Panel Components

9/5/2017
SELECTION OF
COMPONENTS IN A
PANEL
MANUAL
USMAN KHALID (Design & Application Engineer)

ATIQ-UR-REHMAN (Intern)
LEAN AUTOMATION
PANEL COMPONENTS MANUAL
FUSES ____________________________________________________________ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

WHAT IS A FUSE? ______________________________________________________________________________ 7
TYPES OF FUSES (CHARACTERISTICS) ______________________________________________________________ 7
ONE TIME USE ONLY FUSES: ________________________________________________________________________ 7
1. Current carrying Capacity of Fuse _________________________________________________________ 8
2. Breaking capacity / Interrupting Rating _____________________________________________________ 8
3. I2t value of Fuse _______________________________________________________________________ 8
4. Response Characteristic _________________________________________________________________ 8
5. Rated voltage of Fuse ___________________________________________________________________ 8
6. Packaging Size _________________________________________________________________________ 9
RESETTABLE FUSES ______________________________________________________________________________ 9
TYPES OF FUSES ______________________________________________________________________________ 10
DC FUSES ___________________________________________________________________________________ 11
AC FUSES ___________________________________________________________________________________ 11
Rewireable Fuses _________________________________________________________________________ 13
Cartridge Fuses ___________________________________________________________________________ 13
DROP-OUT FUSE __________________________________________________________________________ 16
STRIKER FUSE ____________________________________________________________________________ 16
SWITCH FUSE _____________________________________________________________________________ 17
Cartridge Type HV HRC Fuse _________________________________________________________________ 18
Liquid Type HV HRC Fuse ___________________________________________________________________ 18
Expulsion Type HV Fuse ____________________________________________________________________ 19
TYPES AS PER STANDARDS ______________________________________________________________________ 21
SELECTION FACTORS OF FUSES __________________________________________________________________ 21
Normal Operating current __________________________________________________________________ 22
Application Voltage ________________________________________________________________________ 22
Ambient temperature ______________________________________________________________________ 22
Overall Current Condition ___________________________________________________________________ 23
Maximum Fault current ____________________________________________________________________ 23
Pulses ___________________________________________________________________________________ 23
Physical Size Limitations ____________________________________________________________________ 24
Agency Approvals _________________________________________________________________________ 24
Fuse Features ____________________________________________________________________________ 24
Fuse holder features and Rerating ____________________________________________________________ 25
Testing __________________________________________________________________________________ 25
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
WHAT IS A CIRCUIT BREAKER?___________________________________________________________________ 29

TYPES OF CB _________________________________________________________________________________ 29
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IN ROUTINE DEPICTIONS _______________________________________________________________________ 31

DERATING FACTOR ____________________________________________________________________________ 34
PACKAGING __________________________________________________________________________________ 35
STANDARDS & SAFETY AGENCIES ________________________________________________________________ 35
MOTOR PROTECTION CIRCUIT BREAKER (MPCB) ____________________________________________________ 36
MOTOR CIRCUIT PROTECTOR (MCP) ______________________________________________________________ 36
SELECTION FACTORS OF CB _____________________________________________________________________ 36
GENERAL STEPS _______________________________________________________________________________ 36
Step 1: Basic Electrical Parameters ___________________________________________________________ 36
Step 2: Other Required Features _____________________________________________________________ 36
Step 3: Operational Considerations ___________________________________________________________ 37
CHOICE OF RATED CURRENT IN TERMS OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURE _____________________________________________ 37
UNCOMPENSATED THERMAL MAGNETIC TRIPPING UNITS ____________________________________________________ 38
COMPENSATED THERMAL-MAGNETIC TRIPPING UNITS______________________________________________________ 38
ELECTRONIC TRIP UNITS __________________________________________________________________________ 40
SELECTION OF AN INSTANTANEOUS, OR SHORT-TIME-DELAY, TRIPPING THRESHOLD __________________________________ 42
SELECTION OF A CIRCUIT-BREAKER ACCORDING TO THE SHORT-CIRCUIT BREAKING CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS _________________ 42
THE SELECTION OF MAIN AND PRINCIPAL CIRCUIT-BREAKERS _________________________________________________ 43
DESIGN EXAMPLE ______________________________________________________________________________ 47
Basic Electrical Parameters __________________________________________________________________ 47
Other Required Features ___________________________________________________________________ 47
Operational Considerations _________________________________________________________________ 48
Selection Process _________________________________________________________________________ 48
POWER SUPPLY
WHAT IS A POWER SUPPLY? ____________________________________________________________________ 50

GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS _____________________________________________________________________ 50
1. FUNCTIONAL _____________________________________________________________________________ 50
2. MECHANICAL ____________________________________________________________________________ 50
3. POWER CONVERSION METHOD _________________________________________________________________ 51
TYPES _______________________________________________________________________________________ 51
1. DC Power Supply ______________________________________________________________________ 51
2. AC to DC Power Supply _________________________________________________________________ 52
3. Linear Regulator ______________________________________________________________________ 53
4. AC power supplies_____________________________________________________________________ 54
5. Switched-mode power supply ___________________________________________________________ 54
6. Programmable power supply ____________________________________________________________ 56
7. Uninterruptible power supply ___________________________________________________________ 57
8. High voltage power supply ______________________________________________________________ 57
EFFICIENCY __________________________________________________________________________________ 58
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6 IMPORTANT FACTORS WHEN CHOOSING A POWER SUPPLY _________________________________________ 60
RELAYS
WHAT IS A RELAY? ____________________________________________________________________________ 63

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATIONS ________________________________________________________________ 63
TYPES _______________________________________________________________________________________ 64
Latching Relay ____________________________________________________________________________ 65
Reed Relay _______________________________________________________________________________ 66
Mercury Wetted Relay _____________________________________________________________________ 66
Polarized Relay ___________________________________________________________________________ 67
Machine tool Relay ________________________________________________________________________ 68
Coaxial relay _____________________________________________________________________________ 69
Time delay relay __________________________________________________________________________ 70
Contactor ________________________________________________________________________________ 70
Solid State Relay __________________________________________________________________________ 72
Static relay _______________________________________________________________________________ 73
Solid state contactor relay __________________________________________________________________ 73
Buchholz relay ____________________________________________________________________________ 74
Force-guided contacts relay _________________________________________________________________ 74
Overload protection relay ___________________________________________________________________ 75
Vacuum relays ____________________________________________________________________________ 76
Safety relays _____________________________________________________________________________ 77
Multi-voltage relays _______________________________________________________________________ 77
Thermal Relay ____________________________________________________________________________ 78
POLE AND THROW ____________________________________________________________________________ 78
SELECTION OF RELAY __________________________________________________________________________ 80
DRY/WET CONTACTS
DRY CONTACT RELAYS _________________________________________________________________________ 82

WET CONTACT RELAYS _________________________________________________________________________ 82
WHERE TO APPLY DRY CONTACTS ________________________________________________________________ 84
EARTHING
WHAT IS GROUNDING OR EARTHING? ____________________________________________________________ 88

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EARTHING, GROUNDING AND BONDING _______________________________________ 89
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NEED OF EARTHING OR GROUNDING. WHY EARTHING IS IMPORTANT? ________________________________ 89

DIFFERENT TERMS USED IN ELECTRICAL EARTHING _________________________________________________ 90
POINTS TO BE EARTHED ________________________________________________________________________ 90
COMPONENTS OF EARTHING SYSTEM ____________________________________________________________ 91
EARTH CONTINUITY CONDUCTOR OR EARTH WIRE __________________________________________________ 92
SIZE OF EARTH CONTINUITY CONDUCTOR _________________________________________________________ 92
EARTHING LEAD OR EARTHING JOINT _____________________________________________________________ 92
SIZE OF THE EARTHING LEAD ____________________________________________________________________ 94
EARTHING ELECTRODE OR EARTH PLATE __________________________________________________________ 94
SIZE OF EARTHING ELECTRODE __________________________________________________________________ 95
EARTH PLATE OR EARTH ELECTRODE SIZE FOR SMALL INSTALLATION ___________________________________ 95
METHODS OF EARTHING | TYPES OF EARTHING ____________________________________________________ 95
Plate Earthing ____________________________________________________________________________ 96
Pipe Earthing _____________________________________________________________________________ 97
Rod Earthing _____________________________________________________________________________ 98
Earthing through the Waterman _____________________________________________________________ 98
Strip or Wire Earthing ______________________________________________________________________ 98
GENERAL METHOD OF EARTHING ___________________________________________________________________ 99
SI SPECIFICATION FOR EARTHING___________________________________________________________________ 100
DANGERS OF NOT EARTHING A SUPPLY SYSTEM ________________________________________________________ 100
IEC TERMINOLOGY ___________________________________________________________________________ 101
Types of TN networks _____________________________________________________________________ 101
TT network _____________________________________________________________________________ 103
IT network ______________________________________________________________________________ 105
Comparison _____________________________________________________________________________ 105
DIODES
WHAT IS A DIODE? ___________________________________________________________________________ 107

