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Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) is a Data-link layer communication protocol for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs),
specified in the IEEE 802.6 standard, designed for use in MANs. DQDB is designed for data as well as voice and video
transmission based on cell switching technology (similar to ATM). DQDB, which permits multiple systems to interconnect using
two unidirectional logical buses, is an open standard that is designed for compatibility with carrier transmission standards such
For a MAN to be effective it requires a system that can function across long, “city-wide†distances of several miles, have
a low susceptibility to error, adapt to the number of nodes attached and have variable bandwidth distribution. Using DQDB,
networks can be thirty miles long and function in the range of 34 Mbps to 155 Mbps. The data rate fluctuates due to many
hosts sharing a dual bus as well as the location of a single host in relation to the frame generator, but there are schemes to
compensate for this problem making DQDB function reliably and fairly for all hosts.
The DQDB is composed of a two bus lines with stations attached to both and a frame generator at the end of each bus. The
buses run in parallel in such a fashion as to allow the frames generated to travel across the stations in opposite directions.
Protocol Structure
IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards carrying out wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and
5 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).
Spectral masks for 802.11g channels 1-14 in the 2.4 GHz band
Since the spectral mask only defines power output restrictions up to ±22 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by
-50 dBr, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that,
given the separation between channels 1, 6, and 11, the signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally
interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. Due to the near-far problem a transmitter can impact a receiver on a "non-
overlapping" channel, but only if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter) or operating above allowed power levels.
Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11 are "non-overlapping" is limited to spacing or product density, the 1–6–11
guideline has merit. If transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6, and 11 (for example, 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap
between the channels may cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput. [13] However, overlapping
channels may be used under certain circumstances. This way, more channels are available. [14]
[edit] Frames
Current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for use in transmission of data as well as management and control of wireless
links.
Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame has a MAC header, payload and FCS. Some frames
may not have payload portion. First 2 bytes of MAC header is a frame control field that provides detailed information about the
frame. The sub fields of the frame control field is presented in order.
Protocol Version: It is two bits in size and represents the protocol version. Currently used protocol version is zero.
Other values are reserved for future use.
Type: It is two bits in size and helps to identify the type of WLAN frame. Control, Data and Management are various
frame types defined in IEEE 802.11.
Sub Type: It is four bits in size. Type and Sub type are combined together to identify the exact frame.
ToDS and FromDS: Each are one bit in size. They indicate whether a data frame is headed for a distributed system.
Control and management frames set these values to zero. All the data frames will have one of these bits set. However
communication within an IBSS network always set these bits to zero.
More Fragment: The More Fragmentation bit is set most notably when higher level packets have been partitioned and
will be set for all non-final sections. Some management frames may require partitioning as well.
Retry: Sometimes frames require retransmission, and for this there is a Retry bit which is set to one when a frame is
resent. This aids in the elimination of duplicate frames.
Power Management: The Power Management bit indicates the power management state of the sender after the
completion of a frame exchange. Access points are required to manage the connection and will never set the power saver bit.
More Data: The More Data bit is used to buffer frames received in a distributed system. The access point uses this bit
to facilitate stations in power saver mode. It indicates that at least one frame is available and addresses all stations connected.
WEP: The WEP bit is modified after processing a frame. It is toggled to one after a frame has been decrypted or if no
encryption is set it will have already been one.
Order: This bit is only set when the "strict ordering" delivery method is employed. Frames and fragments are not
always sent in order as it causes a transmission performance penalty.
The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field. This field can take one of three forms: Duration, Contention-Free
Period (CFP), and Association ID (AID).
An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields. Each field can carry a MAC address. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is
the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver.
The Sequence Control field is a two-byte section used for identifying message order as well as eliminating duplicate
frames. The first 4 bits are used for the fragmentation number and the last 12 bits are the sequence number.
An optional two-byte Quality of Service control field which was added with 802.11e.
The Frame Body field is variable in size, from 0 to 2304 bytes plus any overhead from security encapsulation and
contains information from higher layers.
