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1
Strong Ground Motion
Evaluation of the effects of earthquakes requires the
study of ground motion
Engineering Seismology deals with vibrations related
to earthquakes, which are strong enough to cause
damage to people and environment
Time (sec)
2
Components of Ground Motion
3
Measuring ground motion
Seismographs are used to measure the
ground motion. Seismogram is the
output from the seismograph. It is a
record of the ground motion at a
measuring station as a function of time.
Seismograms typically record motions
in three cartesian axes (x, y, and z),
with the z axis perpendicular to the
Earth's surface and the x- and y- axes
parallel to the surface. Three inertial
seismometers are commonly used in
one instrument housing to measure
up-down, east-west, north-south
motions simultaneously. 4
Seismogram interpretation
Seismograms can provide
information on
location of epicenter
magnitude of
earthquake
source properties
Most seismograms record P, S
& surface waves
First arrival is P wave - surface waves follow and may
After a pause of several continue for tens of seconds
seconds/10s of seconds - surface waves are slower but
persist to greater distances than
the higher amplitude S
P & S waves
wave arrives
5
Wave terminology
Wave amplitude
height of a wave above its
displacement, y
zero position T= 1/f
Wave period
time taken to complete one A
cycle of motion time, t
Frequency
number of cycles per second
(Hertz)
human ear can detect
frequencies in range
15-20000 Hz A= amplitude
felt shaking during
quake has frequencies T= Period
from 20 down to 1
Hertz f = frequency
6
Ground Motion Recording
7
Vertical Benioff Seismometer
11
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
13
Geophone
Geophones (velocity transducers) are used to measure the
seismic wave velocities. They transform the mechanical wave
energy to electrical voltage and the response is captured with
time to obtain the velocity of seismic waves
14
Geophone
Traditional geophones consist of a magnetized mass fixed to
the container and a surrounding coil suspended by springs.
Natural frequency is controlled by the mass and spring
constant.
Response curve is the plot of the electric voltage output from
a geophone as it changes with different wave frequencies.
15
Array of Geophones
Coil
MEMS
Acceleration sensitive 17
Hydrophones
Instead of recording displacement, hydrophones record changes
in pressure. A piezo-electric crystal senses the pressure change
and creates a voltage. This sensor is used for ocean floor seismic
sensing.
18
Broadband Seismometer
Broadband seismometers can detect motion over a wide range
(or band) of frequencies and usually over a large range of
amplitudes (the dynamic range). Broadband sensors respond to
most frequencies from 0.01 Hz to 50 Hz. For regional seismology,
the frequency range of interest is from 0.05 to 20 Hz therefore;
broadband sensors are most useful for recording regional
earthquakes .
19
Strong motion seismographs
http://200.119.88.135/RSNC/index.php/joomla-overview/red-sismologica-nacional-de-colombia
21
Recommended Reading
Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
http://www.iris.edu/stations/seisWorkshop04/iris_sensor_ws_9.19.05.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer
22
Ground Motion Parameters
An earthquake history can be described using Amplitude, Frequency
content, and Duration.
Amplitude: The most common measures of amplitude are
PGA: Peak ground acceleration (Horizontal- PHA & Vertical- PVA)
EPA: Effective peak acceleration
PGV: Peak ground velocity (PHV & PVV)
EPV: Effective peak velocity
PGD: Peak ground displacement
23
Ground Motion Parameters
24
Measurement of ground acceleration
A seismograph can be illustrated by a mass-spring-dashpot
single degree of freedom system.
28
Strong ground motion record of Bhuj earthquake
PGA = 0.106 g
PGA = 0.08 g
PGA = 0.07 g
Strong motion accelerograms recorded on the ground floor of the Passport Office
Building at Ahmedabad during 2001 Bhuj earthquake. 29
Amplitude Parameters
30
Design ground motion parameters
Complete reliance on peak ground acceleration for design
proved to give wrong results.
This is because, more often the peak acceleration
corresponds to very high frequencies which are out of the
range of the natural frequencies of most structures.
Therefore, large values of peak ground acceleration alone can
seldom initiate either resonance in the elastic range or be
responsible for large scale damage in the inelastic range.
