WIRELESS OPTICAL LINK

A Graduate Project Report submitted to Guru Nanak Dev University in

partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by
Sam William Carey
Roll No: 2013ECA1118

Under the guidance of

Mr. C.K. Joshi(Scientist D)

Mr. Anand Lal Singh (Scientist G) Asst. Prof. Shivender Devra
Mr. Rajeev Kumar (Technical Officer A) & (Dept guide)
Dr.N.S.Vasan (Scientist G- Group Head: LI)
Laser Instrumentation
I.R.D.E, Dehradun
 (On company letterhead)

DEHRADUN
12/05/2017

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled WIRELESS OPTICAL LINK was carried out
by Mr. SAM WILLIAM CAREY (Roll. No.2013ECA1118) at I.R.D.E, Raipur Road,
Dehradun under my guidance during his 18 weeks course w.e.f JANUARY 2017 to MAY
2017.

Mr. C.K.Joshi Dr.N.S.Vasan

Project guide Group Head ( Laser Instrumentation )
Scientist D Scientist G

2
 Acknowledgement

I am highly grateful to Er.Shivinder Devra(Assistant professor) & Dr. Ravinder Singh Sahwney (HOD, Dept
of Electronics technology) for providing this opportunity to carry out the six months industrial training at
IRDE(Instrumentation Research & Development Establishment)-DRDO in the Laser Instrumentation lab
under C.K.Joshi (Scientist-D),A.L Singh (Scientist G), Dr. N.S Vasan (Scientist G& group head) & Rajeev
Kumar (Technical Officer A) .It was purely on the basis of their immense experience and enriching
knowledge that I am able to clear all the theoretical and technical hurdles during the nascent phases of this
project work. I want to express gratitude to other faculty members of Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering and the Scientists / Technical Officer in IRDE for their intellectual support
throughout the training Course.

3
 ABSTRACT

Optical wireless communications (OWC) is a form of optical communication in which

unguided visible, infrared (IR), or ultraviolet (UV) light is used to carry a information signal.

OWC systems operating in the visible band (390750 nm) are commonly referred to as visible light
communication (VLC). VLC systems take advantage of light emitting diodes (LEDs) which can be pulsed at
very high speeds without noticeable effect on the lighting output and human eye. VLC can be possibly used in
a wide range of applications including wireless local area networks, wireless personal area networks and
vehicular networks among others. On the other hand, terrestrial point-to-point OWC systems, also known as
the free space optical (FSO) systems, operate at the near IR frequencies (7501600 nm). These systems
typically use laser transmitters and offer a cost-effective protocol-transparent link with high data rates, i.e.,
10 Gbit/s per wavelength, and provide a potential solution for the backhaul bottleneck. There has also been a
growing interest on ultraviolet communication (UVC) as a result of recent progress in solid state optical
sources/detectors operating within solar-blind UV spectrum (200280 nm). In this so-called deep UV band,
solar radiation is negligible at the ground level and this makes possible the design of photon-counting
detectors with wide field-of-view receivers that increase the received energy with little additional background
noise. Such designs are particularly useful for outdoor non-line-of-sight configurations to support low power
short-range UVC such as in wireless sensor and ad-hoc networks.

This project has been carried out in various steps namely the study of the whole set up and the function of
different ICs, the testing of the post amplification stage along with the Schmitt trigger, comparator and timer.
This was followed by the set up of transmitter unit and the receiver unit along with the post amplification and
other units following it. This setup was first tested and the drawn over on express PCB software

4
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1. The figure describes the comparison between an optical link and a radio link
Fig 2.2.. A model of the early photophone
Fig 3.1.. A Block Diagram of a Microprocessor
Fig 3.2 ..Block diagram of a Micro controller
Fig 3.3Block Diagram of AT89C51
Fig 3.4.Pin diagram of AT89C51
Fig 3.5. Oscillator Connections
Fig 3.6. External Clock Drive Configurations
Fig 4.1 .various coding techniques
Fig 5.1 .Block diagram of Transmitter unit
Fig 5.2 .LASER driver and LASER circuit diagram
Fig 5.3 .Characteristics chart of a NPN transistor
Fig 5.4 .Data source (AT89C51) circuit diagram
Fig 5.5 .BLOCK diagram of the Receiver unit
Fig 5.6 ..............Circuit diagram of the transmipedance amplifier and photodiode
Fig 5.7 ............circuit representation of the post amplification, buffer, comparator & monoshot multivibrator
Fig 5.8 ..plot of the ICs CA3130, 7404, lm339 and 74LS123 IC respectively on the oscilloscope.
Fig 5.9 Circuit representation of data processing using AT89C51
Fig 6.1 ... Photodiode
Fig 6.2 Series regulator
Fig 6.3 .Shunt regulator
Fig 6.4..IC Voltage regulator
Fig 6.5 .Standard and Inverting Schmitt Trigger
Fig 6.6 Circuit diagram of Schmitt Trigger
Fig 6.6 .Circuit diagram of Schmitt Trigger
Fig 6.7 .Input and Output Equivalent Circuit
Fig 6.8. .Characteristics of the Red LASER diode
Fig 6.9 ...................Internal configuration of a timer IC
Fig 6.10 ..................Internal configuration of a Op-Amp
Figure 7.1. PCB layout

5
 CONTENTS
Page no.
Certificate 2
Acknowledgement 3
Abstract 4
List of Figures 5

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to IRDE 8
1.2 About LASER instrumentation design centre 9

CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS OPTICAL LINK

2.1 What is wireless optical communication? 10
2.2 A brief history 11

CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW OF MICROCONTROLLER (AT89C51)

3.1 Microprocessor & Microcontroller basics 13
3.2 Characteristic features of AT89C51 15
3.3 Block diagram of AT89C51 16
3.4 Pin description of AT89C51 17
3.5 8051 Addressing modes 22

CHAPTER 4 BACKGROUND THEORY OF WIRELESS OPTICAL LINK

4.1 Introduction to LASER light 25
4.2 Technical terms & software used 27
4.3 Applications of wireless optical communication 29

CHAPTER 5 TRANSMITTER SECTION & RECEIVER SECTION: A

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
5.1 Transmitter section: Block diagram 31
5.2 Transmitter section: Operation and working 31
5.3 Receiver section: Block diagram 33
5.4 Receiver section: Operation and working 33

CHAPTER 6 COMPONENT DETAILS

6.1 Introduction 38
6.2 Component used 38

CHAPTER 7 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT 48

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK (with 50

troubleshooting)

Appendix A 51
Appendix B 58
References 71

6
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7
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION:

1.1 Introduction to IRDE- Instruments Research and Development Establishment, Dehradun is a major
instrument research oriented laboratory within Defence Research & Development Organization and
came into existence on 18th February 1964.

Historical Background: IRDE is a pioneering institution devoted to research, design, development and
technology transfer in the field of sophisticated optical and electro-optical instrumentation of vital interest
to Defence Services. It works primarily in following areas:

Laser based instruments & systems

Fire control system
Infrared search and track system
Stand alone surveillance system
Night Vision devices
The origin of IRDE dates back to the establishment of Inspectorate of Scientific Stores in 1939 at Rawalpindi
(now in Pakistan) with responsibility to inspect telecommunication equipment used by the Army.
Vision Statement:
To achieve excellence in the field of optics and Electro-optical Instrumentation with a commitment is to
provide world class equipment.
Mission Statement:
To design and develop state-of-art night vision devices.
To design and develop compact laser instruments
To design and develop integrated optical and electro-optical surveillance and fire control system.
To carry out research in the area of photonics.
Major Area of Activity:
The primary role of IRDE is to indigenously design, develop and fabricate sophisticated instruments in
following for the defense services.

Laser based systems.

