Volume 64 Number 2 197 ~

Lubncatlon
A Technical Publication Devoted to
the Selection and Use of Lubricants

EXACO

PUBLISHED BY

TEXACO INC.
TEXACO PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
 is Americas
future
over a ?

At one time the UnitedStates dependenceon importsof foreign oil?

importedso little foreigncrudeoil that At Texacowebelievethat wecan all
it presentedno problemat all. But do moreto conservethe gasoline and
today we are importing morethan fuel wenowuse. Andour energysupplies
45%of our domesticcrude oil needs. fromalternate sourcesmustbe developed
Andby 1985 we could be importing morequickly.Also,our country~explora-
morethan half. If our oil supplies tion and productionmustbe steppedup
are ever cut off again, it couldhave whereverprospectsare promising.Thats
disastrouseffects on yourdriving, whywere doingso muchto develop
your heating, evenyour job. domesticoil supplies.
Thebig questionis, howcan
weavoid increasing our ~ Noneof us want to see
Americacaughtover a barrel.
Were
working
to keep
yourtrust.
LUBRICATION
A TECHNICAL PUBLICATION DEVOTED TO THE SELECTION AND USE OF LUBRICANTS
Published by
Texaco Inc., 2000 Westchester Avenue, White Plains, N.Y. 10650
MauriceF. Granville,Chairman of the Board
JohnK. McKinley,
President;C. B. Davidson,Secretary;R. G. Brinkman,
Treasurer.
Volume 64 Number 2 1978
COPYRIGHTS: The contents o] LUBRICATION are copyrighted and cannot be reprinted legally by other publications without written prior
approval /tom Texaco and then only i[ "the article is quoted exactly and accompaniedby the credit line "Courtesy o[ .Texacos magazine
LUBRICATION".Copyright I978 by Texaco Inc. Copyright under International Copyright Convention. All rights reserved under Pan
American Copyright Convention.
CHANGE OF ADDRESS:In reporting change o[ address please give both old and new address: Write to--A. H. Lo~vman. Texaco Inc.,
2000 Westchester Avenue, White Plains, N.Y. 10650; or D. E. Presley, Texaco Canada Limited, 90 IVyn/ord Drive, Don Mills, Ontario
M3C1K5 Canada.

R. F. Meeker, Editor

VISCOSITY-II
S. W. Rein

HEprevious issue of this publication ex-
T plained the fundamentalsof viscosity and its
significance. This issue concludesthe article
with discussions of the measurementof viscosity,
viscosity conversions, viscosity classification sys-
tems, and the International System of Units (SI)
as it applies to viscosity.
flow rate to pressure drop for flow througha pipe,
a capillary tube, or other cylindrical bore of known
dimensions. For viscometry, the length of the
capillary bore should be manytimes greater than
the diameter. The pertinent quantities are related
by the Poiseuille equation, Equation22, previously
discussed on page 8.

MEASUREMENTOF VISCOSITY
Instruments for measuringviscosity are called,
appropriately, viscometers(or, in the older litera-
ture, viscosimeters). There are manydifferent vis-
cometers, each with its advantages for particular
applications. Mostof the viscometerscan be clas-
sified either as a capillary type or a rotational type,
but there are manyvariations in the details of the
application of the general principles within each
of these broad categories. Examplesof somewidely
used viscometers are described in the following
sections. These examples are by no means a com-
prehensive inventory of the manyviscometers that
are available commercially, particularly for spe-
cialized applications, or of the manyresearch in-
struments that have been described in the litera-
ture. Preference has been given to describing in-
struments that are featured in specifications or
standardized methods of test or that are widely
used in industry; otherwise, no endorsementis im-
plied by the choice of examples.
Capillary Viscometers
Viscosity can be determinedfrom the relation of
n -- -- (22)
8LQ
where~/ ----- viscosity (dynamic)
Ap---- pressure drop betweeninlet and outlet
R ---- radius of bore
L ---- lengthof bore
Q -- flow rate (volumetric)
The theoretical aspects of capillary viscometers
13
havebeendescribedin several publications.
Principle
Probably the most widely used viscometric tech-
nique in the petroleum industry is the measurement
of kinematicviscosity with glass capillary viscom-
eters. Kinematicviscosity is a part of the viscosity
classification systems for automobileengine oils
andgear oils and for industrial lubricants. It is also
used with somefuel oils. The Cannon-Fenskevis-
cometershownin Figure 12 is a popular glass-capil-
lary viscometer for measuringkinematic viscosity
by methods ASTM D 445,a2 IP 71, and DIN51550.

[13]
 LUBRICATION

In use, the viscometer is mountedvertically in a

constant temperature bath. The flow rate through
the capillary, under a gravity head, is determined
by measuringthe time for the test oils upper sur-
face to pass from the upper timing mark (A in
Figure 12), through the bulb of calibrated vol-
ume, B, to the lower timing mark, C. This time
for transit of a knownvolumeis multiplied by the
viscometers calibration constant to obtain kine-
matic viscosity. ASTM MethodD 4463a gives the
analytical derivation of the constant. To obtain __ ING MARKS
dynamic viscosity, an independent determination
of the test oils density is neededfor use in con-
junction with the kinematic viscosity: BULB
~? = ~ov (25)
B
where ~/ = dynamicviscosity
v = kinematic viscosity
p = density
(all at the sametemperature)
Examples
CAPILLARY
Nineteendifferent types of glass capillary vis-
cometers are approved for use with ASTM Method
D 445. The differences in design are, for the most
part, to accommodate special functions. For exam-
ple, the viscometer shownin the left portion of
Figure 13 is used with opaqueliquids. The viscom- Figure 12 -- Cannon-FenskeViscometerfor trans-
eter of Figure 13, right, is a semi-micro model parentliquids.
used for small sample sizes ( 1 cma, comparedwith
the 7 cma for the conventional model of Figure ent capillaries are used with this method. They
12 ). Glass capillary viscometersare also used for range from 0.45 to 3.80 mmin diameter; all of
the measurement of the kinematic viscosity of them have a length-to-diameter ratio of 40:1. For
asphaltsa4 as.
and the dynamicviscosity of asphalts greases, the viscosity calculated by Equation22 is
an apparent viscosity, and the shear rate of the
For the dynamicviscosity measurement,a vacuum
is applied to the discharge end of the capillary to measurementmust be stated. It is calculated from
create the pressure drop. Three different glass the flow rate and the capillary diameteras follows:
capillary viscometers are approved: the Cannon-
ManningVacuumViscometer, the Asphalt Insti- S- 4Q (26)
tute VacuumViscometer, and the Modified Kop-
pers VacuumViscometer. All three are described where S = shear rate
~5.
in ASTMMethod D 2171 Q = volumetric flow rate
A very differefit capillary viscometeris used for R = capillary radius
measuringthe apparent viscosity of greases. It is
the pressurized steel capillary that is used for con- Equation 26 is an exact description of shear
ducting ASTMMethod of Test D 1092 for the rate at the capillary wall only for a newtonianfluid.
ApparentViscosity of Greases36. Figure 14 shows For greases and other non-newtonianfluids, it is
the apparatus for this test. Thegrease being tested a convenient approximation. The shear rate is
is forced from the cylinder and through the capil- specified as being at the capillary wall because in
lary by the piston, which is actuated by hydraulic a cylindrical flowpassage,the fluids velocity varies
oil being pumpedat constant flow rate by the from zero at the wall to maximumat the center
pump. The flow rate of the pumpis knownfrom of the passage. For a newtonianfluid, the velocity
calibration at various pressures, which provides distribution is parabolic, as shownin the upper
the value of Q for Equation 22, pages 8 and 13. portion of Figure 15. Substanceswith a yield value,
The pressure in the hydraulic oil, and hencein the e.g., greases, will give plug flow, characterized by
grease, is measureddirectly by a pressure gauge, as the "plug" of substance at the center of the chan-
shownin Figure 14, which provides the value of nel movingat constant velocity, as in the lower
Ap for Equation 22. The capillary dimensions are portion of Figure15. Sinceshear rate is the velocity
determined by careful measurements.Eight differ- gradient, it is not constant across the diameter of

[14]
 LUBRICATION

Timing
Marks
Timing
Marks A
D

C
C

Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometer for Cannon-FenskeSemi-Micro Viscometer

transparent and opaqueliquids. for transparentliquids.