Therefore, different parameters are required to characterize
the severity and the damage potential of the earthquake
ground motion. In general, these parameters are frequency
and duration of strong ground motion
31
Frequency Content Parameters
The frequency content
describes clearly how the
amplitude of ground motion is
distributed among different
frequencies. The frequency
content of a ground motion
can be obtained by
transforming the ground
motion from time domain to a
frequency domain through a
Fourier transform.
Source: Kramer (1996)
32
Frequency Content Parameters
The frequency content of an earthquake history is often
described using Fourier Spectra, Power spectra and
response spectra.
Fourier Spectra
A periodic function (for which an earthquake history is an
approximation) can be written as
x(t ) c0 cn sin( n t n )
n 1
34
Fourier Spectra
The Fourier amplitude spectrum is a plot of cn versus n
Shows how the amplitude of the motion varies with
frequency.
Expresses the frequency content of a motion
The Fourier phase spectrum is a plot of n versus n
Phase angles control the times at which the peaks of
harmonic motion occur.
Fourier phase spectrum is influenced by the variation of
ground motion with time.
35
Fourier Spectra
36
Fourier Amplitude Spectrum
Fourier Amplitude
vibration corresponding to the maximum GM2
value of the Fourier amplitude spectrum.
This parameter represents the frequency
content of the motion.
Tp
The predominant period for two Period
different ground motions (GM1 & GM2) Tp is same for the two
with different frequency contents can be ground motions, though
same, making the estimation of the frequency content is
different
frequency content crude.
42
Predominant Period
43
Duration
Duration of an earthquake is very important parameter that
influences the amount of damage due to earthquake. A strong
motion of very high amplitude of short duration may not cause as
much damage to a structure as a motion with moderate
amplitude with long duration can cause. This is because the
ground motion with long duration causes more load reversals,
which is important in the degradation of stiffness of the
structures and in building up pore pressures in loose saturated
soils.
Duration represents the time required for the release of
accumulated strain energy along a fault, thus increases with
increase in magnitude of earthquake.
Relative duration does not depend on the peak values. It is the
time interval between the points at which 0.05% and 0.95% of
the total energy has been recorded. 44
Duration
The duration of an earthquake history is somewhat dependent on
the magnitude of the earthquake. Figure below shows
accelerograms from six earthquakes off the Pacific coast of Mexico.
The epicentral distance was the same for all six earthquakes.
45
Duration
Bracketed duration is the measure of time between the first
and last exceedence of a threshold acceleration 0.05 g.
46
Source: Kramer (1996)
Bracketed Duration
47
Recommended Reading
http://webshaker.ucsd.edu/homework/Ground_motion_parameters.pdf
48
Other Spectral Parameters
RMS acceleration : This is the parameter that includes the
effects of amplitude and frequency, defined as
49
Other Spectral Parameters
SI - The Spectrum Intensity is defined as the integral of the
psuedo-Spectral velocity curve (also known as the velocity
response spectrum), integrated between periods of 0.1 - 2.5
seconds. These quantities are motivated by the need to
examine the response of structures to ground motion, as
many structures have fundamental periods between 0.1 and
2.5 sec. The SI can be calculated for any structural damping
ratio.
Dominant frequency of ground motion (Fd) is defined as the
frequency corresponding to the peak value in the amplitude
spectrum. Thus, Fd indicates the frequency for which the
ground motion has the most energy. The amplitude
spectrum has to be smoothed before determining Fd.
50
Other Spectral Parameters
Bandwidth BW - of the dominant frequency; measured
where the amplitude falls to 0.707 (1 /2) of the amplitude
of the dominant frequency. Again, this is based on a
smoothed amplitude spectrum.
Fourier Amplitude
Band
Period
51
Spatial variability of ground motions
The ground motion parameters at any site depend upon the
magnitude of earthquake and the distance of the site from
epicenter.
The ground motion parameters measured at a site have been
used to develop empirical relationships to predict the
parameters as functions of earthquake magnitude and source-
to-site distance. But these predictions are not accurate.