Thermal imaging systems.
Conventional optical and optic instruments.
Night vision instruments.
Gyro based instruments.
Ballistic softwares for fire control application.
Integrated fire control system.
Fiber optics
8
 Photonics
Technology transfer.
A large number of instruments have been developed in this establishment during the past and many of these
are in a regular production with Ordnance Factory, Dehradun, Bharat Electronics Ltd and other trade firms.
IRDE has also made significant contributions in the field of basic research in different area of applied and
allied optics science. Apart from normal R&D work, the establishment has also undertaken regular pavement
in technology of existing instruments with a view to enhance their capability.
Infrastructure:
The establishment has well equipped laboratories with most sophisticated and modern test facilities for
effective R & D work in specific fields. It has also well-equipped reprographic division looking after
preparation and printing of technical documents and drawings.
Library:
IRDE has also a well-stocked technical library containing books and publications including journals of
international standard.
Achievements:
Optics for Viewing the Image Displays
Day Vision Optics for Weapon Systems.
Zoom Optical System
Thermal Imaging Systems
GRIN Optics and Binary Optics.
Optics Fabrication Technology
Fabrication of Multifaceted
Thin Film Technology
Holography
Line of Sight (LoS) Stabilization Technology

1.2 ABOUT LASER INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN CENTRE

Laser instrumentation design centre is one of the oldest technical design centre of I.R.D.E. This design centre
is associated with research and development of laser based instruments since 1967. This design centre
specializes in the areas of solid-state laser instrumentation, optical and electro-optical components, analog and
digital electronics, microprocessor based data communication and precision opto-mechanical components.
The design centre has excellent facilities, which include sophisticated electronic test equipment and CAD
system for carrying out design work on advanced laser instrumentation. The laser instruments developed in
this lab have been integrated with several sophisticated opto-electronics systems developed at IRDE. This
design Centre is constantly engaged in the use of new techniques and circuit ideas for miniaturization of
existing systems and for developing compact lightweight lasers.
9
 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS OPTICAL LINK

2.1 What is wireless optical communication-

Optical wireless communications (OWC) is a form of optical communication in which

unguided visible, infrared (IR), or ultraviolet (UV) light is used to carry a information signal.

OWC systems operating in the visible band (390750 nm) are commonly referred to as visible light
communication (VLC). VLC systems take advantage of light emitting diodes (LEDs) which can be pulsed at
very high speeds without noticeable effect on the lighting output and human eye. VLC can be possibly used in
a wide range of applications including wireless local area networks, wireless personal area networks and
vehicular networks among others. On the other hand, terrestrial point-to-point OWC systems, also known as
the free space optical (FSO) systems, operate at the near IR frequencies (7501600 nm). These systems
typically use laser transmitters and offer a cost-effective protocol-transparent link with high data rates, i.e.,
10 Gbit/s per wavelength, and provide a potential solution for the backhaul bottleneck. There has also been a
growing interest on ultraviolet communication (UVC) as a result of recent progress in solid state optical
sources/detectors operating within solar-blind UV spectrum (200280 nm). In this so-called deep UV band,
solar radiation is negligible at the ground level and this makes possible the design of photon-counting
detectors with wide field-of-view receivers that increase the received energy with little additional background
noise. Such designs are particularly useful for outdoor non-line-of-sight configurations to support low power
short-range UVC such as in wireless sensor and ad-hoc networks.

Based on the transmission range, OWC can be studied in five categories:

1. Ultra-short range OWC: chip-to-chip communications in stacked and closely packed multi-chip
packages.
2. Short range OWC: wireless body area network (WBAN) and wireless personal area network (WPAN)
applications under standard IEEE 802.15.7, underwater communications.
3. Medium range OWC: indoor IR and visible light communications (VLC) for wireless local area
networks (WLANs) and inter-vehicular and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications.
4. Long range OWC,: inter-building connections, also called Free-Space Optical Communications(FSO).
5. Ultra-long range OWC: inter-satellite links.

Present day scenario:

Over the decades, the interest in OWC remained mainly limited to covert military applications, and space
applications including inter-satellite and deep-space links. OWCs mass market penetration has been so far
10
limited with the exception of IrDA which became a highly successful wireless short-range transmission
solution. Development of novel and efficient wireless technologies for a range of transmission links is
essential for building future heterogeneous communication networks to support a wide range of service types
with various traffic patterns and to meet the ever-increasing demands for higher data rates. Variations of OWC
can be potentially employed in a diverse range of communication applications ranging from optical
interconnects within integrated circuits through outdoor inter-building links to satellite communications.

Comparison of wireless optical and radio channels

Property Wireless Optical Radio

Cost $ $
RF circuit design No Yes
Bandwidth regulated No Yes
Data Rates 100s Mbps 10s Mbps
Security High Low
Passes through Wall No Yes

Figure 2.1 -The figure describes the comparison between an optical link and a radio link

2.2 A brief history-

Fig 2.2 a model of the early photophone

The use of optical emissions to transmit information has been used since antiquity. Homer, in the Iliad,
discusses the use of optical signals to transmit a message regarding the Grecian siege of Troy in
approximately 1200 BC. Fire beacons were lit between mountain tops in order to transmit the message over
great distances. Although the communication system is able to only ever transmit a single bit of information,
this was by far the fastest means to transmit information of important events over long distances. In early
1790s, Claude Chappe invented the optical telegraph which was able to send messages over distances by
changing the orientation of signalling arms on a large tower. A code book of orientations of the signalling
arms was developed to encode letters of the alphabet, numerals, common words and control signals. Messages
could be sent over distances of hundreds of kilometers in a matter of minutes . One of the earliest wireless
optical communication devices using electronic detectors was the photophone invented by A. G. Bell and C.
S. Tainter and patented on December 14, 1880 (U.S. patent 235,496). Figure presents a drawing made by the
inventors outlining their system. The system is designed to transmit a operators voice over a distance by

11
modulating reflected light from the sun on a foil diaphragm. The receiver consisted of a selenium crystal
which converted the optical signal into an electrical current. With this setup, they were able to transmit an
audible signal a distance of 213 m . The modern era of indoor wireless optical communications was initiated
in 1979 by F.R. Gfeller and U. Bapst by suggesting the use of diffuse emissions in the infrared band for indoor
communications. Since that time, much work has been done in characterizing indoor channels, designing
receiver and transmitter optics and electronics, developing novel channel topologies as well as in the area of
communications system design.

Primary Objective:
Our objective is to build a link between a transmitter unit with the encoding from the data source and connect
it over a receiver unit by optical link using a LASER. The receiver then amplifies the signal which is in mV to
level that can is satisfactory and the finally decodes the data. Over the period of operation one of the primary
objectives is to check the influence of the noise

12
 CHAPTER 3
OVERVIEW OF MICROCONTROLLER (AT89C51)

2.1 Microprocessor and microcontroller basics-

The past two decades have seen the introduction of a technology that has radically changed the way in
which we analyze and control the world around us. Born of parallel development in computer architecture and
integrated circuit fabrication, the microprocessor, or computer on a chip, first become a commercial reality
in 1971 with the introduction of 4-bit 4004 by a small, unknown company by the name of Intel Corporation.
Other better established, semiconductor firms soon follow Intels pioneering technology so that by the late
1970s one could choose from a half dozen or so microprocessor types.
The microprocessor has been with us for some 15-years now growing from an awkward 4-bit chip to a
robust 32-bit adult. Soon 64 and 128-bit wizards will appear to crunch numbers, spreadsheets, and CAD
CAM. The engineering community became aware of, enamored with, the 8-bit microprocessor of the middle
to late 1970s.
The 1970s also saw the growth of the number of personal computer users from a handful of hobbyists
and hackers to millions of business, industrial, governmental, defense, educational, and private users now
enjoying the advantages of inexpensive computing.
New technology makes possible, however, a better type of small computer-one with not only the CPU
on the chip, but RAM, ROM, Timer, UARTS, Ports, and other common peripheral I/O functions also. The
microprocessor has become the microcontroller. A by-product of microprocessor development was the
microcontroller. The same fabrication techniques and programming concepts that make possible the general
purpose microprocessor also yielded the microcontroller.
Microcontrollers are not as well known to the general public, or even the technical community, as are
the more glamorous microprocessor. The public is, however, very well aware that something is responsible
for all of the smart VCRs, clock radios washers, and dryers, video games, telephones, microwaves, TVs,
automobiles, toys, Vending machines, copiers, elevators, irons, and a myriad of other articles that have
suddenly become intelligent and programmable. Companies are also aware that being competitive in this
age of microchip requires their products, or the machinery they use to make those products, to have some
smarts.
Some manufacturers, hoping to capitalize on our software investment, have brought our families of
microcontrollers that are software compatible with the older microprocessor. Other, wishing to optimize the
instruction set and architecture to improve speed and reduce code size, produce totally new designs that had
little in common with their earlier microprocessors. Both of these trend continue.