Figure 13 -- Twoother glass capillary viscometersfor measuringkinematicviscosity.

a cylindrical flow path, evenfor a newtonianfluid.ardization in Germany under the preliminary desig-
Asseen in Figure 15, the velocity gradient is maxi-
nation DIN0051816. Figure 16 is a schematic of
mumat the wall and it is this "wall" shear rate the Shell-De Limon Rheometer. Like the ASTM
that is used to characterize the flow. The cor- pressure viscometer, the Shell-De Limondevice
responding shear stress is determinedby the fol- uses hydraulicoil to force the grease froma cylinder
lowingrelationship: through a capillary. However,the European con-
figuration uses a one-metrelength of tubing as the
APR flow measurementsection rather than the short,
~--- (27)
2L small-bore capillaries of the Americantest. The
grease cylinder and test section are submergedin
where r = shear stress a bath through which coolant is circulated. A
R ---- radius ofpassage pumpgenerates the hydraulic pressure required
to force the grease throughthe test pipe. Thepres-
L = length of passage sure and flow rate are measured. Although the
AP = pressure drop apparent viscosity could be calculated, the results
are usually reported as a plot of pumpingpressure
Anothertype of pressurized capillary viscometer (per metre of pipe length) versus grease flow rate
for greases is the Shell-De LimonRheometer,which (in volumeunits) at the specified temperature.
is widely used in Europe. It is undergoing stand- A special case of the capillary viscometer is

[15]
 LUBRICATION

VALVE GAUGE

GREASE HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER OIL RESERVOIR

H YDRA
U,
OIL

TEST
-INDUCTION
MO TOR

THERMOCOUPLE

GEAR REDUCER
Figure 14 ~ Pressure viscometer for measuring apparent viscosity of grease by method ASTMD 1092.

a. NEWTONIAN
:LUID
presented by the short tube or orifice viscometer,
sometimes called a "jet" viscometer, which is es-
sentially a capillary viscometer of very small length-
to-diameter ratio. The time for a prescribed quano
tity of oil to flow through the orifice under a
gravity head is measured and is given as an indica-
tion of the oils viscosity. This efl~ux time does not
have a linear relationship to viscosity as it would
in a conventional capillary viscometer. Thus "vis-
cosities" measured by short-tube viscometers are
purely empirical values and are not usable for any
form of engineering calculations.
Short-tube viscometers are largely obsolete to-
day. However, they were widely used not so many
b. BINGHAM PLASTIC years ago and the older American technical litera-
ture frequently cites viscosities in Saybolt Universal
seconds (SUS or SSU) or in Saybolt Furol seconds
a
(SFS or SSF). The Saybolt Universal viscometer
was used for most lubricating oils; the Saybolt Furol
viscometer a was used with very viscous products
such as heavy fuel oils. Similar viscometers used in
Great Britain were the Redwood No. I (Standard)
and the RedwoodNo. II (Admiralty) as. The Engler
viscometer a is the Germanand continental Euro-
Figure 15 -- Velocity profiles for flow in pipes. Vectors are pean counterpart of the Saybolt and Redwoodviso
scaledto representsameflow rate for both fluids. cometers. Approximate conversions among these

[ 16]
 LUBRICATION

TABLEII
Conversionof "Short-Tube" Viscosities to Kinematic Viscosity
The following five groups of equations provide RedwoodNo. I (Standard)Seconds to Kinematic
approximateconversionsof "short-tube" viscosities 171 T from 30 to 140 Red-
to kinematicviscosities at the sametemperature.In 1. e=0.255 T-- T woodNo. I seconds
all cases"T" is the efflux time in secondsand"v" is
the desired kinematicviscosity in centistokes. 2. v=0.2463 T T above140 Redwood
No. I seconds
SayboltUniversalSeconds
to Kinematic Redwood No. II (Admiralty) Seconds to Kinematic
185 Tfrom 32to 90 Red-
1. v=O.224T-- T T from 34 to 115 SUS 1, ~=2.46 T-- 100 woodNo. II seconds
T
2. v=O.223T 1.55 T from 115 to 215 SUS 2. v=2.447 T T above 90 Redwood
3. v=O.2158T T above 215 SUS No. II seconds
EnglerDegrees (E) to Kinematic
SayboltFurol Seconds
to Kinematic -8
1. "22
e=7,94 E E from 1.2to4.1
o
E
1. v=2.22 T--8 T from 25 to 55 SFS
2. v=2.15 T--4.3 T from 55 to 145 SFS 2. v=7.66 E- 1 E from 4.1 to 12
3. e=2.12T T above 145 SFS 3. v=7.576 E Eabove 12

empirical "viscosities" and kinematic viscosity are
possible by means of the equations in Table II or
the nomograph of Figure 17. Exact conversions
between Sayboh seconds and centistokes require
the use of the tables published as ASTMD 21614.
Kinoshita has published equations for the accurate
conversion of kinematic viscosity to Saybolt Uni-
versal seconds41 42.
or to RedwoodNo. I seconds
Rotational Viscometers
Concentric Cylinder Viscometers
Principle Rotational viscometers measure vis-
cosity by determining the relationshi p between the
speed of the rotor and the viscous drag exerted by
the fluid between the rotor and the stator. The most
widely used geometry is a concentric cylinder ar-
rangement, sometimes called a Couette viscometer,
in which the test fluid occupies the gap between
the cylinders. For newtonian fluids, the equation
relating the operating conditions and the pertinent
viscometer dimensions are:
R2 uR (28)
M
o--22 ,tr LR (29)

Pressure Gauges

Pressure
Regulator Pressure Gauge

"~ Thermometer,~ ~
"~~ ~-Test Pipe Seal
/
Control
Valve

Temperaturj
Control Bath
n
ydr~2ist~,
Hydraulic Oil
Pump and Sump
Figure 16 -- Schematicrepresentation of the Shell-De Limonrheometershowingtest section and hydraulic systemfor pres-
surization.

[17]
 LUBRICATION

KINEMATIC SUS KINEMATIC

~2, ENGLER
2 ~

2.5 ; .5
35 33 --
- 1.201--

1.30 --
40 t.35 -
4.5

5.5 4C:" 5.5

~5 1.45 .-
6 LSO ~ 6
1._~:~__

4~, i

~ ~o~ _ ~o ~ ~~
~ IOOL

~ 40 ~ ~40

~ 70 35 30

45 40
~ 4oo~ ~ ~0o
~~ 4 5o
E t5

= 50 700 20 150
,oo
~ eo
~o~ ~ ~ ~oo~ ~ 90
z~o

~2oo

400 ~ 200
4~o 2~0 ~ 60

.o ,o
.oo
F
7~ 90
3500 ~ ~oo ~ 3so
4~ 3500
9~8~ 3~ 120~HO~
I~0 4500~ 40~ ~3o~ 4~450~ 400~
350~

LIN~ UP STRAIGHTEOGE~ CE~T/STOKE VALUE

ONBOTHKINEMATIC SCALES
IS ~E SAM.VISCOSITIES
AT~ESAME
T~MP~RATURE ON ALL SCALES~RETHENEOU/VALENT
TO EXTEND RANGEOF ONLYTH~KINeMATiC,S~YBOLT UNIVERSAL,
REDWOOD
NQ~AND~NGL~R SCALES
~ MULTIPLY
BY I0 THEVISCOSITIES ONTHESESC~LESBETWEEN ~00 ANDI000 CENT/STOKeS
ON
THECORRESPONDING VISCOSITIESONTHEOTHER 3 SCALES.FORFURTHER XT~NSION,MULTIPLYTHESESCALES
AS ABOVE BY /00 OR~ H/GH~RPOWEROF I0.
(EXAMPLE1500 CENT/STOKES
= 150 X I0 cS~ 695 X I0 SUS 6950 SUS)

Figure 171 Viscosity conversion nomograph.

[ 18]
 LUBRICATION

MOTOR

FLEXIBLE-~ TACHOMETE
R
SHAFT \ GENERATOR
-THERMISTOR
ROTOR \

STATOR--

SAMPLE
FILL TUBE
O-RING
SEAL

SAMPLE
FILL PORT

BLOCK ROTOR
FLAT
Figure 18 --Schematic
representation of the Cold CrankingSimulator.