The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the last four bytes in the standard 802.11 frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for integrity check of retrieved frames. As frames are about to be sent the FCS is calculated
and appended. When a station receives a frame it can calculate the FCS of the frame and compare it to the one received. If
they match, it is assumed that the frame was not distorted during transmission. [15]
Management Frames allow for the maintenance of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include:
Authentication frame: 802.11 authentication begins with the WNIC sending an authentication frame to the access
point containing its identity. With an open system authentication the WNIC only sends a single authentication frame and the
access point responds with an authentication frame of its own indicating acceptance or rejection. With shared key
authentication, after the WNIC sends its initial authentication request it will receive an authentication frame from the access
point containing challenge text. The WNIC sends an authentication frame containing the encrypted version of the challenge
text to the access point. The access point ensures the text was encrypted with the correct key by decrypting it with its own key.
The result of this process determines the WNIC's authentication status.
Association request frame: sent from a station it enables the access point to allocate resources and synchronize. The
frame carries information about the WNIC including supported data rates and the SSID of the network the station wishes to
associate with. If the request is accepted, the access point reserves memory and establishes an association ID for the WNIC.
Association response frame: sent from an access point to a station containing the acceptance or rejection to an
association request. If it is an acceptance, the frame will contain information such an association ID and supported data rates.
Beacon frame: Sent periodically from an access point to announce its presence and provide the SSID, and other
parameters for WNICs within range.
Deauthentication frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection from another station.
Disassociation frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection. It's an elegant way to allow the access
point to relinquish memory allocation and remove the WNIC from the association table.
Probe request frame: Sent from a station when it requires information from another station.
Probe response frame: Sent from an access point containing capability information, supported data rates, etc., after
receiving a probe request frame.
Reassociation request frame: A WNIC sends a reassociation request when it drops from range of the currently
associated access point and finds another access point with a stronger signal. The new access point coordinates the forwarding
of any information that may still be contained in the buffer of the previous access point.
Reassociation response frame: Sent from an access point containing the acceptance or rejection to a WNIC
reassociation request frame. The frame includes information required for association such as the association ID and supported
data rates.
Control frames facilitate in the exchange of data frames between stations. Some common 802.11 control frames include:
Acknowledgement (ACK) frame: After receiving a data frame, the receiving station will send an ACK frame to the
sending station if no errors are found. If the sending station doesn't receive an ACK frame within a predetermined period of
time, the sending station will resend the frame.
Request to Send (RTS) frame: The RTS and CTS frames provide an optional collision reduction scheme for access point
with hidden stations. A station sends a RTS frame to as the first step in a two-way handshake required before sending data
frames.
Clear to Send (CTS) frame: A station responds to an RTS frame with a CTS frame. It provides clearance for the
requesting station to send a data frame. The CTS provides collision control management by including a time value for which all
other stations are to hold off transmission while the requesting stations transmits.
Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body. [16]
6.7 BlueTooth
BlueTooth should not even be mentioned in this document, but people keep thinking that BlueTooth is a Wireless LAN.
BlueTooth is a cable replacement technology mostly developed and promoted by Ericsson with the help of Intel, offering point
to point links and no native support for IP (need to use PPP). It may be good for some applications, but not for Wireless LANs.
I personally read the BlueTooth specification, and I was not impressed, expect by the size of the thing (more than 1500
pages !). My take is that BlueTooth offers the functionality of a Wireless USB, and in fact looking into the huge specification we
can see some similarities in the design.
BlueTooth offers the possibility to create a set of point to point wireless serial pipes (RfComm) between a master and up to 6
slaves, with a protocol (SDP) to bind those pipes to a specific application or driver. The BlueTooth mindset is very vertical, with
various profiles defining every details from bit level to application level. TCP/IP is only one profile, implemented through PPP in
a specific pipe. There are other pipes for audio, Obex... With BlueTooth, nodes need to be explicitely connected, but they
remember bindings from one time to another.
This is miles away from the current wireless LAN approach (connectionless broadcast interface, native IP support, cellular
deployement, horizontal play), so BlueTooth doesn't fit TCP/IP and wireless LAN applications too well. On the other hand, as a
wireless USB, it fulfil a role that regular wireless LANs can't, because TCP/IP discovery and binding protocols are more
heavyweight.
Currently, BlueTooth is moving very slow (my first reading of the spec was autumn 97 - then called MC-Link) due to its
complexity and the inherent limits due to the protocol design (people are learning how to workaround "features"), but
eventually some products should reach the market and later on software support should come...
In summary, if all you want is to run TCP/IP, you may find it cheaper and more effective to NOT wait for BlueTooth and live
without the hype.