13
Microprocessor:
A Microprocessor, as the term has come to be known is a general purpose digital computer central
processing unit (CPU). Although popularly known as a computer on a chip, the microprocessor is in no
sense a complete digital computer.
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor CPU, which contains arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU), a program counter (PC), a stack pointer (SP), some working registers, a clock timing circuit and
interrupt circuits. The microprocessor contains no RAM, no ROM, and no I/O ports on the chip itself.
The key term in describing the design of microprocessor is general purpose. The hardware design of
a microprocessor CPU is arrange so that a small or very large system can be configured around the CPU as the
application demands. The internal CPU architecture, as well as the resultant machine level code that operates
that architecture, is comprehensive but as flexible as possible.
Although the addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports make these systems bulkier and much
more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can decide on the amount of
RAM, ROM, and I/O ports needed to fit the task at hand

Arithmetic
and
logic unit

Accumulator

Working Register(s)

Program Counter Stack Pointer

Clock Interrupt Circuit

Circuit

Fig 3.1: A Block Diagram of a Microprocessor

14
 Microcontroller:
A microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fix amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports,
and a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the processor, RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timer are all
embedded together on one chip; therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O, or timer to
it.
Figure 2 shows the block diagram of a typical microcontroller which is a true computer on a chip. The
design incorporates all of the features found in a microprocessor CPU: ALU, PC, SP, and registers. It also
has added the others features needed to make a complete computer: RAM, ROM, parallel I/O, serial I/O,
counters, and a clock circuit.

ALU Timer/Counter I/O Ports

Accumulator
I/O Ports
Registers Internal ROM

Internal RAM
Interrupt
Circuits

Clock
Circuit
Stack Pointer

Program Counter

Figure 2.2: A block diagram of a Microcontroller

Fig 3.2 Block diagram of a Micro controller

Like the microprocessor, a microcontroller is a general purpose device, but one which is meant to fetch
data, perform limited calculations on that data and control it environment based on those calculations. The
prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of machine using a fixed program that is stored
in ROM and that does not change over the life time of the system.

3.2 Characteristics features of AT89C51

AT89C51 is an 8-bit microcontroller from Atmel Corporation.
15
Features
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
Six Interrupt Sources
Programmable Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

3.3 Block diagram of AT89C51

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash
programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set
and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a
conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a
monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective solution to many embedded control applications.
The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O
lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip
oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to
zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down
Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next
hardware reset.

16
 Fig 3.3: Block Diagram of AT89C51

3.4 Pin description of AT89C51:

Pin description:

In the AT89C51 there are a total of four ports for I/O operations. Examining Figure 5, note that
of the 40 pins, a total of 32 pins are set aside for the four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3, where each port
takes 8 pins. The rest of the pins are designated as Vcc, GND, XTAL1, XTAL2, RST, EA,
ALE/PEOG, and PSEN.

17
PDIP: Plastic Dual Inline Package.
P1.0 VCC
P1.1 PO.O(AD 0)
P1.2 PO.1(AD 1)

P1.3 PO.2(AD 2)

P1.4 PO.3(AD 3)
PO.4(AD 4)
P1.5
PO.5(AD 5)
P1.6
P1.7 PO.6(AD 6)
PO.7(AD 7)
RST
EA/VPP
(RXD) P3.O
(TXD) P3.O ALE/PROG
PSEN
(INT0) P3.2
P2.7(AD 15)
(INT1) P3.3
P2.6(AD 14)
(T0) P3.4
(T1) P3.5 P2.5(AD 13)

(WR) P3.6 P2.4(AD 12)

(RD) P3.7 P2.3(AD 11)
XTAL P2.2(AD 10)
2
XTAL P2.1(AD 9)
1
GND P2.0(AD 8)

Fig 3.4: Pin diagram of AT89C51

VCC:
Supply voltage.

GND:
Ground.

I/O port pins and there functions:

The four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8 bit ports. All the ports upon
RESET are configured as inputs, ready to be used as input ports. When the first 0 is written to a port, it
becomes an output. To reconfigure it as an input, a 1 must be sent to the port.

18
Port 0:
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0
may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external
program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pullups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes
during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pullups
are required during program verification.

Port 1:
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source
four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and
can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
(IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash
programming and program verification.

Port 2:
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal
pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will
source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during
fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit
addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.
During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the
contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some
control signals during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal
pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will
source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features
of the AT89C51 as listed below:

19
 Table 3.1
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

RST:
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device.

ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to
external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be used
for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each
access to external Data Memory.
If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE
is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting
the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN:
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.
When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.

EA/VPP:
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch
code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if
lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for

20
internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP)
during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP.

XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can
be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 6. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic
resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left
unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 7.
There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the
internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip flop, but minimum and maximum voltage
high and low time specifications must be observed.

Fig 3.5: Oscillator Connections Fig 3.6: External Clock Drive Configurations

Idle Mode:
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on-chip peripherals remain active. The
mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers
remain unchanged during this mode.
The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. It should be
noted that when idle is terminated by a hard ware reset, the device normally resumes program
execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes
control.
On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is
not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated
21
 by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin
or to external memory.

Power-down Mode:
In the power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power-
down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their
values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset.
Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated
before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the
oscillator to restart and stabilize.

Status of External Pins during Idle and Power-down Modes:

Table 3.2
Other Pin Configurations:

PQFP/TQFP:
PQFP: Plastic Gull Wing Quad Flatpack.
TQFP: Thin Plastic Gull Wing Quad Flatpack.

3.5 8051 Addressing modes:

An addressing mode refers to how you are addressing a given memory location. The
addressing modes are as follows.
With an example of each:

Immediate Addressing MOV A, #20h

Direct Addressing MOV A, 30h
Indirect Addressing MOV A,@R0
External Direct MOV A,@DPTR
Code Indirect MOV A,@+DPTR

22
Immediate Addressing:
Immediate addressing is so-named because the value to be stored in memory immediately follows the
operation code in memory. That is to say , the instruction itself dictates what value will be stored in
memory.
For example the instruction:

MOV A, #20h
This instruction uses immediate addressing because the Accumulator will be loaded with the
value that immediately follows, in this case 20 (hexadecimal).

Direct Addressing:
Direct addressing is so-named because the value to be stored in memory is obtained by directly
retrieving it from another memory location. For example:
MOV A, 30h
This instruction will read the date out of Internal RAM address30 (hexadecimal) and store it in
the Accumulator. Direct addressing is generally fast since, although the value to be loaded isnt
included in the instruction, it is quickly accessible since it is stored in the 8051s Internal RAM. It is
also much more flexible than Immediate Addressing since the value to be loaded is whatever is found
at the given address-which may be variable.
The obvious question that may arise is, If direct addressing an address from 80h through FFh
refers to SFRs, how can I access the upper 128 bytes of Internal RAM that are available on the 8052?
The answer is:
You cant access them using direct addressing. As stated, if you directly refer to an address of 80h
through FFh you will be referring to an SFR. However, you may access the 8052s upper 128 bytes of
RAM by using the next addressing mode, indirect addressing.

Indirect Addressing:
Indirect addressing is a very powerful addressing mode which in many cases provides an
exceptional level of flexibility. Indirect addressing is also the only way to access the extra 128 bytes of
Internal RAM found on an 8052. Indirect addressing appears as follows:
MOV A,@R0
This instructing causes the 8051 to analyze the value of the R0 register. The 8051 will then
load the accumulator with the value from Internal RAM which is found at address indicated by R0. For
example, lets say R0 holds the value 40h and Internal RAM address 40h holds the value 67h. When
the above instruction is executed the 8051 will check the value of R0. Since R0 holds 40h the 8051
will get the value out of Internal RAM address 40h (which holds 67h) and store it in the Accumulator.

