to affect excavatability of rocks.
The use of fracture spacing index by Pettifer & Fookes (1994) in their revised graphical method signifies
the importance of rock discontinuities. Field seismic wave velocity (V) is perhaps the most important
properties to indicate excavatability of in situ rock (Caterpillar, 2008) as propagation of waves in the rock
depends on prevailing fractures and discontinuities. Sedimentary rocks such as thin- and well-bedded
sandstone (V < 2000 m/s) are more readily excavated by ripping.

2.2 Rippability Assessments

Rippability assessment can be divided into two types; direct and indirect methods. If direct methods
cannot be employed, then indirect methods are alternative to assess rippability of rocks.
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

Direct method: Conventionally, ease of ripping a rock mass is assessed by undertaking trial excavation on
site using ripper dozer (e.g. Komatsu and Caterpillar). The ripper performance is evaluated based on field
production rate, Qr in m3/hour, which is estimated using either volume by weight, volume by cross
sectioning and volume by length method (Basarir & Karpuz, 2004). Qr depends on factors such as ripper
horsepower and properties of the in situ rock. Although this is the most reliable approach however, it is
costly and time consuming. Occasionally, it may not be possible to perform this test due to project
constraint and availability of suitable ripper. In this study, the volume by length method is adopted for the
field ripping test and Qr is calculated as:

Production rate, Qr = qr [60/Cr] Er (1)

where, qr is production per cycle (on-bank volume, m3/h), Cr is cycle or run time (min), and Er is operator
efficiency (80 to 100 % depending on nature of site).

Indirect method: Known as quick graphical method it is often used during planning stage of a major
earthwork. The typical graphs/charts used are shown in Fig. 3 and 4. Less expensive and simpler in nature,
each chart provides different level of assessment, rock mass and rock material level, depending on the
scale of rock properties being considered. Chart in Fig. 3 is used to assess excavatability of rock based its
material properties. Performance of ripper dozer to excavate rocks displaying different seismic velocity
(mass properties) can be verified using chart shown in Fig. 4.

Source: (McLean & Gribble, 1985) Source: (Caterpillar, 2008)

Fig. 3: Excavatability based on Rebound no. Fig. 4: Rippability based on seismic velocity
& compressive strength

Rippability obtained from some graphical methods (e.g. Fig. 3) does not indicate level of difficulty to
undertake actual ripping. For planning of major earthwork it is important to substantiate this rippability
quantitatively. Preferably it should relate to in situ excavatability (field production rate) and work done to
fracture a rock, i.e. toughness (Pettifer & Fookes, 1994).

2.3 Laboratory ripping test

Test can be undertaken on laboratory ripping machine (see Fig. 5) which is designed to assess ease of
ripping rock samples at a reduced scale and under controlled conditions (Fowell & Johnson, 1991; Basarir
& Karpuz, 2004). The machine used in this study simulates ripping mechanism of single shank ripper
dozer with engine rating 1850 rpm and cutting speed of 150 mm/s (Mohd For Mohd Amin, 2008).
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

Specially shaped cutting shank (see Fig. 6), made from tungsten carbide + 10 % cobalt, is used to
produce a v-shaped cut in rock sample, and appropriate devices (e.g. Inverter and PLC) are used to
measure power (Watt) required to produce that cut. Data obtained is the rippability in terms of specific
energy (SE) in MJ/m3. If sufficient data is available, correlation between SE and Qr can be established.

Fig. 5: Laboratory ripping machine Fig. 6: Shank to produce cut in sample

3. RIPPABILITY ASSESSMENT ON QUARTZITE

This study was undertaken at an excavation site located about 2 km to the west of the Dengkil Town,
Selangor. The in situ rock is quartzite (metamorphic rock). To facilitate field assessments and sampling,
the site was divided into 6 panels (A to E in Fig. 7). Consistent correlations between field and lab data is
ensured by collecting samples in batches, each batch for each panel. All field and lab assessments were
carefully selected so that they form a systematic approach to evaluate rippability of rocks.

F
A D

B
C E

Fig. 7: Layout of the 6 panels within the study site

3.1 Laboratory Assessments

Lithologic classification of the quartzite was based on field observation and petrographic study. The
relevant rock properties were obtained from series of lab tests (conducted according to ISRM, 1981)
which evaluate the rock strengths and toughness against ripping. Tests conducted include Schmidts
hammer, Point-load Index Strength, Brazilian and Slake Durability (see Mohd For Mohd Amin et al.,
2009). Result obtained for the samples collected from the 6 panels is shown in Table 1.
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

Table 1: Properties of quartzite based on lab tests for samples obtained from various panels