4a,
Examples The Cold Cranking Simulator
~o) which is often referred to by its initials, CCS,is a
s- r 2co I~_~ ~2 special case of the concentric cylinder viscometer.
It is a single-purpose instrument, used only for the
for torque measured at R = R~ measurement of the low-temperature viscosity of
engine oils and specified in the SAE Viscosity
~
2~R Classification J300d for that purpose. This one ap-
=
S (30a) plication is enough to assure widespread use of the
CCS. The name derives from the instruments abili-
ty to measurea viscosity related to an oils cranking
for torque measured at R = R~ 44~
resistance in an engine during cold startingJ
The principal elements of the Cold Cranking
Simulator are shown schematically in Figure 18 and
2~ R~
S-- (30b) in the photograph of Figure 19. The viscometric
(R ~ ~ cell of the apparatus consists of a 19 mm(3/~-inch)
diameter stainless steel rotor inside a closely-fitted
copper stator. Twoflats are located on the rotor,
where r/ = dynamic viscosity
180 degrees apart, for self-centering of the rotor.
M = torque The clearance between the rotor and stator is very
R = radius small, about 0.01 mm(0.0004 inch), in order
R, = radius of inner cylinder achieve the high shear rates that are needed to
R2 = radius of outer cylinder simulate the engine bearings. Rapid, close tem-
perature control is achieved by pulsing cold metha-
L = length of cylinders
nol through a channel between the stator and its
(o = angular velocity housing.
r = shear stress Viscosity is determined by measuring the rotor
S = rate of shear speed. The viscosity of the test oil provides the load

[19]
 LUBRICATION

Courtesy o~ Cannon Instrnment Company.

Figure19--ColdCrankingSimulator.

0.05 0.06 0.08 O.l 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
1600 15000

1250, 12500

1000~ 10000
9000 9000
8000 8000
7oooi 7000
6000 6000

sooo 5000

4000 4000

3000 3OO0
2500 2500

2000 2000

1500 1500

O0 1000
0.06 0.08 0.1
900 900
LINEARIZED CALIBRATION CHART 800 8OO
COLD- CPJkNKING SIMULATOR
700 7OO
Temperature:
600 60O
Calibration Date:
CANNON INSTRUMENT CO. 50o 5OO
0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
P,O. BOX~la STATe
COLl..eGe,
PA. 1~o|
SPEED INDICATOR READING c,tNo.cP5
Courtesy o/ Cannon lnstrnment Company.

Figure 20 -- Cold Cranking Simulator calibration curve.

[20]
 LUBRICATION

Viscosity Indicating
ZERO / Pointer
ADJUSTMENT

~ ~ ~.~j Main Jewelled Bearing

Transformer- ,~ ~- - ~ Synchronous Motor

Phasing Condenser ~ - .... ~\
~r ......
..... ",~-- ~ . \~\ I Spring Loaded
Secondary Bearing

anism" --Turret
" Gear Box
<~.~~~~" (~;

Steady Bearing

~k~_lnner Cylinder Quick

~/ Release System
Inner Cylinder
Release~ --~ Outer Cylinder Quick
"- Aperture Release Attachment
if ~lnner Cylinder Spindle

~-- ~ ~ Guard Ring Support

Tube (Detachable)
Guard ~
Ring
Inner_~
Cylinder Ik~5 Outer Cylinder

Courtesy o~ Ferranti Electric, Inc.

Figure 21 -- Ferrantl Portable Viscometer.

for the drive motor: the higher the viscosity, the
slower the motorspeed, which is analogous to the
situation in an automobileengine. Standard refer-
ence oils with viscosities from 550 to 9960 cP at
-- 18Care used to calibrate the speedin terms of
viscosity. Theseare newtonianoils with carefully
determinedviscosities at -- 18C.Thecertified vis-
cosity of each oil is plotted against the observed
speed reading for that oil to create a calibration
curve such as shownin Figure 20. Note that arbi-
trary units from zero to a full-scale reading of
1.000 are used for the rotor speed, since a knowl-
edge of the exact rpm is not needed. The speed
reading for an oil being tested is observedand the
correspondingviscosity is read fromthe calibration
curve.
Several concentric-cylinderviscometersare avail-
able for convenient measurements of viscosity
under industrial conditions and are particularly
well suited for quality control in productionsitua-
tions. The outer cylinder of these instruments has
an open bottom. Thus the viscometer can be im-
mersedin a fluid in any convenient container that
is large enough.
The Ferranti Portable Viscometer, Figure 21, is
an example of an immersion-type viscometer. It
consists of a rotating outer cylinder whichis driven,
through a gear box, by a small, high-torque, syn-
chronousmotor. The rotation of the inner cylinder
is restrained by a calibrated spring. A pointer at the
upper end of the inner cylinders spindle indicates
the angular deflection of the inner cylinder as the