For structures that extend over considerable distance (such as
bridges and pipelines), the ground motion parameters will be
different at different part of the structure, causing differential
movement of the supports. Local variation of ground motion
parameters need to be considered for the design of such
structures.
52
Ground Motion Parameters
One of the most important decisions in carrying out proper
design is to select a design earthquake that adequately
represents the ground motion expected at a particular site and in
particular the motion that would drive the structure to its critical
response, resulting in the highest damage potential.
The quantification of such ground motion is not easy. It requires
a good understanding of the ground motion parameters that
characterize the severity and the damage potential of the
earthquake ground motion and the seismological, geological, and
topographic factors that affect them.
53
Why is PHA important?
54
Why vertical accelerations are not very
important?
Structures have gravity acting against vertical
accelerations due to earthquake. Static forced
induced due to gravity provide adequate resistance
to dynamic forces induced due to vertical
accelerations during earthquake.
PVA 2/3 PHA
PVA > 2/3 PHA near epicenter
PVA < 2/3 PHA at distances far from epicenter
55
Why high peak accelerations cause little
damage?
56
Why cant peak amplitudes quantify
destruction?
Although peak amplitude is a very useful parameter, it provides no
information on the frequency content or duration. Sometimes
acceleration time histories are characterized by single cycle peak
amplitudes, that are much greater than amplitudes of other cycles
time time
57
Why cant peak amplitudes quantify
destruction?
58
Peak acceleration and effective
acceleration
59
Effective acceleration
60
PHA and earthquake Intensity
61
PHA and PHV
62
63
Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters
Ground motion parameters are usually estimated through predictive
relationships. These relationships express ground motion parameter in
terms of the quantities that affect it strongly.
Predictive relationships play important role in seismic hazard analysis.
The functional form of the predictive relationship is usually selected to
reflect the mechanism of the ground motion process as closely as
possible
This minimizes the number of empirical coefficients and allows to apply
the relationship with greater confidence to ground conditions that are
poorly represented in the database.
Predictive relationships are often arrived at by the regression analysis of
the available strong motion data
These relationships have to be updated time to time after major
earthquakes in the region.
64
Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters
Common forms of predictive relations are based on the following
observations:
1. Peak values of strong motion parameters are usually lognormally
distributed.
2. Earthquake magnitude M is typically defined as the logarithm of some peak
ground motion parameter Y. Thus M proportional to ln Y
3. The spreading of stress waves as they travel away from the earthquake
source attenuates the body wave and surface wave amplitudes
4. The area over which the fault rupture occurs, increases with increase in the
earthquake magnitude. Thus the effective distance R increases with the
earthquake magnitude
5. The material damping decreases the ground motion amplitudes with
distance exponentially
6. Ground motion parameters may be influenced by source characteristics like
type of fault or the site characteristics like the type of soil and topography
of the region. 65
Typical Predictive relationship
Campbell (1981) used worldwide data to obtain a relationship for the
mean PHA for sites within 50 km of fault rupture in magnitude 5.0 to 7.7
earthquakes as:
67
Attenuation Relationships
Ground Motion Parameter
1) Basin Effects
2) Site Response Effects
3) Fault Type
4) Fault geometry
5) Hanging Wall/ Foot Wall
6) Main and after shock effects
IDEA DE TESIS.?
69
Example Problem
The strong motion data of an earthquake recorded for 3 seconds near epicenter with a
sampling interval of 0.1 sec is given in the table below. Plot acceleration-time history of the
earthquake. Find out PHA, PVA, vmax, maximum displacement, bracketed duration,
predominant period, sustained maximum acceleration (peaks need not be successive)
and local magnitude of the earthquake [ML = log10 A (A in micrometers)]. Comment on the
intensity of this earthquake and expected hazards.