Rebound Number Lab seismic Tensile Slaking

Density Point-load UCS
Panel velocity Strength Index
(kg/m3) (MPa) (MPa)
(%) qu (MPa) (m/s) (MPa) (%)
A 2034 -2154 19.4-27.9 22.8-34.6 1571-2162 1.23-2.12 3.56-5.48 23.2-38.3 69-75
B 2150-2198 27.6-31.2 34.1-41.1 2162-2396 2.08-2.78 5.13-6.66 37.9-46.8 72-78
C 2234-2355 33.8-42.6 47.3-78.1 2596-3063 2.65-3.87 7.14-8.54 48.9-66.8 81-87
D 2278-2360 36.8-42.6 55.9-78.5 2692-3036 2.52-3.87 7.26-8.56 46.9-65.2 80-91
E 2251-2388 35.2-43.5 51.0-84.0 2637-2960 2.77-4.15 7.36-8.56 48.9-66.3 80-89
F 2084-2182 22.9-30.5 26.9-39.4 1818-2341 1.39-2.87 4.23-6.23 25.9-46.9 71-80

Ease of ripping the rock samples in laboratory was verified using specially fabricated ripping machine
(see Fig. 5). Cutting shank (see Fig. 6) is used to cut a V-shaped groove of 5 mm deep and 12-13 mm wide
on block samples of dimensions 15010075 mm (see Fig. 8). For each test, 2 sets of data were collected;
power (Watt) required for the shank to rip the sample, and power to drive the shank freely (without
cutting). The difference between these 2 sets of data gives the mean power, Pm, needed to rip the sample,
e.g. 295 Watt in Fig. 9. Using the weight of cut rock fragments and its density, the volume of cut (V in m3)
was calculated. Specific energy (SE) in MJ/m3 required in producing that cut is calculated using equation
(2) below by taking 1 Watt = 1 Joule. Typical data obtained from the ripping test is shown in Table 2.

SE = Pm / V (2)

Fig. 8: Block samples and v-cut Fig. 9: Typical output data produced from lab ripping test

Table 2: Laboratory ripping tests results of samples obtained from various panels

Panel A B C D E F
3.70 4.53 6.14 5.06 5.85 4.56
3.19 4.33 5.52 6.07 5.64 4.01
3.69 4.57 5.94 6.23 5.32 4.46
4.39 5.07 5.50 6.30 5.59 4.29
Specific
4.01 4.62 5.90 5.91 5.88 3.75
Energy, SE
3.45 4.71 5.73 6.19 5.32 3.71
(MJ/m3)
3.39 4.50 5.68 5.51 6.07 4.42
4.15 4.88 6.07 4.80 5.57 4.59
4.08 4.67 5.89 5.99 5.88 4.35
4.17 4.52 6.06 5.91 5.36 4.22
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

3.2 Field Assessments

To relate the material properties with the in situ properties, a number of field assessments were carried out
these include seismic refraction survey and field ripping test (see Mohd For Mohd Amin et al., 2009).
Seismic velocity (V) of the in situ quartzite was verified using 24-channel Geometrics ES-3000
seismograph. The typical V for the upper substrata materials in panel B and C is shown in Fig. 10, which
lies between 1000 and 2000 m/s.
To evaluate the field production rate (Qr), direct ripping was carried out on the in situ rock using
single-shank CAT D6 (165 HP) ripper dozer. The production rate was estimated by measuring volume of
cut produced by the ripper, similar to the volume by length method used by Basarir & Karpuz, (2004). For
each panel, 10 rip lines were carried out with length varies between 20 and 30 m. However, for reliability
of data only the middle portion of 15 m length (L) was considered for related measurements. At this
portion of the rip line, the ripper dozer is thought to have achieved its steady speed of 0.6 to 0.8 m/s. Time
(min) taken to complete one ripping cycle (Cr) was recorded and the volume of rip was estimated from the
length L and the dimensions W and D shown in Fig. 11. Using equation (1), the Qr for each rip line was
estimated (note: for simple manoeuvre the operator efficiency Er 100 %). The field production rates
obtained for the 6 panels are listed in Table 3.

Ground
surface
D

Fig. 10: Typical profile and seismic velocity (V) Fig. 11: Dimensions of V-cut produced by
for Panel B and C single-shank ripper

Table 3: Summary of production rate obtained from field ripping test at various panel

Panel A B C D E F
282 241 147 183 184 229
298 244 204 145 132 239
277 239 178 149 173 275
Field 242 221 183 146 196 272
Production 264 227 180 150 183 248
Rate, Qr 287 229 175 178 175 267
(m3/hr) 292 237 164 145 160 255
260 232 173 178 178 254
261 228 188 179 164 248
263 236 181 173 145 249

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The properties of the quartzite like Rebound number (R) and compressive strength (qu) (see Table 1) can
be used to substantiate that this rock requires ripping for excavation, for example by plotting values of R
and qu against Fig. 3, and field seismic velocity (V) against Fig. 4.
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

Comparing the field production rate Qr (see Table 3) with the rippability classification proposed by
Basarir & Karpuz (2004) implies that the rippability of this rock is difficult to very difficult. Although this
rating is an over-estimate, as the classification was based on D8 ripper (of higher power than D6)
however, such rating does indicate the degree of difficulty to rip the in situ rock. Appropriate rippability
classification for quartzite and CAT D6 dozer is discussed later.
Table 4 shows correlations between properties of quartzite and SE, with all the correlations displaying
R2 > 0.8. The best correlation is between SE and tensile strength, and this is expected as this strength is the
most indicative parameter for excavatability of rocks. The good correlations strongly indicate that besides
its material properties, degree of rippability of quartzite can also be evaluated using its SE value.