[21]
 LUBRICATION
latter is turned by the viscousdragof the test fluid.
Three models of the Ferranti Portable Vis-
cometerare available: the VLfor low viscosities,
the VMfor moderate viscosities, and the VHfor
high viscosities. Several combinationsof inner and
outer cylinders are used with each of the modelsto
cover its designatedviscosity range. Shearrate is
determined by the choice of cylinder combination
and the speed. Three or five speeds are available,
depending on the viscometer model.
The Ferranti Portable Viscometeris specified in
ASTM MethodD 32454 for measuring the viscosi-
ty of industrial fnel oils, andin the similar Institute
of PetroleumMethodIP-230. It has also been used
4v4
for 8measuringthe viscosity of heavyfuel oils
andwaxycrude oils. For these applications, a special
samplecup is used. Thecupis a close fit to the outer
cylinder and rotates with it. The assembledsample
cup and cylinders are immersedin a temperature-
control bath.
The HaakeViscotester is also a portable viscom-
eter that can be used for rapid test measurements
by immersing the sensor system (viscosity-
measuringcylinders) in the fluid to be tested. In
the Viscotester, the outer cylinder (cup) is sta-
tionary while the inner cylinder (bob) is rotated
by a synchronous motor. The wind-up of a cali-
brated spring in the rotor shaft is a measureof
the torque needed to overcomethe viscous drag of
the test fluid and is indicated directly on a scale at
the top of the instrument. The Model VT181is
for low and mediumviscosities, and the Model
VT24is for mediumand high viscosities. Both
modelsare capable of two speeds. The Viscotester
can also be used for bench test work by mounting
it on a test stand and using one of the sensor sys-
tems featuring outer cylinders with closed bottoms.
This arrangement allows the use of small sample
volumesand also surrounds the sensor system with
a compacttemperature control bath.
The Haake Rotovisco is a versatile concentric
cylinder viscometerwith capabilities for laboratory
research workas well as for quality control. It can
be used with any of the sensor systems that are
usable with the ModelVTViscotesters plus several
additional sensor systems. Included in the latter
category are cone-and-plate sensors (to be dis-
cussed in a subsequentsection), concentric cylinder
sensors for measurementsat high pressures, con-
centric cylinder sensors for measurementsover a
wide temperature range (--60C to +350C),
and an attachmentfor measuringelastic properties.
A precision potentiometer measures the angular
displacement at the torsion spring in the drive
spindle and converts it to an electrical signal pro-
portional to the shear stress on the sample. The
signal is normallyread on a meter but maybe used
as an input to an X-Yrecorder. Rotor speed, which
is proportional to shear rate, is the other input.
[22]
The availability of programmedspeed control in
conjunction with the X-Yrecorder provides for
automatic recording of flow curves. Motor speed
is electronically controlled to give a choice of 20
to 40 fixed speeds, depending on the viscometer
model. The Model RV3 also has provision for
continuously variable speed.
The Contraves RheometerSTVis a 3-speed vis-
cometer of the concentric-cylinder type that is
intendedfor use in laboratories as well as in process
control. Like the Viscotester, the RheometerSTV
can also be used with closed-bottomouter cylinders
as well as with the open-bottomimmersion-style
cylinders. Cone-and-platesystemsare also available.
In the closed cup systems, the Contravesviscometer
uses conical ends on the rotors to eliminate end
effects. The Haake and Ferranti viscometers use
recessed end surfaces on the inner cylinders for the
same purpose.
The Contraves Rheomats RM-15and RM-30are
primarily research instruments that wouldbe con-
sidered in the same category as the Haake Ro-
tovisco. Both can be used with all the viscosity
sensing systems described for the RheometerSTV.
Measurementscan be made at 15 different rota-
tional speeds (shear rates) in the RM-15or at
speeds in the RM-30.The latter instrument also
has stepless speed control and can be used with an
X-Yrecorder for automatic plotting of flow curves.
Rotating-Bob Viscometers
Principle Rotating-bob viscometers measure
the viscous drag on a rotating element (bob) im-
mersedin the test fluid. Physically they differ from
the concentric-cylinder instruments discussed pre-
viously by not having an outer cylinder. The sample
containerhas a diameterthat is large relative to the
diameterof the bob. Variousshapes, cylindrical and
non-cylindrical, maybe used for the rotors. The
following discussion of specific viscometersillus-
trates the widediversity of bob geometries.
In mostcases, rotating-bob viscometersare cali-
brated with newtonian fluids of knownviscosity.
The complexgeometryof most of the rotor designs
makesthe calculation of shear rates impossible.
Consequently, the results with these systems are
relative viscosities, i.e., resistancesto flowrelative
to reference fluids, but withoutreference to a shear
rate or shear stress. Cylindrical rotors are an ex-
ception {o the abovediscussion because the mathe-
maticsrelating geometry,speed, torque, shear stress,
and shear rate are well established. Thesystemcan
be treated as a concentric cylinder viscometerwith
an outer cylinder of infinite radius. However,in
practice this is rarely done; relative viscosities are
usually adequate. Mathematicsapplicable to disk-
shaped bobs have been proposed but are muchmore
complicatedthan those for cylindrical bobs.
 LUBRICATION
Figure 22 -- Brookfield Synchro-teclrlc Viscometer,ModelLVT.
Examples The Brookfield Synchro-Lectric vis-
cometer, shown in Figures 22 and 23, is probably
the best known rotating-bob viscometer in the
United States and is used in several ASTMmethods
of test. 49"55~The Brookfield viscometer is available
in nine models, which differ in speeds, viscosity
ranges, and maximumtorques.
Rotor (bob) configurations for the Brookfield
viscometer are cylinders, disks, and T-bars. The bob
is driven, through a multi-speed gear box and a
spring, by a synchronous motor. The scale rotates
with the output shaft of the gear box and is viewed
through a window in the housing. Viscous drag of
the test fluid on the bob causes an angular displace-
ment at the spring between the bob and the scale.
A pointer attached to the rotor below the spring
moves with the bob, thereby indicating the magni-
tude of the angular displacement on the scale. At
low speeds, the reading can be easily read as it
passes through the viewing window. At higher
speeds, a clutch allows the pointer position to be
locked so that it can be read by stopping the drive
motor.
The scale reading is an indication of the torque
on the bob. For each speed, this can be converted
to a viscosity either from a calibration with new-
tonian fluids of knownviscosity or else from "fac-
tors" (calibration constants) provided by the manu-
[23]
Spindle
Figure 23- Schematicreoresenlation of the Brookfield Syn-
chro-Lectric Viscometer.
facturer. Each spindle has its own set of factors,
one for each viscometer speed. Viscosity is calcu-
lated by multiplying the viscometer rpm by the ap-
propriate factor. The viscometer speed at which the
measurement is made is very important for non-
newtonian fluids. Appreciable differences in ap-
parent viscosity may be observed for measurements
at different speeds because the different speeds cor-
respond to different shear rates.
Temperature control of the sample being tested
is independent of the viscometer and may be ac-
complished by use of an air bath, as in ASTM
Method D 2983, 49 by use of a heating mantle
50
around the sample container, as in ASTM D 2669,
by standing the sample container on a laboratory
hot plate, as in ASTMD 3232; 51 or by running
with the sample container immersed in a liquid
bath.
For measurements in highly plastic materials and
gels, the Brookfield viscometer can be used with a
T-bar spindle and an accessory called a Helipath
Stand. While the viscosity is being measured, the
entire viscometer is continuously lowered by the
Helipath Stand so that the cross bar of the spindle
describes a helical path through the sample. The
entire measurement is thereby made on undisturbed
material.
The Haake Rotoviscos and Viscotesters may be
equipped with rotating-bob viscosity measuring
 LUBRICATION
E-System
(cylindrical)
FL-System
(paddle,
star-shape)
Figure 24 -- Haakerelative viscosity sensors.
systems and used to measure relative viscosity.
Threeconfigurations are available: cylindrical bobs
("E" System), vane-type bobs ("FL" System), and
staggered-pin bobs ("RS" System). These are
shownschematically in Figure 24. All are immer-
sion systems, intended for measurementsin open
beakers or other containers.
The Contraves Type TVRotational Viscometer
is a simple, portable single-speed viscometer in-
tended for quick viscosity comparisons. It uses
various rotating bob configurations. Paddle, disk,
and cylindrical bobs are provided with closed
sample cups, and disk and cylindrical rotors are
provided as immersiontypes.
The StormerViscometeris considerably different
from the other rotating bob viscometers that have
been discussed. It is unique in that its rotor is
driven at constant load (shear stress) in contrast
to most other viscometers,wherethe rotor is driven
at constant speed (rate of shear). A falling mass
applies the shear stress through the simple pulley
arrangement shown in Figure 25. The force is
transmitted from the winding drum to the rotor
by a low-friction gear box. Rotor speed is deter-
minedby timing 100 revolutions as indicated by
the installed revolution counter. Different stress
levels are achieved by changingthe amountof mass
applied at the end of the string. Calibration with
[24]
RS-System
(staggered-pin
shape)
newtonianoils of knownviscosity permits translat-
ing the rpm-vs-torqueobservations to relative vis-
cosity. Because of the complexrotor geometries
and baffles in the samplecup, there is no reasonable
way to describe the flow patterns mathematically
and therefore no wayto calculate a shear rate for
the Stormer viscometer. The attractiveness of the
Stormerviscometerlies mainlyin its simplicity and
adaptability. Special purpose cups and rotors can
be easily substituted for the standard ones.
Cone-Plate Viscometers
Principle Cone-and-plate viscometers are the
third major category of rotational viscometer. They
are used mainly for laboratory investigations and
in-house test methods,and are not a feature of any
significant industry-wide specifications. Figure 26
showsthe geometryof this type of viscometer. In
practice, the coneangle, o~, is very small (less than
3, usually 0.3 ). Advantagesof cone-and-plate
viscometersinclude very small sample volume,easy
cleanup, and constant shear rate throughoutthe gap.
The last feature allows calculation of shear rate
directly fromthe rotational speedand coneangle, a.
S -- (31)
 LUBRICATION

DIAL
~

ROTATING CYLINDER~

SAMPLE CUP~

BATH C UP -~,~

WEIGHT

Figure 25 -- Schematic representation of the Stormer Viscometer.

Where S ---- rate of shear, s- 1 (for newtonian

fluid ExamplesThe Ferranti-Shirley Cone-Plate Vis-
co = angular velocity, rad/s cometer,Figure 27, is a high-precision, laboratory
cz = cone angle (see Figure 26), rad instrument.52 Three cones are provided, differing
in diameter and hence in the viscosity range they
Viscosity, for a newtonianfluid, is calculatedfrom cover, but all with a coneangle of about 0.3 degree.
Special, truncated cones are available for testing
3o~M
~7 -- 27rR3co (32 suspensions of particle size greater than 10/zm
diameter (0.010 mmor 0.0004 in.). Particle sizes
and shear stress from up to 0.4 mm(0.016 in.) can be accommodated
truncated cones, although larger cone angles are
3M required for the larger particle sizes.
~" (33
3 -- 2ovR The gap is set manually by a very sensitive
where M = torque micrometer adjustment of the plate position in
R ---- radius of cone conjunction with an electrical indication between
the cone apex and the plate. With the truncated
In all cone-plate viscometers, the adjustmentof cones, a small diameterpin substitutes for the cone
the relative axial positions of cone and plate is apex in this operation. The plate adjustmentcan be
critical. If a gap is left betweenthe plate and the locked so that it can be reproduciblyrestored after
cone apex, the shear rate will be in error. For a the plate assemblyhas been lowered for cleaning.
10-mmradius cone, a gap of 0.01 mm(0.0004 in.) The gap setting is automatically compensatedfor
at the apex wouldresult in a rate of shear that the effect of ambienttemperaturechanges.
would be 17 percent lower than the nominalvalue The cone is driven, through a torque spring, by
at the periphery of the cone, with a progressively a servo-controlled DCmotor-generator set. Speed
greater error at locations approachingthe apex. On is feed-back controlled and is therefore relatively
the other hand, too tight a contact between cone independent of the load imposedby the viscosity
and plate could cause erroneous torque readings of the substance being tested. Three speed ranges
and possibly wear of the cone apex. are provided. The viscometer can be run at con-