23
Thus, the Accumulator ends up holding 67h. Indirect never refers to Internal RAM; it never refers to
an SFR. Thus, in a prior example we mentioned that SFr 99h can be used to write a value to the serial
port. Thus one may think that the following would be a valid solution to write the value1 to the serial
port:
MOV R0,#99h ; Load the address of the serial port
MOV @R0,#01h; Send 01 to the serial portWRONG!!
This is not valid. Since indirect addressing always refers to Internal RAM these two
instructions would write the value 01h to Internal RAM address 99h on an 8052. On an 8051 these two
instructions would produce an undefined result since the 8051 only has 128 btes of Internal RAM.

External Direct:
It is used to access external memory rather than internal memory. There are only two
commands that use External Direct addressing mode:
MOVXA,@DPTR
MOVX@DPTR,A
As you can see, both commands utilize DPTR. In these instructions, DPTR must first be loaded
with the address of external memory that you wish to read or write. Once DPTR holds the correct
external memory address, the first command will move the contents of the external memory address
into the Accumulator. The second command will do the opposite: it will allow you to write the value
of the Accumulator to the external memory address pointed to by DPTR.

External Indirect:
This form of addressing is usually only used in relatively small projects that have a very small
amount of external RAM. An example of this addressing mode is:
MOVX@R0,A
Once again, the value of R0 is first read and the value of the Accumulator is written to that
address in External RAM. Since the value of @R0 can only be 00h through FFh the project would
effectively be limited to 256 bytes of External RAM.

24
 CHAPTER 4
BACKGROUND THEORY OF OPTICAL WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

4.1 Introduction to LASER light-

Laser light basics
1) Propagates dominantly in one direction in the form of a beam
2) Beam can maintain integrity for very long distances

Lasers are ideal for optical communication

There are different applications of laser in data communication
Fiber optic communication
Uses a optical fiber to transmit data over a distance.
LiFi
Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) is a bidirectional, high-speed and fully networked wireless communication technology
similar to Wi-Fi except that it uses visible light source.

The laser is one of the most remarkable creations of modern science first predicted by Dr. SCHOLAR AND
TOWNES in 1958.THEODORE MAIMAN constructed the first working laser in 1960.MAIMANS first
crude laser emitted brief pulses of brilliant red light when a ruby rod with parallel silver ends was excited by a
powerful flash lamp similar to those used by photographers. Soon after MAIMAN demonstrated his first laser,
several other devices were assembled. Most of them used ruby or some other fluorescent crystal, but a major
accomplishment occurred a year later at bell laboratories with the development by ALI JAVAN of gas laser.
Another major step forward occurred with the development of the semiconductor injection laser in 1962.The
word LASER is acronym for the following word: LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION
OF RADIATION.
Thus, as defined the laser is an amplifier, but it is an oscillator too. It was MAIMAN who, in 1960, first
demonstrated experimentally a working laser using a ruby rod. If the emitted radiation is infrared, then the
laser is sometime called IRASER.There are several ways in which we can classify the laser. First of all, it can
be classified according to what material or element is responsible for the light amplification; thus for example,
He-Ne laser, the ruby laser and the YAG laser. The highest power that can be achieved is also an important
quantity.
Types of Laser:
1.) Gas laser: there are following types of gas lasers:
He-Ne laser
Ion gas laser
Metal vapor laser
Co2 laser

25
 Nitrogen laser

2.) Solid state laser: there are following types of solid state lasers:
Ruby laser
Neodymium-YAG laser
Nd-glass laser

3.) Chemical laser: e.g.Hydrogen fluoride (HF)

4.) Dye laser
5.) Semiconductor laser
6.) Free electron laser
Characteristics of Laser Light:
The most important properties, which distinguish laser from the ordinary light, are following:
1.) Monochromatic (narrow spectral line width)
2.) Directionality (Collimation property)
3.) Brightness (or radiance)
4.) Coherence property
5.) Focusing characteristics (high power levels)
Applications of Laser:
1) Range finders
2) Fabrication processes
3) Manufacturer of electronic components
4) In medical sciences to operate tumors and for fitting retina.
5) Inspection techniques and non-destructive testing
6) Pollution detecting
7) Analytical techniques
8) Communication and information processing
9) Meteorolog
10) Intrusion alarms
11) Illumination
12) Mobility aid for blind
13) Phonograph
14) Interferometry
15) Optical computers
16) Laser pump source
17) In holography(3 dimensional image making)

26
 18) Detecting earthquakes, volcanoes
19) In defence to detect enemy targets, pistols, laser weapons, laser bombs.

4.2 Technical terms& software used

4.1.1 Technical terms

Coding techniques-

Fig 4.1 various coding techniques

Aside from the various miscellaneous ICs used various technical terms were studied in detailed way. This
point lists out various terms.

There were various coding techniques that were discussed in detail.

1. NRZ coding- uses two different voltage levels (one negative and one positive) as the signal elements
for two binary levels.
2. Bi phase codes- require at least one transition per bit time and may have as many as two transition.
The maximum modulation rate is twice that of NRZ and greater transmission bandwidth is required.
3. Manchester coding there is always a mid-bit transition (which is used as a clocking mechanism). The
direction of the mid bit transition represents the digital data (1- low to high transition & 0- high to low
transition).
4. Differential Manchester coding-mid bit transition is only for clocking. Differential manchester is both
manchester and bi phase.

Noises-
In electronics, noise is a random fluctuation in an electrical signal, a characteristic of all electronic circuits.
Noise generated by electronic devices varies greatly as it is produced by several different effects.
The various types of noise found in this circuit and in other electronic circuits are-
Shot noise- These Noise are generally arises in the active devices due to the random behaviour
of Charge particles or carries. In case of electron tube, shot Noise is produces due to the
random emission of electron form cathodes.

27
 Partition noise- When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths then the noise
generated is known as Partition noise. The reason for the generation is random fluctuation in
the division.
Low frequency noise- They are also known as FLICKER NOISE. These type of noise are
generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz. Power spectral density of these noise
increases with the decrease in frequency. That why the name is given Low- Frequency Noise.
High frequency noise-These noises are also known TRANSIT- TIME Noise. They are
observed in the semi-conductor devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing
a junction is compared with the time period of that signal.
Thermal noise-Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White Noise or Johnson Noise.
Thermal noise are generally observed in the resistor or the sensitive resistive components of a

Bit error rates-

BER is a measure of erroneous bits w.r.t. the total number of bits transmitted, received, or processed. For
example, a BER of 10^-6 means that on average, one erroneous bit is received out of a million bits
transmitted. Indeed, FSO systems do have a quality that allows them to attain low BER. This is attributed to
the fact that the lasers that are used in FSO systems typically. Have much smaller spectral widths than RF
systems. Spectral width is a measure of the range of frequencies that are transmitted. An ideal transmission
is one where only one frequency is transmitted. Such a transmission is said to be fully coherent. A laser
source is said to be fully coherent if the electromagnetic waves in the source have a constant phase
relationship. A laser transmission will usually consist of a small range of frequencies together with the
intended frequency (called carriers). This non-ideal output of lasers is attributed to what is called Doppler
broadening. Doppler broadening is caused by the thermal motion of the atoms in the material which
generates the laser. This thermal noise causes a Doppler shift in the frequencies of the photons emitted by
these atoms. This range of frequencies theoretically forms a Gaussian distribution [Nave 2003]. In the field
of probability theory and statistics, a Gaussian distribution is also called a normal distribution. This spread of
frequencies is known as its spectral width. The usual method of specifying spectral width is the full width at
half maximum (FWHM).

4.1.2 Software tools used

For the purpose of simulation and design of the circuit software tools were used.
Multisim-
NI Multisim (formerly MultiSIM) is an electronic schematic capture and simulation program which is part of
a suite of circuit design programs, along with NI Ultiboard. Multisim is one of the few circuit design

28
 programs to employ the original Berkeley SPICE based software simulation. Multisim was originally created
by a company named Electronics Workbench, which is now a division of National Instruments. Multisim
includes microcontroller simulation (formerly known as MultiMCU), as well as integrated import and export
features to the Printed Circuit Board layout software in the suite, NI Ultiboard.