FORWARD AND REVERSED BIASED DIODES _______________________________________________________ 107
APPLICATIONS OF DIODES _____________________________________________________________________ 111
DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES___________________________________________________________________ 111
Backward Diode _________________________________________________________________________ 112
BARITT Diode ____________________________________________________________________________ 112
Gunn Diode _____________________________________________________________________________ 112
Laser Diode _____________________________________________________________________________ 112
Light Emitting Diode ______________________________________________________________________ 113
Photodiode _____________________________________________________________________________ 113
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PIN Diode _______________________________________________________________________________ 113

PN Junction Diode ________________________________________________________________________ 114
Schottky Diode __________________________________________________________________________ 114
Step Recovery Diode ______________________________________________________________________ 115
Tunnel Diode ____________________________________________________________________________ 115
Varactor Diode or Varicap Diode ____________________________________________________________ 115
Zener Diode _____________________________________________________________________________ 116
REVERSE CURRENT PROTECTION APPLICATION OF A DIODE _________________________________________ 116
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FUSES
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What is a fuse?
The fuse is an electronic device, which is used to protect circuits from over current,
overload and make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many types of fuses
available in the market, but function of all these fuses is same.
Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non-combustible material.
Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection occurs, then the
thin wire inside the fuse melts because of the heat generated by the heavy current flowing
through it. Therefore, it disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In
normal operation of the circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and does
not affect the normal operation of the system connected to the power supply.
Types of fuses (Characteristics)

One time use only fuses
Resettable fuses
One time use only fuses:

One-time use fuses contain a metallic wire, which burns out, when an over current, over
load or mismatched load connect event occur, user has to manually replace these fuses,
switch fuses are cheap and widely used in almost all the electronics and electrical systems.
Such types of fuses can be categories on the following basis:
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1. Current carrying Capacity of Fuse

2. Breaking capacity
3. I2t value of Fuse
4. Response Characteristic
5. Rated voltage of Fuse
6. Packaging Size
1. Current carrying Capacity of Fuse
Current carrying capacity is the amount of current which a fuse can easily conduct without
interrupting the circuit.
2. Breaking capacity / Interrupting Rating
The value of maximum current that can safely be interrupted by the Fuse is called
Breaking Capacity and should be higher than the prospective short circuit current.
3. I2t value of Fuse
The I2t terms related to fuse normally used in short circuit condition. it is the amount of
energy which carry the fuse element when the electrical fault is cleared by fuse element.
4. Response Characteristic
The speed at which fuse blows, depend on the amount of current flowing through its wire.
The higher the current flowing through the wire, faster will be the response time.
Response characteristic shows the response time for over current event. Fuses which
respond rapidly to the over current situation is called ultra-fast fuses or Fast fuses. They
are used in Many semiconductor devices because semiconductor devices damaged by over
current very rapidly.
There is another fuse which Is called Slow burn fuse, switch fuses do not respond rapidly
to the over current event, but blow after several seconds of over current occurrence. Such
fuses found their application in motor control electronics systems because motor takes a
lot more current at starting than running.
5. Rated voltage of Fuse
Each fuse has maximum allowed voltage rating, for example, if a fuse is designed for 32
volts it cannot be used with 220 volts, different amount of isolation is required in different
fuses working on different voltage levels.
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6. Packaging Size
Different application requires different packages to be used accurately in the circuit.