70
Solution
0,60
PHA = 0.49 g
PVA = 2/3 PHA = 0.327 g
0,50 Bracketed duration = 2.7-0.3 = 2.4 sec
vmax = 48.31cm/sec
predominant period = 2 p vmax/amax = 0.63 sec
0,40 (amax = 0.49 g = 480.69 cm/sec2)
sustained max. acceleration ( 3cycle) = 0.2 g (3rd
highest)
0,30 maximum displacement = 35.04 cm
0,20
0,10
0.05 g
0,00
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 0.05 g 3,5
-0,10
2nd exceedence of
1st exceedence of
-0,20
-0,30 2
1 cycle
-0,40
3
71
Exercise Problems
1. If an earthquake is recorded at four equally spaced locations along a
straight line, show the variation of all the following parameters along
the straight line if the epicenter lies on the straight line, dividing it into
two equal parts
(a) Magnitude (b) PHA (c) Duration (d) Predominant period
2. Obtain the time-acceleration response for any earthquake.
Determine the bracketed duration, predominant period and Arias
intensity
3. Download the software Seismosignal, which is a freeware. Analyze
any earthquake record in the program and obtain all possible ground
motion parameters.
72
Recommended Reading
Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Iyengar, R.N. and Raghu kanth, S.T.G. (2004) Attenuation of Strong Ground
Motion in Peninsular India. Seismological Research Letters, 75(4), 530-540
Sharma, M. L. (2000) Attenuation relationship for estimation of peak ground
vertical acceleration using data from strong motion arrays in India. 12th World
conference on Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand, 1964/ 4 / A, pp1-8.
Stein, S. and Wysession, M. (2003). An introduction to seismology, earthquakes,
and earth structure, Blackwell Science.
http://webshaker.ucsd.edu/homework/Ground_motion_parameters.pdf
Download free software for the estimation of ground motion parameters :
http://www.seismosoft.com/SeismoSignal-2016-Release-1
73
Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis
74
Seismic Hazard Analysis
Seismic hazard analysis is concerned with getting an
estimate of the strong-motion parameters at a site for
the purpose of earthquake resistant design or seismic
safety assessment.
For generalized applications, seismic hazard analysis can
also be used to prepare macro or micro zoning maps of
an area by estimating the strong-motion parameters for
a closely spaced grid of sites.
Seismic hazard analysis can be done in two ways
1. Deterministic seismic hazard Analysis (DSHA)
2. Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA)
75
Seismic Hazard Analysis
DSHA
In the deterministic approach, the strong-motion
parameters are estimated for the maximum
credible earthquake, assumed to occur at the
closest possible distance from the site of interest,
without considering the likelihood of its occurrence
during a specified exposure period.
PSHA
Probabilistic approach integrates the effects of all the
earthquakes expected to occur at different
locations during a specified life period, with the
associated uncertainties and randomness taken
into account.
76
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
77
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
78
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
79
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
Site 80
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
Site
Source
81
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
82
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
83
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
84
Determination of source-site distance
M1 M3
M2
85
Selection of controlling earthquake
86
Active Fault
87
Magnitude Indicators
89
Magnitude Indicators
Scatter inherent in databases used by Wells and
Coppersmith (1994) in developing the correlations.
90
Magnitude Indicators
Comparison of several empirical relationships used to
find the maximum magnitude from
(a) the fault rupture length and (b) the fault rupture
area
Diagonal lines in figure correspond to the equation. Data points represent actual
earthquakes 92
Historic Seismicity
95
Selection of controlling earthquake
Decision should be based on ground motion parameters of
greatest interest
Consider all sources
Assume Mmax occurs at Rmin for each source
Compute ground motion parameter(s) based on Mmax and
Rmin
Determine critical value(s) of ground motion parameter(s)
96
Selection of controlling earthquake
R3
R1
M1 M3
R2
M2
97
Selection of controlling earthquake
98
Selection of controlling earthquake
99
Selection of controlling earthquake source
100
Hazard Estimation from Mmax and R
Peak acceleration
Spectral accelerations
Duration
101
Steps in DSHA: Summary
R3
R1
M3 M1 M3
M1
R2
M2 M2
(i)
(ii)
Y1
Y
2
Y .
.
Yn
(iii) (iv)
102
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
103
Theoretical Determination of Mmax for
Himalayas
From west to east, the entire Himalaya has a length of
about 2500 km, and the width of the associated
seismic source is about 100 km.