Multisim is widely used in academia and industry for circuits education, electronic schematic design and
SPICE simulation.

PCB design-

ExpressPCB is a PCB layout design program with Digi-key component database. You can easily search and
position components in its interface; snap-to-grid feature allows you to neatly align the parts. Copper traces
can be added by clicking on the pin of a component and dragging it to another pin. After you complete your
layout, the ExpressPCB program tells you exactly how much it costs to have the boards made. You can order
them online using the "Order boards via the Internet" command.

29
4.3 Uses of wireless optical communication-
FSO communication link is currently in use for many services at many places. These are described below in
detail:
(a) Outdoor wireless access: it can be used by wireless service providers for communication and it requires no
license to use the FSO as it is required in case of microwave bands.
(b) Storage Area Network (SAN): FSO links can be used to form a SAN. It is a network which is known to
provide access to consolidated, block level data storage.
(c) Last-mile access: to lay cables of users in the last mile is very costly for service providers as the cost of
digging to lay fiber is so high and it would make sense to lay as much fiber as possible. FSO can be used to
solve such problem by implementing it in the last mile along with other networks. It is a high speed link. It is
also used to bypass local-loop systems of other kinds of networks.
(d) Enterprise connectivity: FSO systems are easily installable. This feature makes it applicable for
interconnecting LAN segments to connect two buildings or other property.
(e) Fiber backup: FSO can also be applicable in providing a backup link in case of failure of transmission
through fiber link.
(f) Metro-network extensions: it can be used in extending the fiber rings of an existing metropolitan area. FSO
system can be deployed in lesser time and connection of the new networks and core infrastructure is easily
done. It can also be used to complete SONET rings.
(g) Backhaul: it can be helpful in carrying the traffic of cellular telephone from antenna towers back to the
PSTN with high speed and high data rate. The speed of transmission would increase.
(h) Service acceleration: it can also be used to provide instant service to customers when their fiber
infrastructure is being deployed in the mean time.
(i) Bridging WAN Access: FSO is beneficial in WAN where it supports high speed data services for mobile
users and small satellite terminals and acts as a backbone for high speed trunking network.
(j) It can be used to communicate between point-to-point links, for example, two buildings, two ships, and
point-to-multipoint links, for example, from aircraft to ground or satellite to ground, for short and long reach
communication.
(k) Military access: as it is a secure and undetectable system it can connect large areas safely with minimal
planning and deployment time and is hence suitable for military applications.

30
 CHAPTER 5

TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER SECTION: A FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION:

5.1 Transmitter section: Block diagram -
The transmitter section can be discussed as two different sections. One the data source or the function
generator, which is responsible for the provision of digital data and the other one is the LASER driver circuit
and the LASER which is responsible for the modulation and transmission of input as optical data.

Fig 5.1 Block diagram of Transmitter unit

As described in the block diagram the first stage consists of the function generator or the serial data logger
which in our case is the microcontroller followed by the LASER driver which drives the LASER diode.
5.2 Transmitter section: Operation and working-

5.2.1 LASER driver and LASER:

+5v

22E

LASER

1k
INPUT 2N2222

Fig 5.2 LASER driver and LASER circuit diagram

31
 Fig 5.3 characteristics chart of a NPN transistor

The operation of the LASER driver circuit is simply based on the working of the transistor. The transistor is
made to work as a switch.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise
exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the
voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be
limited only by the load resistance (laser diode) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because
current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on.
The figure describes the characteristics of the transistor. It explains the saturation region and the active region
as explained in the preceding paragraph.
The figure 5.2 describes the circuit diagram of the LASER driver and the LASER circuit.
5.2.2 Serial data logger/data source:

Fig 5.4 Data source (AT89C51) circuit diagram

32
5.3 Receiver section: Block diagram -

The receiver section can be described in detail as three sections. The first one is considered as the photodiode
along with the pre amplifier, the second stage is the post amplifier stage with a series of ICs and the data
processing stage along with the LED display.

Fig 5.5 BLOCK diagram of the Receiver unit

The figure clearly explains the brief model of the whole receiver unit of the wireless optical communication
link. As it is observed the sensing component (PIN photodiode) is followed by the trans impedance amplifier
or the pre amplifier, the post amplifier (consisting of a couple of CA3140), a buffer, a comparator, a monoshot
multivibrator and the data processing unit (the AT89C51).
.

5.4 Receiver section: Operation and working

Similar as the way the circuit was broadly divided into three blocks namely the pre amplification stage with
photodiode, the post amplification stage and the data processing or the decoding stage so will the working
discussed in three stages.

5.4.1 Trans impedance amplifier and photodiode

The first stage is the photodiode and the pre amplification. The circuit representation is shown in the fig
5.5 above. The properties of the photodiode have been already discussed in the previous sections. The
photodiode is connected in reverse bias. The reason for this is, that a photodiode converts incident light to
electric current more "effectively" in reverse bias condition than in forward bias.

33
 Fig 5.6 Circuit diagram of the transmipedance amplifier and photodiode

It relates to the extension of depletion region. You should note that when absorbed photons generate electron-
hole pairs, only those electron-hole pairs generated in the depletion region, or very close to that, have a chance
to contribute to electric current, because there is a strong electric field there to separate the two different
charge carriers. The ones outside the depletion region quickly recombine and vanish.

Now, in a reverse biased pn junction, the width of depletion region increases as you increase the applied
reverse bias voltage across the diode (proportional to the square root of the voltage). So, by applying a larger
voltage, more of the incident photons are converted to electric current, or the efficiency increases (as long as
you make sure the increased leakage current remains at a manageable level)

On the other hand, when you forward bias a pn junction, the width of the depletion region reduces, so, only a
small portion of the incident photons get converted to electric current. All answers related to the level of
current are incorrect. Because you can forward bias a photodiode and keep the current level at micro amp
level. It still works as a photodiode, but at a fraction of efficiency compared to a reverse biased one.

Based on the responsivity value (responsivity curve) of the photodiode the current is produced in the range of
mA. Since current of this level is very low to drive the post amplifying circuits a pre amplifier is connected
with the photodiode. The pre amplifier is a CA3140-8 pin IC with a 4.7k ohm resistance connected between 2
and 6 pins for the purpose of providing gain in the amplification process.

5.4.2 Post amplification, buffer, Schmitt inverter, comparator & monoshot multivibrator:

The next stage is the post amplification stage. As shown in the fig 5.6 this stage itself consists of a couple of
CA3140 with one being the amplifier and the other being the buffer. The 3140s are followed by a series of
Schmitt inverter, comparator and multivibrator. This stage is purposed for the sake of amplification of signal

34
and regeneration the original shape of the signal. The first IC is again a CA3140 IC which is placed in the first
place to amplify (as a Trans impedance amplifier) the low level 50mV signal to a level of around 5V. For this
sake a 100 ohm and 10k ohm resistors are connected. Over the duration of the signal being passed through
these stages, noise is also added which resulting in signal distortion and certain methods were implemented to
reduce these noise to very low levels (troubleshooting will be discussed in the next chapter).

Fig 5.7 circuit representation of the post amplification, buffer, comparator & monoshot multivibrator

35
After this again a CA3140 IC is used, but now as a buffer amplifier with proper connections. A 22k ohm
resistor as the resistance for the gain sake, a 500k potentiometer for the sake of offset and a strobe
capacitance. Here again a lot of noise is added due to various reasons as mentioned in the chapter 2.

The next IC is 7404 which is a hex inverting gate IC. This IC is used to reshape the signal into its original
form. It is made to operate as a Schmitt trigger (this has been already discussed in the previous section).

The IC following the 7404 is lm339 IC. This is a quad comparator IC. The output of this IC is connected with
a pull up resistor. In electronic logic circuits, a pull-up resistor is a resistor connected between a signal
conductor and a positive power supply voltage to ensure that the signal will be a valid logic level if external
devices are disconnected or high-impedance is introduced. They may also be used at the interface between
two different types of logic devices, possibly operating at different logic levels and power supply voltages.