Other factors and parameters are marking, temperature derating, voltage drop and speed
etc.
Resettable fuses
Resettable fuse is a device, which can be used as multiple times without replacing it. They
open the circuit, when an over current event occurs and after some specific time they
connect the circuit again. Polymeric positive temperature coefficient device (PPTC,
commonly known as a resettable fuse, poly-switch or poly-fuse) is a passive electronic
component used to protect against short current faults in electronic circuits.
Application of such fuses is overcome where manually replacing of fuses is difficult or
almost impossible, e.g. fuse in the nuclear system or in aerospace system.
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Types of Fuses
CARTRIDGE TYPE
HV HRC FUSES
EXPULSION TYPE
HIGH VOLTAGE
HV FUSES
LIQUID TYPE HV
HRC FUSES
REWIREABLE
AC FUSES
FUSES
D-TYPE
FUSES
CARTRIDGE FUSES
KNIFE BLADE TYPE
DC FUSES CARTRIDGE FUSES
HRC LINK FUSES
LINK TYPE
CARTRIDGE FUSES
BOLTED TYPE HRC
LOW VOLTAGE DROP-OUT FUSES
LINK FUSES
STRIKER FUSES
SWITCH FUSES
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DC Fuses
The DC fuse opens or breaks the circuit when the
excessive current flow through it. The only difficulty with
the DC fuse is that the arc produced by the direct current
is very difficult to extinct because there are no zero
current flows in the circuit. For reducing the DC fuse
arcing the electrodes are placed more distance apart due
to which the size of the fuse increases as compared to AC
fuse.
AC Fuses
The AC fuses are categorized into two types they are the low voltage fuses and the high
voltage fuses. The frequency of the AC fuses changes it amplitude from 0 to 60 in very
one second. Thus, the arc extinction in the AC circuit can be done easily as compared to
the DC circuit.
AC FUSES
HIGH
LOW VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
FUSES
FUSES
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The low voltage fuses can be further divided into four classes shown below in the image
Semi-enclosed or rewireable type and totally enclosed, or cartridge type switches are the
most commonly used switches.
LOW
VOLTAGE
FUSES
REWIREABLE CARTRIDGE DROP-OUT STRIKER SWITCH

FUSES FUSES FUSES FUSES FUSES
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Rewireable Fuses
This type of circuit is mostly used in the small current circuit or for domestic
wiring. The fuse case and the fuse carrier are the two main parts of the rewireable
fuse. The base of the fuse is made up of porcelain, and it holds the wires which may
be made up of lead, tinned copper, aluminum or alloy of tin-lead. The fuse carrier
can be easily inserted or taken out in the base without opening the main switch.
Cartridge Fuses
The fuse element is totally enclosed in an enclosed container, and it has metal contacts on
both sides. These fuses are further classified as D-type cartridge fuses and the Link type
cartridge fuses.
CARTRIDGE
FUSES
D-TYPE
LINK TYPE
CARTRIDGE
CARTRIDGE
FUSES
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1. D-Cartridge Fuses
The main parts of the D-type fuse are the base, adapter ring,
cartridge and a fuse cap. The cartridge is kept in the fuse cap, and
the fuse cap is fixed to the fuse base. The cartridge tip touches the
conductor when it is completely screwed to the base and thus
completes the circuit through the fuse links.
2. Link Type Cartridge Fuses
In such type of fuses, the fuse element carries the fault current for a long duration. If the
fault is not clear, then the fuse element will melt and open the circuit. The major
advantage of HRC fuse is that it clears the low as well as a high fault current.
HRC fuse has the high-speed operation and also does not require maintenance. But the
fuse element of the HRC fuses needs to be replaced after each operation, and it also
produced the heat during the faults which will affect the operations of the nearby
switches.
The enclosure of the HRC fuse is filled with powdered pure quartz, which acts as an arc
extinction medium. The silver and copper wire is used for making the fuse wire. The fuse
wire has two or more sections which are joint by using tin-joint. The tin-joint reduces the
temperature under overloaded condition.
For increasing the breaking capacity of the fuses two or more silver wire is joined in
parallel with each other. These wires are adjusted in such a way so that only one wire will
melt at a time. The HRC fuse is of two types
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LINK TYPE
CARTRIDGE
KNIFE BLADE BOLTED TYPE