The source of major earthquakes along the Himalaya
has been postulated as a gently dipping detachment
plane, north of the main boundary fault (MBF), at a
depth of about 20 to 30 km.
Thus, the total rupture plane of the Himalaya has an
area A of about 2.5 x 105 km2.
The shear modulus, for the Himalayan rocks can be
taken as 3.4 x 1011 dyne/cm2.
104
Theoretical Determination of Mmax for Himalayas
105
Example Problem
The site shown in the Figure below is located near four active faults.
Fault A is a normal fault, faults B and C are strike-slips faults and
fault D is a reverse fault. The coordinates of the site and faults given
in the figure are in km. Assuming that only linear segment can
rupture in an individual event, determine the anticipated peak
acceleration at the site.
Magnitude Indicators
Empirical relationships between Mw, Surface rupture
length L (km), rupture area A (km2) and maximum
surface displacement D (m)
107
Solution
1. There are total 6 fault segments to be considered. Fault B has
three segments (B1, B2 and B3)
2. The closest distance of the fault segment from the site (R) is
computed.
3. Length of each fault segment is calculated
4. Maximum magnitude associated with each fault is obtained from
the empirical relationships given by wells and coppersmith
(1994) for the particular fault type given in the problem.
5. Peak acceleration is obtained by predictive relationship of
Cornell et al. (1979)
ln PHA (gals) = 6.74 + 0.859 M 1.80 ln (R+25) (R in km)
site
40 km
40 km
Recommended Reading
112
Probabilities
Supongamos que la estadstica
muestra que hay una correlacin
entre que los partidos ganados de
la Seleccin Colombia y los goles
que meti el Tino cuando jugaba
de titular. S el Tino mete un gol,
Colombia tiene 50% de
probabilidad de ganar. S hace
dos goles, 60%; y si hace tres
goles 70%. S al Tino lo echan por
cochino, la probabilidad baja a
25%. S no hace goles, de 50%.
113
Adems, las estadsticas futboleras muestran que
cuando el Tino se enfrenta a Chilavert (Mostro
Arquero de Paraguay), tiene las siguientes
probabilidades:
Echan = 20%
Sin goles = 20%
Un gol = 30%
Dos Goles = 15%
Tres Goles = 10%
DSHA PSHA
Assumes single scenario Assumes many scenarios
Selects single magnitude for Considers all magnitudes
each seismic source associated with all seismic
sources
Selects the closest distance Considers all possible
between the source and site distances between source
and site
Assumes effects due to Considers all effects
magnitude and distance
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Why PSHA?
Source
Site
Source to site
distance depends on
where rupture occurs
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Source
Site
Source to site
distance depends on
where rupture occurs
Probability Distribution Function
l
rmin dl Lf
r source
For linear source shown, the r+dr
probability of earthquake to site
occur on the small segment of
the fault between L=l and L=l+dl
is same as the probability that it
occurs between R=r and R=r+dr
fR(r)
121
Probability Distribution Function
l
rmin
r dl Lf source
r+dr
site
r
rmin rmax
122
Probability Distribution Function
rmax
Create histogram of source
to site distance. Accuracy
increases with increasing
number of segments
Probability Distribution
For example if we roll a single die, the probability we roll a 2 = 1/6
We usually write this in "short-hand" as Pr (2) = 1/6
So, Pr (even number) = 3/6 or 1/2
If we toss a single coin, Pr(heads) = 1/2
If we toss two coins, Pr (exactly 2 heads) = 1/4
For any event like this, we can draw a probability histogram, which
is simply a picture that shows all the possible outcomes and their
corresponding probabilities.
For a single roll of a die, the probability histogram looks like:
1/6
1 2 3 4 5 6 125
Probability Histogram
For the number of heads in a toss of two coins, the
probability histogram is:
1/2
1/4
No heads 0 1 2
126
Probability Histogram
Uncertainty in source to site distance:
NM log N M
M M
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Distribution of earthquake magnitudes
log M
log M
log M
10a
Gutenberg-Ritcher log TR
Recurrence Law 0
M
log M = a-bM
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Distribution of earthquake magnitudes
Law
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Neglecting events below minimum magnitude, mo
m = nexp[- (m - mo)] for m > mo (McGuire and Arabasz, 1990)
where n= exp[a- mo].