Summary
The IEEE 802.15 Working Group on Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN TM) focuses on the development of consensus
standards for Personal Area Networks or short distance wireless networks. These WPANs address wireless networking of
portable and mobile computing devices such as PCs, PDAs, peripherals, cell phones, and other consumer electronics. The IEEE
802.15 Working Group is part of the 802 Local and Metropolitan Area Network Standards Committee of the IEEE Computer
Society.
Key features include:
Support for high data rates (802.15.3a goes upto 480 Mbps).
Support for dynamic topologies and Ad-Hoc networking.
Support for Multi-media QoS provisions.
Multiple power management modes.
Low price and small form factor.
Active Standards
The following are the active standards:
IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2002 - The IEEE Project 802.15.1 has derived a Wireless Personal Area Network standard
based on the BluetoothTM v1.1 Foundation Specifications wherein the lower transport layers MAC (L2CAP, LMP, Baseband) and
PHY(radio) are defined.
IEEE Draft 802.15.1REVa - Since the Bluetooth SIG published version 1.2 of their specification, the IEEE 802.15 Task
Group 1a is reviewing the SIG changes to update the 802.15.1 standard to parallel the Bluetooth specification.
IEEE Standard 802.15.2-2003 - The IEEE 802.15 Coexistence Task Group 2 (TG2) for Wireless Personal Area Networks
has developed a recommended practice to facilitate coexistence of Wireless Personal Area Networks TM (802.15) and Wireless
Local Area Networks (802.11). The Task Group developed a coexistence model to quantify the mutual interference of a WLAN
and a WPANTM. The Task Group also developed a set of coexistence mechanisms to facilitate coexistence of WLAN and WPAN TM
devices.
IEEE Draft Standard 802.15.3 - A draft standard has been developed by The IEEE 802.15.3 High Rate (HR) Task Group 3
for a high rate (20 Mbps or greater) WPANs that will provide low power, low cost solutions to meet portable digital imaging
and multimedia applications. This draft standard supports data rates upto 55 Mbps (also 11, 22, 33, 44 Mbps), ad-hoc
networking, low power, low cost, security and QoS features. The 802.15.3 physical layer uses OFDM at the 2.4 GHz unlicensed
band. It supports 5 channels in two sets: one with four channels for "high density" applications and the other with three
channels for better co-exist with 802.11b. The 802.15.3 standard uses passive scanning, transmit power control, and dynamic
channel selection to minimize interference with other systems.
IEEE Task Group 802.15.3a - is working to define a project to provide a higher speed PHY enhancement amendment to
802.15.3 for applications which involve imaging and multimedia. Currently there are two PHY proposals in review - both specify
an Ultra-WideBand (UWB) system that utilizes the unlicensed (in the U.S) 3.1 - 10.6 GHz UWB band. The MultiBand OFDM
Alliance (MBOA) SIG proposes an OFDM based approach while the Ultra-Wideband Forum proposes a Direct Sequence UWB
(DS-UWB) approach.
IEEE Task Group 802.15.3b - is working on an amendment to 802.15.3 to improve implementation and interoprability
of the MAC. This will include minor optimizations while preserving backward compatibility.
IEEE Standard 802.15.4-2003 -The IEEE 802.15 TG4 has released an IEEE standard that provides a low data rate
solution with multi-month to multi-year battery life and very low complexity. It operates in an unlicensed, international
frequency band. Potential applications are sensors, interactive toys, smart badges, remote controls, and home automation.
This standard supports data rates of upto 250 Kbps (also 40 Kpbs, and 20 Kbps) and uses 16 channels in the 2.4 GHz ISM band,
10 channels in the 915 MHz band and 1 channel in 868 MHz band. This standard provides the lower layers for the ZigBee
specification.
IEEE Task Group 802.15.4a - is working on an amendment to 802.15.4 for an alternative PHY that provides
communications and high precision ranging / location capability (1 meter accuracy and better), high aggregate throughput, and
ultra low power; as well as adding scalability to data rates, longer range, and lower power consumption and cost. These
additional capabilities over the existing 802.15.4 standard are expected to enable significant new applications and market
opportunities.
IEEE Task Group 802.15.4b - is chartered to create a project for specific enhancements and clarifications to the IEEE
802.15.4-2003 standard, such as resolving ambiguities, reducing unnecessary complexity, increasing flexibility in security key
usage, considerations for newly available frequency allocations, and others.
IEEE Task Group 802.15.5 - is chartered to determine the necessary mechanisms that must be present in the PHY and
MAC layers of WPANs to enable mesh networking.