[25]
 LUBRICATION

Rotation

"---Drive
I
Shaft
I

I
I IIIl~--Torque Spring

Cone Angle
Test
Fluid-~ .C?e.. ~. ~ "
I(exaggerated)
Figure 26 -- Geometry of a typical cone-plate viscometer.

stant speed and is also capable of programmed

speed control. The viscous drag on the cone causes
an angular displacement between upper and lower
portions of the drive shaft at the torque spring. A
potentiometer measures this displacement, which
is proportionalto shear stress, andgeneratesa signal
that may be read on a meter or fed to an X-Y
recorder. Speed, which is proportional to rate of
E L ECTRO
- M ECHANtCAL
shear, is the other input to the X-Yrecorder, thus TOROUE OYNAMOMETER~
generating a flow curve for the substance being
tested. This type of representation affords a much
better characterization of flow properties than does
the measurementof apparent viscosity at a single
point.
Control of sample temperature is achieved by
circulating a controlled-temperature fluid through
the plate. Threethermocouplesare set in the plate,
flush with the surface and thermally insulated from
the plate, to measurethe sampletemperature.
Cone-and-platemeasuringsystems are also avail-
able for the Haake Rotovisco and Viscotesters
and for the Contraves RheometerSTVand Rheo-
mats RM-15and RM-30.In the Haakeviscometers,
a spring holds the plate against the cone. The Con-
traves instrumentrelies on gravity to hold the cone
and plate in contact.

Other Types of Viscometers

Falling-Ball Viscometers
Principle This type of viscometer makes use Courtesy o~ Ferrantl Electric, Inc.

of a commonplacephenomenon:the rate at which Figure 27 ~ Ferronti-Shide~ one-piote Vi$come~er.

[26]
 LUBRICATION

SOLENOIDal_
...~.~ ~ OUTLET

BARREL SEAL .....

HEATING ELEMENT
~~
~
GAS CHAMBER -- ~/-~" STAINLESS STEEL
BARREL
-/~- MEASURING
PIVOT INSULATING JACKET
STEEL BALL

~HERMOCOUPLE
POSITIONING STOPS
HEATING ELEMENT

PRESSURE HOUSING

LATCH INLET.~ CONTACT ASSEMBLY

LEVEL

LEVELING SCREWS

Courtesy o~ Ruska Instrument Corporation.

Figure 28 -- Ruska Viscosimeter.

an object falls in a body of fluid dependson the
fluids viscosity and on the difference in density
betweenthe fluid and the falling object. A ball
falling or rolling throughfluid in a cylindrical tube
is a convenient and popular geometryfor viscom-
etry. Becauseno external connectionto or restraint
on the ball is necessary,the test fluid canbe totally
enclosed and pressurized. Thusfalling ball viscom-
eters are frequently used for measuringviscosity at
iv
high pressures,
Mathematicaldescription of fluid flow in the
annular clearance betweena ball and a cylindrical
robe is very complexand is feasible only for new-
tonian fluids. Falling-ball viscometersare generally
calibrated with reference oils of knownviscosity.
Viscosities measuredwith these devices are accurate
only for newtonianfluids. Repeatable results are
possible with non-newtonianfluids, but because
shear rate is indeterminate, such results must be
used with circumspection.
Examples The Ruska High Pressure Viscosim-
eter*, Figure 28, is a rolling-ball type designedfor
operation at high pressures and high temperatures
--up to 68,950 kPa (10,000 psi) at 150C
(300F). Its main application is for petroleum
fluids underreservoir conditions, but it can also be
used for more general measurements of liquid
viscosities at high pressures and temperatures.
The measuring elements are a steel ball in a
The term viseosirneter is exactly synonymous with viscomcter and
is used in this section in keeping with the terminology of the
Ruska Instrument Corporation and the Fish-Schurman Corporation
( Hoeppler Viscosimeter).
stainless steel tube ("barrel"). The barrel, which
is sealed at both ends, is enclosedin an insulated
electric heating jacket and pressure housing. Pres-
surization is achievedwith gas. Theentire assembly
is mountedin journals between two A-framesand
can be operatedat roll angles of 23 o, 45 o, and 70 o.
Viscosity measurementbegins with the barrel
assemblyinverted and a solenoid holding the ball
at what is normally the barrels upper end. The
assemblyis then rotated to the desired measuring
angle. De-energizingthe solenoid releases the ball
and at the sametime starts an electric timer. When
the ball reaches the bottomof the barrel, it closes
an electric contact, stopping the timer and sounding
a buzzer. Theroll time is proportionalto viscosity.
Calibration with fluids of knownviscosity and
density provides a curve for determining the vis-
cosity correspondingto an observedroll time.
The Hoeppler (H6ppler) Viscosimeter, Figure
29, is a falling-ball viscometerintended for use at
ambient pressures. ~ A glass water-jacket is pro-
vided so that with a suitable constant-temperature
fluid circulation system, the viscometercan be used
~or measurements from -35C to +150C. A
precision glass tube of about 16 mm(0.63 in.)
diameter and about 200 mm(7.9 in.) length and
an assortment of balls are the measuringelements.
The tube is mountedat an angle of 10 degrees to
the vertical for the best reproducibility of measure-
ments. The bore is uniform within 0.001 mm(39
micro-inches),and the balls are of optical precision,
thereby permitting very precise measurementsof
viscosity. Fourteenballs, differing in size or mate-

[27]
 LUBRICATION

THERMOMETER
MARKS

GLASS TUBE

WATER JACKET

LOCKING PIN

Figure29-- Hoeppler
Viscosimeter.

rial, allow the Hoeppler Viscosimeter to be used side of the diaphragm, an equal length into the
over a very wide viscosity range. For liquid lubri- probe shank. Anelectric coil surroundsthe part of
cants, the range is from0.5 cP to over 200,000cP. the blade inside the shank. Whenthe coil is ener-
A special ball allows measurementof the viscosity gized, the blade is magnetized and consequently
of gases. changesits length slightly, whichis the magneto-
Viscosity is measuredby timing the fall of the striction action. This longitudinal motionshears the
ball betweenreference markson the glass robe and fluid that is in contact with the blade. The ampli-
is calculated from the density of the ball and the tude of the motionis extremely small--its maximum
fluid at the test temperature,the observedfall time, is less than 0.5/zm (20 millionths of an inch).
and a calibration constant. Ball densities and cali- For measuringviscosity, an electric pulse to the
bration constants are provided by the manufacturer. coil excites the blade to vibrate longitudinally at
its natural resonant frequency of about 28 kHz
(28,000 cycles per second). The blade thus "rings",
Vibrating-Element Viscometers muchlike a tuning fork or a bell. Viscous drag of
Principle The dampingeffect of a fluid on the the test fluid on the outer section of the blade
free vibrations of a submergedobject is an indica- dampsthis vibration: the higher the viscosity, the
tion of the fluids viscosity. Viscometersbasedon morerapidly the vibration will die out. The pulse
this principle are useful for measurementsin pro- is repeated when the vibration amplitude de-
cess stream applications wherethey provide a con- creases to a certain value. In air, the pulses are
tinuous indication of viscosity in the form of an generatedat a rate of 50 per second;in a fluid, they
electrical signal that can be read at a location re- are generated at a higher rate, depending on the
mote from the sensor. fluids viscosity. The electronic section of the vis-
ExampleIn the Bendix Ultra-Viscoson, Figure cometer automatically regulates the pulse rate so
30, the sensing element is a thin strip, 0.216 mm as to maintain the energy in the dampedoscillation
(0.0085 in. ) thick and 3.2 mm(~ in.) wide, (averagedover a period of time) at a constant level.
of magnetostrictivemetal. At its center, it is silver- The change in pulse freqency (from air) is read
soldered to a diaphragmthat serves to seal the end on the Ultra-Viscosonsmeter. In newtonianfluids,
of the probe shank. The blade extends 50 mm(2 it is proportional to the square root of the dynamic
inches) into the fluid to be teszed and, on the other viscosity times the density and is independentof

[28]
 LUBRICATION

the Bendix Corpor~ion-Environment~d~nd Process Instruments Division.