FM (m) = P[M<m| M>m0] = (m0 m)/ m0 = 1-exp (-(m-m0))
Then,
fM(m) = d/dm (FM(m)) = e-m-mo)
Bounded G-R
logm Recurrence Law
Mmax M
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Paleoseismic investigations
Show similar displacements in each earthquake
Individual faults produce characteristic earthquakes
Characteristic earthquake occur at or near Mmax
Could be caused by geologic constraints
More research, field observations needed
139
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Distribution of earthquake magnitudes
Characteristic Earthquake Recurrence Law
Seismicity data
Geologic data
Mmax M
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Predictive relationships
Standard error use to evaluate conditional probability
ln Y
P[Y > Y*l M=M*, R=R*]
Y=Y*
lnY
M=M*
R=R* log R
141
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Predictive relationships
Standard error use to evaluate conditional probability
ln Y
R=R* log R
142
Recommended Reading
144
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Temporal uncertainty
Poisson process- describes number of occurrences of an
event during a given time interval or spatial region.
1. The number of occurrences in one time interval are
independent of the number that occur in any other time
interval.
2. Probability of occurrence in a very short time interval
is proportional to length of interval.
3. Probability of more than one occurrence in a very
short time interval is negligible.
145
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Temporal uncertainty
Poisson process
m ne m
P[N n]
n!
where n is the number of occurrences and is the
average number of occurrences in the time interval of
interest.
146
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Temporal uncertainty
Poisson process
Letting = t
P[N n]
t n e t
n!
Then
P[ N 0] P[ N 1] P[ N 2] P[ N 3] .....P[ N ]
=1- P[N=0]
=1- e-t
147
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
148
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
ln(1 P)
t
149
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Temporal uncertainty
Then, the annual rate of exceedance for an event with a 10%
probability of exceedance in 50 yrs is
ln(1 0.1)
0.0021
50
150
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Summary of uncertainties
151
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Total Probability
B2 B3
B1 Theorem
A BB
B4 B5
152
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
153
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
where
154
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
y v i P [Y y* | m, r] f
Ns
* Mi (m)f Ri (r)dmdr
i 1
155
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
y v i P [Y y* | m , r ] f
Ns N M N R
* j k Mi (m j )f Ri (rk )mr
i 1 j1 k 1
y v i P [Y y* | m , r ] P[M m ]P[R r ]
Ns N M N R
* j k j k
i 1 j1 k 1
156
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
y v i P [Y y* | m , r ] P[M m ]P[R r ]
Ns N M N R
* j k j k
i 1 j1 k 1
Y = Y*
ln Y
r1 r2 log R
r3
rN
158
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Combining uncertainties-
probability computations Seismic hazard curve shows the
mean annual rate of exceedance of
a particular ground motion
parameter. A seismic hazard curve
is the ultimate result of a PSHA.
log amax
log TR
amax
159
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Using seismic hazard curves
Combining uncertainties-probability
computations
Contribution of sources
Can break values down into
contributions from each source.
Plot seismic hazard curves for each
Total
source and total seismic hazard
curve (equal to sum of source
curves)
log amax
cross
1 Shows which source(s) most
important.
3
amax
160
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Other
log TR
amax, Sa
161
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Contribution of sources
Can develop seismic hazard curves
for different ground motion
parameters
Peak acceleration
log amax
Special accelerations
log TR
Other
Choose desired value
Read corresponding parameter
values from seismic hazard curves
amax, Sa
162
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Disaggregation (De-aggregation)
Common question:
What magnitude & distance does that amax value correspond
to?
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 Total hazard
25km 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 includes contributions
from all combinations
50km 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 of
M&R
75km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.02
What magnitude & distance does that amax value correspond to?
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
Total hazard includes
25km 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 contributions from all
combinations of M & R.
0.03 0.02
Break hazard down into
50km 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04
75km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.02 contributions to see
where hazard is coming
100km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.02 from.