A pull-up resistor pulls the voltage of the signal it is connected to towards its voltage source level. When the
other components associated with the signal are inactive, the voltage supplied by the pull up prevails and
brings the signal up to a logical high level. When another component on the line goes active, it overrides the
pull-up resistor. The pull-up resistor ensures that the wire is at a defined logic level even if no active devices
are connected to it.

The final stage in the post amplification stage is the 74LS123 IC. This IC is connected with the comparator IC
via the pull up resistor.

Fig 5.8 plot of the ICs CA3140, 7404, lm339 and 74LS123 IC respectively on the oscilloscope.

36
5.4.3 Data processing stage:

Fig 5.9 Circuit representation of data processing using AT89C51

37
 CHAPTER-6
COMPONENT DETAILS

6.1 INTRODUCTION:
In the designing of the project the detail knowledge of the components is very important for the
successful working of the project. In the chapter we desire to give the details of the macro level components
used in the project. The macro level components used are PIN Photodiode, Crystal Oscillator, Voltage
Regulator, Schmitt Inverter and Laser diode , comparator , monoshot retriggerable multivibrator

6.2 COMPONENTS USED:

6.2.1 PIN photodiode :
The most common device used for detecting light energy is a photodiode. A photodiode is similar in
many ways to a standard diode, with the exception of its packaging. A photodiode is packaged in such a way
as to allow light to strike the PN junction.

Fig 6.1 Photodiode

In infrared applications, it is it is common practice to apply a reverse bias to the device. There will be a
reverse current that will vary with the light level. Like all diodes, there is an intrinsic capacitance that varies
with the reverse bias voltage. This capacitance is an important factor in speed.
Features:
Especially suitable for applications from 350 nm to 1100 nm
BPX 65: high photosensitivity
BPX 66: low reverse current (typ. 150 pA)
Hermetically sealed metal package (TO-18), suitable up to 125o C

6.2.2 Crystal Oscillator:

Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency determining element is a quartz crystal.
Because of the inherent characteristics of the quartz crystal the crystal oscillator may be held to extreme

38
accuracy of frequency stability. Temperature compensation may be applied to crystal oscillators to improve
thermal stability of the crystal oscillator.
Crystal oscillators are usually, fixed frequency oscillators where stability and accuracy are the primary
considerations. For example it is almost impossible to design a stable and accurate LC oscillator for the upper
HF and higher frequencies without resorting to some sort of crystal control. Hence, the reason for using
crystal oscillators.
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned oscillator. It uses a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank
circuit. The crystal (usually quartz) provides a high degree of frequency stability. Therefore, the crystal
oscillators are used whenever great stability is required. Examples are communication transmitters, digital
clocks, etc.
Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly
ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate
transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. The resonant frequency depends
on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material.
High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency
crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by
applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the
field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can
generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor
and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the
frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode
of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes).[5] Therefore, the
resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a
quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted
in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to
prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small devices for
consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also
found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

39
6.2.3 Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is a circuit that supplies a constant voltage regardless of changes in load currents.
It should be capable of providing substantial output current.

Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and
also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before any damage occurs. The only way to
destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost
instantly.

Voltage regulators are classified as:

1. Series regulator (Linear regulator)

2. Shunt regulator (switching regulator)

Series regulator

Series regulator use a power transistor connected in series between the unregulated DC input and load.
Output voltage is controlled by continuous voltage drop taking place across series pass transistor.

These are known as linear regulators as transistor works in active or linear region.

Fig 6.2 Series regulator

Shunt regulator

Switching regulator operates the power transistors as a high frequency on/off switch, so that power
transistor does not conduct current continuously. Here desired current is delivered in periodic pulses.

40
 Fig 6.3 Shunt regulator

IC Voltage Regulator

IC voltage regulators are versatile and relatively inexpensive and are available with features such as
programmable output, current/voltage boosting, internal short circuit current limiting, thermal shutdown and
floating operation for high voltage applications.

With the advent of microelectronics, it is possible to incorporate complete voltage regulator circuits on
a single monolithic silicon chip. This gives low cost, high reliability, reduction in size and excellent
performance. Examples of monolithic regulators are 78XX/79XX series and 723 general purpose regulators.

IC voltage regulators are of following types:

Fixed output voltage regulator

Adjustable output voltage regulator
Switching regulator
Special regulator

Three Terminal IC Voltage Regulators

Fig 6.4IC Voltage regulator

41
Fixed voltage series (78XX/79XX) regulator

78XX series are three terminal, positive fixed voltage regulators. There are seven output voltage options
available such as 5, 6, 8,12,15,18 and 24V. In 78XX, the last two numbers (XX) indicate the output voltage.

These regulators are available in two types of packages.

Metal package (TO- 3type)

Plastic package (TO- 220 types)

Characteristics:

1. VO: The regulated output voltage is fixed at value specified by manufacturer.

2. Vin >= Vo +2
3. Io (max): The load current may vary from zero to rated maximum output current. IC is always
provided with heat sink; otherwise it may not provide rated maximum output current.
4. Thermal Shutdown: IC has temperature sensor (built in) which turns off the IC when it becomes too
hot.

The IC regulators not only keep the output voltage constant but also reduce the amount of ripple voltage.

6.2.4 Schmitt Inverter:

A Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit that incorporates positive feedback.

When the input is higher than a certain chosen threshold, the output is high; when the input is below
another (lower) chosen threshold, the output is low; when the input is between the two, the output retains its
value. The trigger is so named because the output retains its value until the input changes sufficiently to
trigger a change. This dual threshold action is called hysteresis, and implies that the Schmitt trigger has some
memory.

The benefit of a Schmitt trigger over a circuit with only a single input threshold is greater stability
(noise immunity). With only one input threshold, a noisy input signal near that threshold could cause the
output to switch rapidly back and forth from noise alone. A noisy Schmitt Trigger input signal near one
threshold can cause only one switch in output value, after which it would have to move beyond the other
threshold in order to cause another switch.

42
 The Schmitt trigger was invented by US scientist Otto H. Schmitt in 1934 while he was still a graduate
student, later described in his doctoral dissertation (1937) as a "thermionic trigger". It was a direct result of
Schmitt's study of nerve propagation in squid nerves.

The symbol for Schmitt triggers in circuit diagrams is a triangle with a hysteresis symbol. The symbol
depicts a typical hysteresis curve.

Standard Schmitt trigger Inverting Schmitt trigger

Fig 6.5 Standard and Inverting Schmitt Trigger

When the Schmitt trigger is inverting (i.e., when very negative inputs lead to positive outputs and vice
versa), the hysteresis symbol is topbottom mirrored.

Schmitt triggers are typically built around comparators, connected to have positive feedback instead of
the usual negative feedback. For this circuit the switching occurs near ground, with the amount of hysteresis
controlled by the resistances of R1 and R2:

Fig 6.6 Circuit diagram of Schmitt Trigger

The comparator gives out the highest voltage it can, +VS, when the non-inverting (+) input is at a
higher voltage than the inverting (-) input, and then switches to the lowest output voltage it can, VS, when the

43
positive input drops below the negative input. For very negative inputs, the output will be low, and for very
positive inputs, the output will be high, and so this is an implementation of a "non-inverting" Schmitt trigger.

For instance, if the Schmitt trigger is currently in the high state, the output will be at the positive power
supply rail (+VS). V+ is then a voltage divider between Vin and +VS. The comparator will switch when V+=0
(ground). Current conservation shows that this requires

Vin/R1 = VS/R2,

And so Vin must drop below (R1/R2)VS to get the output to switch. Once the comparator output has
switched to VS, the threshold becomes +(R1/R2)VS to switch back to high.

Fig 6.6 Output of Schmitt trigger

So this circuit creates a switching band centred around zero, with trigger levels (R1/R2)VS. The input
voltage must rise above the top of the band, and then below the bottom of the band, for the output to switch on
and then back off. If R1 is zero or R2 is infinity (i.e., an open circuit), the band collapses to zero width, and it
behaves as a standard comparator. The output characteristic is shown in the picture on the right. The value of
the threshold T is given by (R1/R2)VS and the maximum value of the output M is the power supply rail.