Figure 30 -- BendixUltra-Viscoson.

flow rate. specification of oils accordingto viscosity, several

In non-newtonian fluids, the U1tra-Viscoson classification systems have been developed. Three
reading will give apparent viscosity. It will there- that are widely used are the SAEJ300d Viscosity
fore be sensitive to flow rate for such materials be- Classification for Engine Oils, the SAEJ306c
cause apparentviscosity is a function of shear rate, Viscosity Classification for Axle and ManualTrans-
whichin turn is a function of the fluid flow rate mission Lubricants, and the ASTMStandard
past the sensing element. Control of flow rate is Recommended Practice for Viscosity System for
therefore desirable for non-newtonianmaterials. Industrial Fluid Lubricants D 2422. The nomen-
Non-newtonian materials mayindicate a signifi- clature defined by these systems provides a con-
cantly lower viscosity in the Ultra-Viscoson than venient wayof identifying the viscosity of a lubri-
in other viscometers. The difference is caused by cating oil.
the alternating direction of shearing in the Ultra-
Viscosonsprobe, in contrast to the unidirectional Crankcase Oil Viscosity Classification
shearing of other types of viscometers. MaterialsofSAE J300d
high molecularweight will offer less resistance to
the alternating shearing than to unidirectional The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
shearing. For example,a plastic or a high molecularhas issued the viscosity classification shownin
weight polymer with a Brookfield viscosity of Table III for use by engine manufacturers in
80,000 cP mayindicate a viscosity of only 200 or specifying the crankcase oil viscosity requirements
300 cP in the Ultra-Viscoson. This discrepancy is of their engines, by oil marketersin labeling their
not a handicapin process control, wherethe Ultra- products, and by users in selecting lubricants ac-
Viscosons ability to detect viscosity changes is cording to the recommendationsin their owners
satisfactory for suchapplications. manuals.
The SAE grades that bear a Wsuffix are
specified for use at low ambient temperatures.
VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION Viscosities are measured at -18C by the Cold
SYSTEMS Cranking Simulator (CCS) according to ASTM
MethodD 2602 and expressed in centipoises (cP).
Viscosityis usually a primeconcernin specifying The viscosity grades without the Wsuffix are
an oil for a particular service. To facilitate the usually specified for normaland high ambient tem-

[29]
 LUBRICATION

TABLEIII TABLEIV
ENGINEOIL VISCOSITY AXLE AND MANUALTRANSMISSION
CLASSIFICATION--SAEJ3OOd LUBRICANT
VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION--
SAEJ306c
SAERecommended
Practice
SAE Recommended
Practice
ViscosityRange
Centipoises Centistokes Maximum
(cSt) at 100C Temperature
(cP)at --18C SAE for Viscosityof Viscosity
(ASTMD 2602) (ASTMD 445) Viscosity 150000cP(a) at 100CcSt(b)
Grade C Min Max
SAE
Viscosity
Grade Max Min Max 75W --40 4.1 --
80W --26 7.0 --
5W 1 250 3.8 -- 85W --12 11.0 --
lOW 2 500 4.1 -- 90 -- 13.5 less than24.0
20W(a) 10 000 5.6 -- 140 -- 24.0 lessthan41.0
20 -- 5.6 less than9.3 250 -- 41.0 --
30 -- 9.3 lessthan12.5
40 -- 12.5 lessthan16.3 (a) Centipoise (cP) is the customary absolute viscosity unit
and is numerically equal to the correspondingSI unit of
50 -- 16.3 lessthan21.9 millipascal-second (mPaos).
(b) Centistokes (cSt) is the customarykinematic viscosity
Note: 1 cP = 1 rnPa,s; 1 cSt = 1 mm~/s unit and is numerically equal to the corresponding SI
(a) SAE 15W may be used to identify SAE 20W oils which unit of square millimetre per second (mm~/s).
have a maximumviscosity at --18C of 5 000 cP. The new viscosity classification represents a conversion
Reprinted with permissionof SAE. to international SI units using degrees Celsius and with
1977 Society of AutomotiveEngineers, Inc. a minimumchange in viscosity limits relative to prior
practice. By early 1982, it is the aim to define the low
temperature requirements at suitable multiples of 5C
while retaining 100C for the high temperature range.
The proposed revision will necessitate considering
peratures. Their kinematic viscosities are measured changesof the viscosity limits for the high and/or low
temperatures used to define the new system.
at 100C by ASTMMethod D 445 and expressed Reprinted with permission of SAE.
in centistokes (cSt). 1977 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
Multigradeoils are those oils that are labeled as
being in a designated Wgrade and, at the same There is no continuity between the viscosity
time, a non-Wgrade. For example, an SAE10W- grades for engine oils (J300d) and those for gear
40 oil is within the CCSlimits at -- 18C for the oils (J306c)despite the apparentsimilarity in their
SAE10Wgrade, and it also falls within the 100C numberingsystems. Comparisonof Tables III and
kinematic viscosity limits prescribed for the SAE IV will show, for example, that an SAE50 crank-
40 grade. case oil has the viscosity of an SAE90 gear oil and
that an SAE40 crankcaseoil falls partly within the
Axle and Manual Transmission Lubricant SAE90 grade for gear oils and partly belowit.
Viscosity Classification SAEJ306c Multigraded gear oils (e.g., SAE85W-140or
The SAEviscosity classification systemfor gear those oilsare
80W-140) possible, like engine oils, and are
that fall within the limits of one of the
oils, shownin Table IV, serves a purpose analogous specified low-temperature (W) grades and also
to that of J300d. Here, too, the Wsuffixes indi- within the limits of one of the high-temperature
cate viscosity grades intended for use at low am- grades.
bient temperatures. Viscosity for the F-grades is
measuredby the Brookfield viscometer according
to ASTMMethodD 2983 and expressed in centi- Viscosity System for Industrial Fluid
poises (cP). Note that for the W-gradegear oils, Lubricants ASTMD 2422-75
the maximum viscosity is fixed (150,000 cP) and Thissystemis applicableto industrial fluid lubri-
a maximum temperature for this viscosity is speci- cants in the viscosity range from 2 to 1500cSt at
fied for each grade. For the W-gradecrankcaseoils, 40C.At present, fluids outside this viscosity range
J300d fixes the test temperature (--18C) and are seldomused as industrial lubricants. Thestated
specifies the viscosity limit for each grade. purposes of the system are: "To establish a series
Viscosities for the high-temperature grades in of definite viscosity levels so that lubricant suppliers,
J306c are measured at 100C by ASTMMethod lubricant users, and equipmentdesigners will have
D 445 and expressed in centistokes (cSt). Although a uniform and common basis for designing, specify-
the methodof test is the sameas specified in J300d ing, or selecting the viscosity of industrial lubri-
for crankcase lubricants, the grade numbers and cants" and "To eliminate unjustified intermediate
viscosity limits are obviouslydifferent. viscosities, thereby reducing the total numberof

[ 30]
 LUBRICATION

TABLE V International Organization for Standardization:

ISO Standard 3448
ASTM D 2422 British Standard BS 4231
VISCOSITY SYSTEM FOR INDUSTRIAL FLUID German Engineering Standard DIN 51519
(a)
LU BRICANTS