125km 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 M=7.0 at R=75km
165
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
166
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude
m Model Distribution Mmax
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
BJF
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5) Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
A&S
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
167
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude
Model Distribution Mmax
m
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
A&S
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
168
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude
Model Distribution Mmax
m
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
BJF
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5) Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
A&S 0.5x0.7x0.2 = 0.07
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
169
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude
Model Distribution Mmax
m
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
BJF
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5) Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
A&S 0.5x0.7x0.2 = 0.07
7.0 (0.2)
(0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
170
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Logic tree methods
171
Recommended Reading
172
Exercise Problems in PSHA
173
Problem 1
The hypothetical vertical fault segment shown in Fig.1 is represented as a quarter-
circle. On the same graph, plot histograms of expected epicentral distance for
motions at site A and site B assuming:
(a) Earthquakes are equally likely to occur at any point on the fault segment.
(b) Earthquakes are twice as likely to occur at the midpoint of the fault segment as
at either end and the likelihood is linearly distributed between the midpoint
and the ends.
Site B
12km
Fault
Fig 1 N
30km
Site A
30km 12km 174
Problem 2
3-4 1800
4-5 150
5-6 11
>6 1
175
Problem 3
The seismicity of a particular region is described by the Gutenberg-Ritcher
recurrence law:
log m=4.0-0.7M
(b) What is the probability that exactly one earthquake of magnitude greater
than 7.0 will occur in a 10-year period? In a 50 year period? In a 250-year
period?
176
Problem 4
Using given seismic hazard curve, estimate the probability of exceeding
amax = 0.3g in a 50 year period and in 500 years period
log amax
log TR
0.001
amax
177
Problem 5
Using seismic hazard curve, estimate the peak acceleration that has 10%
probability of being exceeded in a 50 yr period.
Combining uncertainties-probability computations
log amax
0.0021 log TR
179
Wave Propagation Theories
Flexural Vibration
(Surface waves)
Particle
movemen
t
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
Dynamic equilibrium of
element requires
x 2u
x0 dx A x0 A Adx
x t 2
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
dx
Cross-sectional Area = A
Youngs modulus = E
Poissons ratio = n
Density =
Wave propagation velocity = vp
Vp = sqrt (M/)
M = Constrained modulus
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
x 0
x0
xo = x (x0 , x
dx
t)
M
vp p wave velocity
u
x Mx , x
x
Stress-strain Strain-
relationship displacement
relationship
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
, E n, A
dx
x 0
xo = x (x0 , t) x0 dx
x
u= u (x0 , t) u
u dx
x
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
x 0
x0
xo = x (x0 , t) x
dx
x u
x0 dx A x 0 A A dx 2
2
x t
x 2u
2
x t
stresses displacements
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
x u
x dx A x 0 A Adx 2
2
x t
Simplifying and expressing stress in terms of
displacement, we get one dimensional wave equation
as
x 2u
x t 2
2u 2 2
u
vp
t 2 x 2
Constrained Modulus M
dx
M = xx/ xx
xx = M xx = M u/ x
x 2u
x t 2
2u 2u 2u M 2u
M ;
x 2 t 2 t 2 x 2
2u 2 2
u
vp
t 2 x 2 M
vp
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
x 0
x0
xo = x (x0 , t) x
dx
M
vp
Particle velocity v = u/ t
u = x x (from strain-displacement relationship)
v = u/ t = x x/ t
x = vp t (from the definition of wave propagation velocity)
x = x/ M
x x x
v vp vp
M v 2p v p
Particle velocity is proportional to axial stress. vp is
the specific impedance of the material.