HEX SCHMITT INVERTER (7404)

The 7404 is a IC which consists of six inverting gates. The 7404 IC is constructed to be used as a Schmitt
trigger. This IC is used instead of the Schmitt trigger due to the less complexities involved in the 7404 IC.
The figure on the left describes the application of the 7404 IC as a Schmitt trigger. Schmitt trigger is normally
used to generate square pulsed signal (original) from a improper sinusoidal signal in our case. As shown the
input is provided to the pin 1 which inverts the signal across pin 2 and then the pin 2 which is actually shorted
with the pin 3 gives the proper square pulse original shape signal. A 0.01 uF capacitor is connected across the
14th pin and the ground to reduce the noise from the supply.

44
 Fig 6.7 Input and Output Equivalent Circuit
Features
High speed ( tpd=12ns at Vcc = 6V)

Low power dissipation.

High noise immunity.

Symmetrical output impedance.

Balanced propagation delays.

6.2.6 LASER diode:

The LASER driver circuit consists of a 2N2222 PNP transistor which drives the LASER. Since we arent
using a high speed LASER so the transistor alone is found to be satisfactory. The LASER is operating in
wavelength of 632nm which corresponds to red color. Other than the transistor and the LASER diode the
other components are a 1K ohm resistor in the base and a 22 ohm resistor as a protection or cap resistance.
The cap resistance is used to check any surge in current affecting the LASER diode directly. Hence it is called
as protection resistance

Fig 6.8 Characteristics of the Red LASER diode

6.2.6 Monoshot retriggerable multivibrator:

The receiver component also consisted of the timer IC which was used to pulse out the data from the
preceding circuits. We used the monostable retriggerable IC 74ls123. Time was alotteed for thorough study

45
of the timers too. The following paragraph gives an brief insight of the function and the characteristics of the
timer IC.

The timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator
applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element.
Derivatives provide two or four timing circuits in one package.

Fig 6.9 Internal configuration of a timer IC

The IC has three operating modes:

1. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger the can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and
no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.
2. Monostable mode in this mode, the functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include
timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance
measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.
3. Astable (free-running) mode the can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp
flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation security alarms, pulse position modulation and
so on. The can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length (e.g., selecting
a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the period of the
output pulse is determined by the temperature). The use of a microprocessor-based circuit can then
convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.

6.2.7 Comparator:

A Comparator is a device that compares two voltage or current values and output a digital signal indicating
which is larger. It has two analog input terminals V+ and V- and one binary digital output.

A comparator consists of a specialized high gain differential amplifier. They are commonly used in devices
that measure & digitize analog signals , such as ADC, as well as relaxation oscillator.

46
An op amp has a well balanced difference inputs and a very high gain. This parallels the characteristics of
comparators and can be substituted in applications with low performance requirements. A dedicated voltage
op amp will generally be faster than a general purpose op amp comparator

6.2.8 Operational Amplifier:

The receiver circuit predominately uses the operational amplifier for the purpose of amplification. Particularly
we used the CA3130 8 pin IC. In the initial months a lot of time was spent over studying the various features,
characteristics and operation of the op amp.
An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier
with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an
output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
potential difference between its input terminals.

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following characteristics:

Infinite open-loop gain G = vout / vin

Infinite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current
Zero input offset voltage
Infinite output voltage range
Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate
Zero output impedance Rout
Zero noise
Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Infinite power supply rejection ratio.

Fig 6.10 Internal configuration of a Op-Amp

47
 Chapter-7
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The designing of the project forms the major portion of the project. In the designing of the project we
had to pass through many macro phases. The designing part broadly consists of writing the program, burning
the program in the microcontroller and the fabrication of the chip. The program is given in the appendix.

4.2 FABRICATION OF THE CARD:

The hardware projects often require the use of strip boards or other pre-fabricated boards for the
implementation of the circuit. However, solder less breadboards are the fastest and most flexible way to
design and experiment. The printed circuit boards provide for efficient and effective solution to the
complexities encountered while using other boards for circuit realization.
The following steps were used for developing the printed circuit board for this application:

1) Designing the artwork: The first thing to do is to make the schematic of the circuit to be realized. This
is also known as the artwork. The schematic may be drawn using PCB CAD layout programs. The
Orcad 9.1 suite may be used for drawing the schematic but it is expensive. The freely available and
easy to use software ExpressPCB was used for designing the schematic.

The ExpressPCB online help is written with beginners in mind, the internet ordering option is convenient,
and its regular updated features was the motivation behind using this software though it has limited
component library. The layout of the circuit as drawn using ExpressPCB is as shown in Figure below.

Fig 7.1- It is the PCB layout circuit diagram of the post amplifier stage along with the power supply unit in the bottom left. The stage
consists of two CA3130 op amps for the purpose of amplification, a 7404 IC (hex inverting gates), a LM339 IC (single supply quad
comparators) and a 74LS123 timer IC (retriggerable monostable multivibrators).

48
2) Print out the layout on transparency film. The printer must be of Laser type that uses toner as the
printing method.
3) Cut a blank copper plate to the same dimensions as the artwork. The plate is polished properly so that
the toner is transferred effectively onto it.
4) Now, the paper with the artwork is placed face down onto the copper plate and put tape over it and
place again A4 size paper over the transparency film.
5) Put the pcb into lamination machine around 240 c temp for transfer of toner image from transparency
film into pcb.
6) The copper plate with design stuck onto it is now immersed in soap solution for almost 20 minutes to
loosen the paper.
7) Carefully remove the paper. Be sure not to remove any of the black ink traces because these are what
stop the acid in the etching process. A kind of rubbing motion was used to remove the paper. Keep the
paper wet all the time so that it separates easily from the copper board.
8) Etch the board using a solution of Ammonium Per sulphate. Proper instructions for the dilution level
should be followed. A normal ceramic or glass bowl can be used as a tank for carrying out the etching.
9) Slowly swirl or rock the bowl around. The liquid must be always moving over the copper board to get
it to etch properly.
10) Remove the board from the etchant and wash any residue from the board.
11) Scrub the black ink off the PCB.
12) Drill out the holes.
13) Mount the components at their respective positions and solder them properly.

49
 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The project is done as the final assignment of the under graduate program. This project has given as an
opportunity to sharpen our edges in the technical field. The working of this project had passed through various
ups and downs. Many a times it became very difficult to progress but the constant support of the mentor made
it possible to complete the project to the requirement.
This project makes the communication possible with the use of infrared and visible rays. We have
developed both optical transmitter and optical receiver. In this project, both transmitter and receiver part are
placed apart at few meter distance .While designing the project we have faced many problems especially
while programming the microcontroller. But the biggest hurdle was of tuning the IR/ visible transmitter and
the receiver, and the coding part. The range up to which receiver can receive the optical transmitted data is
experimentally found to be 10 feet mostly depend upon the transmitting power level of laser and sensitivity of
photodiode.

Another problem is that of the noises generated inside the circuit. Proper circuit fabrication and
selection of few capacitors was done to reduce the noise level. Finally, the S/N ratio at the optimum value was
achieved.
At the epitome we would like to state that although the project is not flawless, but undoubtedly we
achieved to make the concept of the project clear. From the project one can come to know how the Laser
communication module works. As per our knowledge and hard work we succeeded in achieving the aim of the
project.

Future scope of work-

In order to improve the range of wireless optical links the physical components of the link can be optimized in
a number of ways. Optical concentrators such as mirrors and lenses can be used to increase the receive
power at the price of higher implementation cost. Recently holographic mirrors have been shown as
promising concentrator architecture. At longer wavelengths (in the and range) the human eye is nearly opaque.
As a result an order of magnitude increase in the optical power transmitted can be realized at the price of
costlier optoelectronics. Using such techniques the range over which high data rate spectrally efficient
modulation schemes are appropriate can be extended at the expense of greater implementation cost. Through
the use of such techniques it is possible to engineer an optical channel which offers a significantly improved
optical power at the receiver. Bandwidth efficient raised-QAM type modulation can then be applied in this
new channel to provide improved data rates over the given transmission distance. Thus these physical
techniques increase the range of transmission distances in which high-rate bandwidth efficient modulation is
appropriate.