Mid-Point APPENDIX
Viscosity Viscosity, Kinematic
System cSt Viscosity International System of Units (SI)
Grade (mm2/s) Limits,
Identifi- at cSt (mm=/s) A new system of measurement is being adopted
cation 40.0C at 40.0C(b) throughout the world. It is called the International
Min Max System of Units, abbreviated SI*, and is a modern-
ized version of the metric system. In the United
ISO VG2 2.2 1.98 2.42 States, voluntary conversion to the SI has been
ISO VG3 3.2 2.88 3.52 spurred by Public Law 94-168, which was signed
ISO VG5 4.6 4.14 5.06
ISO VG7 6,8 6,12 7,48 on December 23, 1975. This law declares that the
policy of the United States shall be to coordinate
ISO VG10 10 9.00 11.0
ISO VG15 15 13.5 16.5 and plan the increasing use of the SI. A notice in
ISO VG22 22 19.8 24.2 the Federal Register of October 26, 1977 (Vol. 42,
ISO VG32 32 28.8 35.2 No. 206, pages 56,513 and 56,514) interprets and
ISO VG46 46 41.4 50.6 modifies the SI for the United States. Moredetailed
ISO VG68 68 61.2 74.8 descriptions of the SI and its use have been pub-
ISO VG100 100 90.0 110 lished by various standards organizations 4545s and
ISO VG150 150 135 165 technical and trade societies? Leading technical
ISO VG220 220 198 242 societies in the United States are now requiring
ISO VG320 320 288 352
ISO VG460 460 414 506 the use of SI for their publications.
ISO VG680 680 612 748 All the mathematical expressions in this article
ISO VG1000 1000 900 1100 are in terms of SI units. In practice, various mul-
ISO VG1500 1500 1350 1650 tiples or submultiples of the base units and derived
units are used in order to have quantities of a
(a) This proposedsystem implies no evaluation of quality.
(b) If 40C is not the temperature used whendetermining the convenient magnitude. For example, dynamic vis-
viscosity (as is sometimesthe case with very viscous
fluids) then the related viscosity at 40C shall be estab- cosity is expressed in mPas (centipoises) rather
lished by using ASTM D 341, Viscosity-Temperature than Pas, and kinematic viscosity is expressed in
Charts for Liquid Petroleum Products, Annual Book of
ASTMStandards, Part 23. mm2/s (centistokes) rather than m2/s. Conversion
Reproducedwith permission of ASTM. factors for viscosity are given in Table VI.
Fromits French name, Le Syst~me International dUnit~s.

viscosity grades used in the lubrication of indus- TABLE VI

trial equipment". VISCOSITY CONVERSION FACTORS
The eighteen viscosity grades of D 2422 are
To get
listed in Table V with their mid-point viscosities viscosity
and their viscosity limits. For world-wide uniformi- For viscosity Multiply expressed
expressedin: by: In:
ty of nomenclature, the viscosity grade of an in-
dustrial lubricant is designated as Pa-s 1000 cP*
P (poises) 100 cP
ISO viscosity grade... ~
dyn-s/cm 100 cP
which may be abbreviated to ~
kgfs/m 9.807 x 102 cP
ISO VG ... ~
Ibf.s/in (reyns) 6.895 x 106 cP
~
Ibfs/ft ~
4.788 x 10 cP
This wording would be followed by the nominal m=/s 106 cSt**
viscosity expressed in centistokes (mm~/s) St (stokes) 100 cSt
cm~/s 100 cSt
40C.
ft~/s ~
9.290 x 10 cSt
The standardized viscosity grades of ASTM ~
D 2422 are also used by other organizations under in~/s 6.452 x 10 cSt
the following designations: *The centipoise, symbol cP, is a special name for the
American National Standards Institute: mPa,s.
~* The centistokes, symbol cSt. is a special name for the
American National Standard Z11.232 mm~/s.

[31]
 LUB RICATION
REFERENCES
1. Van Wazer, J. R., Lyons, J. W., Kim, K. Y., and
Colwell, R. E., Viscosity and Flow Measurement--A
Laboratory Handbook of Rheology, NewYork, Inter-
science Publishers, 1963.
2. Wilkinson, W. L., Non.Newtonian Fluids--Fluid
Mechanics, Mixing and Heat Transfer, London, Per-
gamonPress, 1960.
3. Skelland, A. H. P., Non-Newtonian Flow and Heat
Transfer, NewYork, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.
32. Standard Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of
Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and the Calculation
of Dynamic Viscosity), ANSI/ASTMD 445-74, IP
designation 71/66. Also, see German Standards
(Deutsche Normen) DIN 51550, DIN 53012.
33. Standard Speci~cations and Operating Instructions for
Glass Capillary Kinematic Viscometers, ANSI/ASTM
D 446-74. Also, see German Standards (Deutsche
Normen) DIN 51366 and DIN 51372.
Note: ASTMD 446 was originally published as
D 2515 and was redesignated D 446 in 1977.
34. Standard Method of Test for Kinematic Viscosity of
Asphalts (Bitumens), ASTMD 2170/IP 319/74.
35. Standard Method of Test for Absolute Viscosity of
Asphalts, ASTMD 2171-66 (Reapproved 1972)/
IP 222/68.
36. Standard Test Method for Apparent Viscosity o/Lubri-
cating Greases, ANSI/ASTMD 1092-76.
37. Standard Method of Test for Saybolt Viscosity, ASTM 53. Falling-Sphere Viscometer (Viskosimetrie;
D 88-56 (Reapproved 1973).
Note: This method was discontinued by ASTMCom-
mittee D 2 on Petroleum Products and Lubri-
cants in 1976.
38. Viscosity, Redwood,IP 70/62.
Note: This method was withdrawn in 1972.
39. Determination of the Relative Time of Outflow by the
Engler Apparatus (Bestimmung der relativen Aus-
flusszeit mit dem Engler-Geriit), German Standard
(Deutsche Norm) DIN 51560.
40. Standard Method for Conversion of Kinematic Vis-
cosity to Saybolt Universal Viscosity or to Saybolt
Furol Viscosity, ANSI/ASTMD 2161-74.
41. Kinoshita, M., "The Relation Between Saybolt Uni-
versal Viscosities and Kinematic Viscosities," J. Inst.
Pet., v. 43, n. 401, May1957, pp. 164-166.
42. Kinoshita, M., "The Relation Between Redwood No. I
Seconds and Kinematic Viscosities," J. Inst. Pet., v. 4,
n. 401, May, 1957, pp. 152-160.
43. Standard Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of En-
gine Oils at Low Temperature, Using the Cold Crank-
ing Simulator, ANSI/ASTMD 2602-75.
44. Meyer, W. A. P., Selby, T. W., Stringer, H. R.,
"Evaluation of I.aboratory Viscometers for Predicting
the Cranking Characteristics of Engine Oils at 0F
and --20F, SAEPaper No. 680065, 1968.
[32]
Also, see CRCReport No. 409, (same title), New
York, Coordinating Research Council, April 1968.
45. Cox, D. B., Manning, R. E., and Kim, D. S., "The Cold
Cranking Simulator Method for Viscosity of Motor
Oils at Low Temperature," SAE Paper No. 680067,
1968.
46. Standard Test Method for Pumpability of Industrial
Fuel Oils, ANSI/ASTMD 3245-76.
Also, see IP-230/76.
47. Davenport, T. C., and Russell, R. J., "The Full-Scale
Pumping of Admiralty Fuel Oil and Its Relation to
Laboratory Tests," .L Inst. Pet., v. 46, n. 437, May
1960, pp. 143-160.
48. Davenport, T. C., "The Control of Pumpability of
Industrial Fuel Oils," ]. Inst. Pet., v. 52, n. 507,
March 1966, pp. 65-87.
49. Standard Test l~Iethod for Apparent Viscosity of Gear
Oils at Low Temperatures Using the Brook~eld Vis-
cometer, ANSI/ASTMD 2983-72 (Reapproved 1976).
50. Standard Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of
Petroleum 1Vaxes Compounded with Additives (Hot
Melts), ANSI/ASTM D 2669-77.
51. Standard Method for Measurement of Flow Properties
of Lubricating Greases at High Temperatures, ASTM
D 3232-73.
52. McKennell, R., "A Versatile Cone and Plate Vis-
cometer with Automatic Flow Curve Recording",
Proc. 2nd Int. Congress on Rheology, V. G. W. Har-
rison, Ed., London, Academic Press, 1954.
Viscosity: Measurementof Viscosity IVith the Hoeppler
Messung
der Viscositiit mit dem Kugelfall-Viskosimeter nach
H~ppler), German Standard (Deutsche Norm) DIN
53015.
54. "The International System of Units (SI)," NBS Spe-
cial Publication 330, 1977 Ed., U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Bureau of Standards.
55. Canadian Metric Practice Guide CAN3-Z234.1-76,
National Standard of Canada, Canadian Standards
Association, 1976.
56. "Conversion of Operational and Process Measurement
Units to the Metric (SI) System," API Publ. 2564,
1st Ed., March1974.
57. Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units SAE I916b,
Society of Automotive Engineers, March, 1977.
58. "ASMEOrientation and Guide for Use of SI (Metric)
Units," ASMEGuide SI-1, 7th Ed., New York, The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Septem-
ber, 1976.
59. "ASMEText Booklet SI Units in Fluid Mechanics,"
ASMESI-5, 1st Ed., NewYork, The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, January 1976.
60. Pollard, T. A., and Campbell, J. M., "The SI Metric
System of Units and SPEs Tentative Metric Standard,"
lournal of Petroleum Technology, v. 29, December
1977, pp. 1575-1611.
 ISO/ASTMViscosity
Classification
All Texacoindustrial fluid lubricants were brought into conformity with the
ISO/ASTMviscosity system by the end of 1977. This involved modifying the
product namesto include the ISO/ASTMviscosity at 40C. Since products were
previously based on SUSviscosity at 100F (37.8C), very slight base oil
adjustments were necessary for someof the products. No other changes were
made.The high quality level and excellent performancecharacteristics of the
products remained unchanged.
The following table shows the ISO/ASTMname changes continued from
previous issue.