Longitudinal waves in infinitely long rod
x 0
x0
xo = x (x0 , t) x
dx
x 2u
2
x t
u
x Mx , x
x
1 n
M
1 n (1 2n )
E
2u M 2u 2u 2 u
2
or vp 2
t 2
x 2 t 2
x
Torsional waves in an infinitely long rod
Tx0 d
Tx0+( T/ x) dx
dx
own axis.
dx dx
constrained to planes x t 2
For a bar of constant cross- T GJ
section, the equation of motion x
here is T 2
J
2 G 2 2
x t 2
v s2
t 2 x 2 x 2
Torsional waves in an infinitely long rod
T 2
Tx 0 dx Tx0 J dx
x t 2
T 2
J
x t 2
Torque Rotation
Torsional waves in an infinitely long rod
T 2
Tx 0 dx Tx 0 J dx
x t 2
T 2
J
x t 2
T GJ
x
2 G 2 2
2
vs
t 2 x 2 x 2
2u 2u T = 2p/
1 D wave equation:
2
vp
u
t 2 x 2
u ( x , t ) C e i t kx D e i wt kx
Recommended Reading
http://geo.cv.nctu.edu.tw/EngGeo/download/Seismic_Wav
e_Propagation1D.pdf
http://octavia.ce.washington.edu/drlayer/theory/T-Basic-
Concepts.html
199
Lecture-20
200
Solution of 1D wave equation
2u 2
2 u T = 2p/
1 D wave equation: vp
t 2
x 2
u
Solution for the above equation can be expressed as t
u (x, t) = A cos (t k x) + B cos (t + k x)
First and seconds terms represent harmonic waves
propagating in positive and negative x directions u
respectively x
= 2p/k
k = wave number = /v
The same solution can be written using complex
notation
u ( x , t ) C e i t kx D e i wt kx
Waves in semi-infinite body
For waves whose motion is concentrated in a shallow zone near the
free surface (surface waves), earth is idealized as semi-infinite body
with planar free surface.
Plane wave
xy
yz
xy
zy
x
zx xz
z
x xy xz
Xb 0
x y z
xy y yz
Yb 0
x y z
xz yz z
Zb 0
x y z
Strain Displacement
x 1 n n n 0 0 0 x
n 1 n n 0 0 0
y y
z E n n 1 n 0 0 0 z
xy (1 n)(1 2n) 0 0 0 0 0 xy
(12n)
2
yz 0 0 0 0
(12n)
0 yz
(12 n)
2
zx 0 0 0 0 0 2 zx
E
Note :G
2(1 n )
Stress-Strain Relationships
For isotropic, linear elastic material,
x 2m 0 0 0x
y 2m 0 0 0 y
z 2m 0 0 0 z
xy 0 0 0 m 0 0 xy
yz 0 0 0 0 m 0 yz
zx 0 0 0 0 0 mzx
3 2 m
E m
m
2m
K
3
G m
n
2 m
sin(1 ) sin( 2 )
normal.
incidence reflection
v1 v2
Snells Law derivation
What determines the angle of the refraction into the rock-2 layer ?
T
Derivation of
0 1 T Snells Law
1
v1 1A
B
v2 1 1
2
sin(1 ) v1 1
2 2
2
T
sin( 2 ) v2 2
T
sin(1 ) sin( 2 ) sin(1 ) sin( 2 )
0
sin(1 ) 1
1
AB 1
AB sin(1 ) 1 2 v1 v2
sin( 2 ) 2
AB 2
AB sin( ) 2 v1 f * 1 v2 f * 2
The ratios of the velocities and wavelengths and sin(angles) are all equal.
Otherwise, the wavefield would tear apart.
Tracing rays using Snells Law in multiple layer medium
r1 sin(1 ) r2 sin(2 )
v1 v2
Note that the angle at the top and
the bottom of a spherical shell are
NOT the same. This is because the
layers are curved.
Transmitted SV
wave
Reflected SV
wave
Incident SV
wave
SV wave: S-waves polarized in the
vertical plane
Waves in layered body
Transmitted SH
wave
Reflected SH
wave
Incident SH
wave
SH wave: S-waves polarized in the
horizontal plane
Waves in layered body
Inclined waves
Refracted SV wave
Refracted P wave
Reflected P wave
Incident P wave Reflected SV wave
Waves in layered body
Inclined waves
Refracted SV wave
Refracted P wave
Reflected P wave
Incident SV Reflected SV wave
wave
Waves in layered body
Inclined waves
Refracted SH wave
Material Damping
Radiation Damping
Attenuation of stress waves
Material Damping
Radiation Damping
228