50
 APPENDIX-A
PROGRAM CODE FOR TRANSMITTER
temp equ 10h ;
cmd equ 11h ;
var1 equ 12h ;
flip bit 00h ;
tog bit 01h ;

org 00h ;
mov sp,#50 ;
mov p0,#00h ;
clr tog ;
clr a ;

Start: mov a,p1 ;

cjne a,#0FFh,over;
sjmp Start ;

over: call delay ;

cjne a,#0FFh,go ;
sjmp Start ;

delay: mov r2,#1 ;

delay1: mov r1,#255 ;
delay2: mov r0,#255 ;
delay3: djnz r0,delay3 ;
djnz r1,delay2 ;
djnz r2,delay1 ;
ret ;

go: mov cmd,a ;

clr a ;
call sendRC5 ;
clr p0.0 ;
Sjmp Start ;

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SendRC5: clr p0.0 ;
call delayoff1 ;
call logic1 ;
call logic1 ;
call logic1 ;
call logic0 ;
call logic0 ;
call logic0 ;
call logic0 ;
call logic0 ;
call send ;
ret ;

send: mov a,cmd ;

mov r5,#8 ;
sendcmd: rrc a ;
call bitcheck;
djnz r5,sendcmd ;
clr a ;
ret ;

bitcheck: jnc logic0 ;

call logic1 ;
ret ;

logic1: clr p0.0 ;

call delayoff ;
setb p0.0 ;
call delayoff ;
ret ;

logic0: setb p0.0 ;

call delayoff ;

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 clr p0.0 ;
call delayoff;
ret ;

delayoff1: mov r1,#160 ;

del: mov r0,#255 ;
del1: djnz r0,del1 ;
djnz r1,del ;
ret ;
delayoff: mov r4,#255 ;
djnz r4,$ ;
mov r4,#152 ;
djnz r4,$ ;
nop ;
ret
end

PROGRAM CODE FOR RECEIVER:

VAR1 equ r7 ;variable
TEMP equ 10H ;Temp variable
COUNT equ 11H ;Count
ADDR equ 12H ;Device address
CMD equ 13H ;Command
FLIP bit 00H ;Flip bit
TOG bit 01H ;Temp bit for flip
IR equ P1.2 ;IR Receiver connected to this pin
SW1 equ P2.0 ;Switch 1 connected here
SW2 equ P2.1 ;Switch 2 connected here
SW3 equ P2.2 ;Switch 3 connected here
SW4 equ P2.3 ;Switch 4 connected here
SW5 equ P2.4 ;Switch 5 connected here
SW6 equ P2.5 ;Switch 6 connected here
SW7 equ P2.6 ;Switch 7 connected here
SW8 equ P2.7 ;Switch 8 connected here
SWport equ P2 ;Port at which switches are connected

53
 org 00H ;Start of prog
mov sp,#50H ;Stack pointer initialization
mov p1,#0FFh ;
mov p2,#0FFh ;
clr TOG ;Clear temp bit

main:
jnb IR,main ;
mov VAR1,#255 ;3.024mS delay
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#200
djnz VAR1,$
mov c,IR ;Read Flip bit
cpl c ;
mov p0.7,c ;
mov FLIP,c
clr A
mov COUNT,#5 ;Count for address
fadd:
mov VAR1,#255 ;1.728mS delay for each bit
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$

54
 mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#40
djnz VAR1,$
mov c,IR
rlc a
djnz COUNT,fadd
mov ADDR,A ;Save the address
clr a ;

mov COUNT,#8 ;Count for Command

fcmd:
mov VAR1,#255 ;1.728mS Delay for each bit
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#255
djnz VAR1,$
mov VAR1,#60
djnz VAR1,$
mov c,IR
rlc a
djnz COUNT,fcmd

mov CMD,a ;Save the new command

mov a,ADDR ;Cheack for valid address
cjne a,#00h,nvalid ;
mov a,CMD ;
cjne a,#11111110b,skip1 ;Check for SW1
jb SW1,isset1
setb SW1
clr a ;
ljmp main

nvalid:
ljmp main

55
isset1:
clr SW1
ljmp main
skip1:
cjne a,#11111101b,skip2 ;Check for SW2
jb SW2,isset2
setb SW2
ljmp main
isset2:
clr SW2
ljmp main
skip2:
cjne a,#11111011b,skip3 ;Check for SW3
jb SW3,isset3
setb SW3
ljmp main
isset3:
clr SW3
ljmp main
skip3:
cjne a,#11110111b,skip4 ;Check for SW4
jb SW4,isset4
setb SW4
ljmp main
isset4:
clr SW4
ljmp main
skip4:
cjne a,#11101111b,skip5 ;Check for SW5
jb SW5,isset5
setb SW5
ljmp main
isset5:
clr SW5
ljmp main

56
skip5:
cjne a,#11011111b,skip6 ;Check for SW6
jb SW6,isset6
setb SW6
ljmp main
isset6:
clr SW6
ljmp main
skip6:
cjne a,#10111111b,skip7 ;Check for SW7
jb SW7,isset7
setb SW7
ljmp main
isset7:
clr SW7
ljmp main
skip7:
cjne a,#01111111b,exit ;Check for SW8
jb SW8,isset8
setb SW8
ljmp main
isset8:
clr SW8
ljmp main
exit:
ljmp main
END ;End of program

57
 APPENDIX-B
DATA SHEET AT89C51

58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
 DATASHEET CA3140
The CA3130 are op amps that combine the advantage of both CMOS and bipolar transistor.Gate-protected P-
Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in the input circuit to provide very-high-input impedance,
very-low-input current, and exceptional speed performance. The use of PMOS transistors in the input stage
results in common-mode input-voltage capability down to 0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an
important attribute in single-supply applications. A CMOS transistor-pair, capable of swinging the output
voltage to within 10mV of either supply-voltage terminal (at very high values of load impedance), is
employed as the output circuit.The CA3130 Series circuits operate at supply voltages ranging from 5V to
16V, (2.5V to 8V). They can be phase compensated with a single external capacitor, and have terminals for
adjustment of offset voltage for applications requiring offset-null capability. Terminal provisions are also
made to permit strobing of the output stage. The figure on right describes the pin layout of the CA3130. Some
features of the CA3130 IC are that the MOSFET stage provides very high input impedance and a low output
impedance. It is idea for single-supply applications.

Some applications of the amplifier are-

Ground-Referenced Single Supply Amplifiers
Fast Sample-Hold Amplifiers
Long-Duration Timers/Monostables
High-Input-Impedance Comparators
(Ideal Interface with Digital CMOS)
High-Input-Impedance Wideband Amplifiers
Voltage Followers (e.g. Follower for Single-Supply D/A
Converter)
Voltage Regulators (Permits Control of Output Voltage
Down to 0V)
Peak Detectors
Single-Supply Full-Wave Precision Rectifiers
Photo-Diode Sensor Amplifiers

66
DATASHEET 7404

67
DATSHEET LM339

68
 DATASHEET 74LS123

DATASHEET BPX65 (PIN Photodiode)

69
70
 REFERENCES

[1] Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay, The 8051 Microcontroller and
Embedded Systems Using Assembly and C, Prentice Hall, Edition 2008
[2] R. L. Boylestad, L. Nashelsky, Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory, Prentice Hall, Edition 2005
[3] Soo Sim Daniel, Free space optics communication for mobile military platforms
[4] Anil K Maini, Electronics and communication simplified
[5] Aditi Malik and Preeti Singh, Free space optics; current applications and future challenges
[6] Steve hranilovic, wireless optical communication system
[7] Ramakant Gaikwad, Op amp and linear integrated circuits
[8] Wikipedia.org
[9] The Electronics Club, http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/
[10] Electronics for You
[11] Data sheets

71