Table 4: Correlation between Specific Energy (SE) and material properties of quartzite

Correlation Equation Coefficient, R2

SE and Tensile Strength (t) SE = 0.5419(t) + 1.440 0.903
SE and Laboratory Seismic Velocity (VL) SE = 0.0019(VL) + 0.384 0.861
SE and Rebound Value (%) SE = 0.1182(R) + 1.154 0.866
SE and Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) SE = 0.0651(UCS) + 1.882 0.790

Correlations between Qr and some properties of the quartzite is listed in Table 5. The correlation
between SE and Qr shows coefficient R2 of 0.85. This verifies the fact that for a given rock type, the
rippability of its samples in laboratory (SE) is closely related to rippability of that rock mass on site (Qr),
as postulated by other researchers.

Table 5: Correlation between field production rate (Qr) and properties of quartzite

Correlation Equation Coefficient, R2

Qr and Field Seismic Velocity(Vf) Qr = -163.19Ln(Vf) + 2798.4 0.730
Qr and Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) Qr = -162.31Ln(UCS) + 833.71 0.876
Qr and Specific Energy (SE) Qr = -235.27Ln(SE) + 586.22 0.850

The value of SE and Qr for the 6 panels is shown in Table 6 which clearly indicates that the higher the
SE the more difficult to rip the in situ rock, i.e. lower Qr. The lab ripping test on the rock samples
collected from Panel C, D and E, show a higher SE (> 5.5 MJ/m3), hence a lower Qr is observed during in
situ ripping of these panels (< 180 m3/hr). Panel A which exhibits the lowest SE of 3.82 MJ/m3 gives the
highest Qr of 273 m3/hr. Again this verifies that SE is directly related to Qr.

Table 6: Specific energy and field production rate for the various panels

Panel Specific Energy (SE), MJ/m3 Field production rate (Qr), m3/hr
A 3.82 273
B 4.64 233
C 5.84 177
D 5.80 162
E 5.65 169
F 4.24 254

Rippability classification for the quartzite by using 165 HP CAT D6 ripper dozer is shown in Table 7.
The classification is based on the ratings suggested by Basarir & Karpuz (2004). Based on the range of SE
and Qr, the rippability of the in situ quartzite is rated as easy to moderate. An objective and systematic
approach to assess rippability of quartzite is also proposed. The stages and scopes of the assessment are
summarised in Fig. 10 (details are given in Mohd For Mohd Amin et al., 2009).
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

Table 7: Rippability classification of quartzite using D6 ripper dozer (185 HP)

Specific energy SE, MJ/m3 Field production rate Qr, m3/hr Rippability
>7.00 <130 Difficult
5.25 7.00 130-200 Moderate
3.75 5.25 200-270 Easy
< 3.75 >270 Very easy

STAGE 1 Classification: Lithology, physical Observation, laboratory

properties & strengths index & strength tests

Igneous & high grade Non-crystalline, cemented &

metamorphic rock (strong to foliated (moderately weak to
very strong UCS > 60 MPa) moderately strong UCS < 60 MPa)

Graphical methods
Determination of rippability
(e.g. McLean & Gribble,
based on material properties
1985)
STAGE 2

NON-RIPPABLE RIPPABLE

STAGE 3
Mass/in situ properties: seismic Field production rate, Qr (if
velocity, discontinuities, RQD any), in situ assessment (e.g.
Pettifer & Fookes, 2004)

Rippability assessment & Lab ripping test

classification (e.g. Basarir Correlation SE & Qr to determine SE
and Karpuz, 2004)

Fig. 12: Systematic approach to assess rippability of quartzite (and other comparable rocks)

5. CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions can be derived from this study:

1. In assessing the rippability of rock, besides its lithology it is also important to address its physical
and strength properties, particularly those that can substantiate its resistance against ripping.
2. Degree of difficulty to excavate a rock by ripping method can be evaluated in laboratory, termed as
specific energy it represents power required to rip a given volume of the rock sample.
3. Correlation between specific energy and field production rate is established, for the type of rock and
ripper dozer investigated. This correlation is essential in planning and costing of major earthwork.
4. Finally, a systematic approach to assess rippability of quartzite is proposed which can be used to
assess the suitability of ripping for quartzite and other rocks of comparable properties and strengths.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM) for
the financial support, and Research Management Centre, UTM, for the help in managing the project.
2ND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (CIRAIC2009)

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