RUBBER
PROCESS
OILS MISCELLANEOUS
OILS,
(Cont.)
PREVIOUSORPRESENT
NAME NEWNAME PREVIOUS
OR PRESENT
NAME NEWNAME
TEXNAP100 TEXNAP
19" URSAOIL MEDIUMHEAVY
TEXNAP150 TEXNAP
32 URSAOIL 220
URSAOIL HEAVY URSAOIL 270*
TEXNAP200 TEXNAP
46 URSAOIL EXTRAHEAVY URSAOIL 420*
TEXNAP
300 TEXNAP
60* URSAOIL C URSAOIL C-150
TEXNAP
400 TEXNAP
77* URSAOIL P 20 URSA
OIL P-68
TEXNAP
500 TEXNAP
100 URSA
OIL P 30 URSA
OIL P-IO0
TEXNAP
750 TEXNAP
150 URSAOIL P 40 URSAOIL P-150
TEXNAP
1200 TEXNAP
220 WAYLUBRICANT D WAYLUBRICANT 68
TEXNAP
1550 TEXNAP
270* WAYLUBRICANT G WAYLUBRICANT 220
TEXNAP
2000 TEXNAP
420*
TEXNAP
1600 TEXNAP
SPECIAL METALWORKINGLUBRICANTS
TEXPAR
70 TEXPAR
13" PREVIOUS
ORPRESENT
NAME NEWNAME
TEXPAR
100 TEXPAR
19" MARQUENCH
LIGHT QUENCHTEX
ML
TEXPAR
200 TEXPAR
46 MARQUENCH
850 QUENCHTEX
MM
TEXPAR
300 TEXPAR
68 QUENCHTEX
500 QUENCHTEX
A

TEXPAR
500 TEXPAR
100 QUENCHTEX
510 QUENCHTEX
B
QUENCHTEX
520 QUENCHTEX
C
MISCELLANEOUS
OILS QUENCHTEX
530 QUENCHTEX
D
PREVIOUS
OR PRESENTNAME NEWNAME CLEARTEX
120X CLEARTEX
B
ALCAIDOIL ALCAIDOIL 60* CLEARTEX
130X CLEARTEX
C
ALGOLOIL ALGOL
OIL 100 CLEARTEX
140X CLEARTEX
D
CANOPUSOIL CANOPUSOIL 32
CLEARTEX
150X CLEARTEX
E
CANOPUS
OIL C CANOPUS
OIL 46 TRANSULTEX
210 TRANSULTEX
A
CANOPUS
OIL D CANOPUS
OIL 68 TRANSULTEX
230 TRANSULTEX
C
CAPELLA
OIL CAPELLA
MACHINEOIL 32
TRANSULTEX
240 TRANSULTEX
D
CETUS
OIL CETUS
OIL 46 TRANSULTEX
250 TRANSULTEX
E
CORVUSOIL CORVUS
OiL 13" TRANSULTEX
260 TRANSULTEX
F
COTTON
PICKEROIL LIGHTR&O COTTON
PICKEROIL R&O32
TRANSULTEX
270 TRANSULTEX
G
COTTON
PICKEROIL HEAVY R&O COTTON
PICKEROIL n&o 68 TRANSULTEX
290 TRANSULTEX
H
COTTON
PICKEROIL EXT. HVY.R&O COTTON
PICKEROIL R&O150 SULTEX
320 SULTEX
B
HYDRA
OIL HYDRA
OIL 19"
SULTEX
340 SULTEXD
300 OIL 300 OIL 5** SULTEX
360
522 OIL SULTEX
F
522 OIL 19" TRANSFORMER
OIL 55 TRANSFORMER
OIL
PAPER MACHINE
OIL HD150 PAPER MACHINE
OIL HD150
PAPERMACHINEOIL HD 220 PAPERMACHINE OIL HD220 TRANSFORMEROIL 55 INHIBITED TRANSFORMER
OIL INHIBITED
RABTEXOIL RABTEXOIL 13" TRANSFORMEROIL 55 INHIBITEDW TRANSFORMER
OIL INHIBITEDW
ROCKDRILLLUBEXL ROCKDRILLLUBE46 PROCESS
OiL 42 PROCESS
OIL A

ROCKDRILL LUBEXM ROCK

DRILLLUBE100 PROCESS
OIL 45 PROCESS
OIL B
ROCKDRILLLUBEXH ROCK
DRILLLUBE320 PROCESS
OIL 60 PROCESS
OIL C
ROLTEX
OIL ROLTEX
OIL 15
*Non-standardISOViscosity Grade
TEXATHERM TEXATHERM 46 **NominalISOGrade.Productnot guaranteed to meetindicated ISO
555 URSAOIL URSAOIL 150 graderange. Viscosity maybe slightly belowminimumlimit.
 TEXACOInc.
Division Marketing Offices

ATLANTA TexacoInc. LOS ANGELES TexacoInc.

2939 Flowers RoadSouth 16055Ventura Blvd.
Atlanta, Georgia30341 Encino, California 91436
(404) 458-6961 (213) 986-9880
BOSTON TexacoInc. MEMPHIS TexacoInc.
231 John Street 3003 Airways Blvd. - Suite 907
Reading, Massachusetts
01867 Memphis,Tennessee38131
(617) 944-7100 (901) 332-0351
CHARLOTTE TexacoInc. MINNEAPOLIS TexacoInc.
5950 Fairview Road 1730Clifton Place
Charlotte, North Carolina 28210 Minneapolis, Minnesota55403
(704) 554-1780 (612) 870-8486
CHICAGO TexacoInc. NEW ORLEANS TexacoInc.
2905 Butterfield Road 4051VeteransBlvd. - Suite 300
OakBrook, Illinois 60521 Metairie, Louisiana70002
(312) 654-4630 (504) 885-7200
CINCINNATI TexacoInc. PITTSBURGH TexacoInc.
4015 Executive Park Drive 1400Lee Drive
Cincinnati, Ohio 45241 Coraopolis, Pennsylvania15108
(513) 733-0950 (412) 331-0101
CLEVELAND Texaco Inc.- Room300 PORTLAND TexacoInc.
6929 West130th St. 700 NE MultnomahStreet
ParmaHeights, Ohio 44130 Portland, Oregon97232
(216) 886-6300 (503) 238-6280
DALLAS TexacoInc.- Suite 150 RICHMOND TexacoInc.
2915 LBJ Freeway 4200 DeepwaterTerminal Road
Dallas, Texas75234 Richmond,Virginia 23234
(2t4) 241-0056 (804) 232-3441
DETROIT TexacoInc. ST. LOUIS TexacoInc.
24501 Ecorse Road 12131 Dorsett Road
Taylor, Michigan48180 MaryJandHeights, Missouri 63043
(313) 295-4700 (314) 291-5200
EAST BRUNSWICK
Texaco Inc. TULSA TexacoInc.
11 Kennedy81yd. 2424East 21st Street
East Brunswick, NewJersey 08816 Tulsa, Oklahoma74114
(201) 249-4500 (918) 743-5311
HOUSTON TexacoInc. WASHINGTON TexacoInc.
4800 FournacePlace 6110Executive Blvd.
Bellaire, Texas77401 Rockville, Maryland20852
(713) 666-8000 (301) 468-0100

TexacoPetroleumProducts are distributed throughout the United States, Latin America, United Kingdom,Europe
and WestAfrica. In Canadaby TexacoCanadaLimited, 90 WynfordDrive, DonMills, Ontario, M3C1 K5, Canada.