TYPE HRC LINK HRC LINK
FUSES FUSES
In knife blade type switches the fuse wire is replaced with a live circuit with the help of
fuse puller. The bolted type HRC fuses have two conducting plates which are bolted to the
fuse base. This fuse requires the additional circuit for taking out the switch without getting
a shock.
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DROP-OUT FUSE
The melting of fuse causes the fuse element to drop out

under gravity about its lower support. Such type of fuse
is used for the protection of outdoor transformers.
STRIKER FUSE
It is a mechanical device having enough force and displacement which can be used for
closing tripping/indicator circuits.
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SWITCH FUSE
Such type of switches is used for low and medium voltages circuit. The rating of the fuse
unit is in the range of 30, 60, 100, 200, 400, 600, and 800 amperes. The fuse unit is
available as 3-pole and 4-pole unit. The making capacity of such type of fuses is up to 46
kA. They can safely break depending upon rating currents of the order of 3 times the load
current.
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HIGH
VOLTAGE
FUSES
CARTRIDGE EXPULSION
LIQUID TYPE
TYPE HV HRC TYPE HV
HV HRC FUSE
FUSES FUSES
Cartridge Type HV HRC Fuse
The fuse element of the HRC fuse is wound in the shape of the helix
which avoids the corona effect at the higher voltages. It has two fused
elements placed parallel with each other, one of low resistance and
the other is of high resistance. The low resistance wire carries the
normal current which is blown out and reducing the short circuit
current during the fault condition.
Liquid Type HV HRC Fuse
Such type of fuses is filled with carbon tetrachloride and sealed at both the ends of the
caps. When the fault occurs then the current, exceed beyond the permissible limit, and
the fuse element is blown out. The liquid of the fuse acts as an arc extinguishing medium
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for the HRC fuses. They may be employed for the transformer protection and the backup
protection to the circuit breaker.
Expulsion Type HV Fuse
Expulsion type fuses are widely used for the protection of feeders and transformer
because of their low cost. It is developed for 11kV, and their rupturing capacity is up to
250 MVA. Such type of fuses comprises a hollow open-ended tube made of synthetic
resin-bonded paper.
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The fuse elements are placed in the tubes, and the ends of the tubes are connected to
suitable fittings at each end. The arc producing is blown off in the inner coating of the
tube, and the gases thus formed extinguish the arc.
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Types as Per Standards

Please visit:
https://www.fusesunlimited.com/glossary.aspx
or open the saved web-page contained in the folder i.e. Fuse Types Glossary _ Technical
Terms for Fuses
Selection Factors of Fuses

1. Normal operating Current
2. Application Voltage (AC or DC)
3. Ambient Temperature
4. Overload current and length of time in which the fuse must open
5. Maximum Available Fault current
6. Pulses, Surge currents, Inrush currents, Start-up currents, and Circuit Transients
7. Physical size limitations, such as length, diameter, or height
8. Agency Approvals required, such as, UL, CSA, VDE, METI, MITI or Military
9. Fuse Features (mounting type/form factor, ease of removal, axial leads, visual
indications etc.)
10. Fuse holder Features, if applicable and associated rerating (clips, mounting block,
panel mount, PC board mount, R.F.I shielded, etc.)
11. Application testing and verification prior to production.
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Normal Operating current

The current rating of a fuse is typically de-rated 25% for operation at 25C to avoid
nuisance blowing. For example, a fuse with a current rating of 10A is not usually
recommended for operation at more than 7.5A in a 25C ambient.
Application Voltage
The voltage rating of the fuse must be equal to, or greater than, the available circuit
Voltage.
Ambient temperature
The current carrying capacity tests of fuses are performed at 25C and will be affected by
changes in ambient temperature. The higher the ambient temperature, the hotter the fuse
will operate, and the shorter its life. Conversely, operating at a lower temperature will
prolong fuse life. A fuse also runs hotter as the normal operating current approaches or
exceeds the rating of the selected fuse. Practical experience indicates fuses at room
temperature should last indefinitely, if operated at no more than 75% of catalog fuse
rating.
Ambient temperature effects are in addition to the normal re-rating, see example.
Example: Given a normal operating current of 1.5 amperes in an application using a
traditional Slo-Blo fuse at room temperature, then:
Similarly, if that same fuse were operated at a very high ambient temperature of 70C,
additional derating would be necessary. Curve "A" (Traditional Slo-Blo Fuse) of that
ambient temperature chart shows the maximum operating "Percent of Rating" at 70C to
be 80%, in which case;
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Overall Current Condition

The current level for which protection is required. Fault conditions may be specified,
either in terms of current or, in terms of both current and maximum time the fault can be
tolerated before damage occurs. Time-current curves should be consulted to try to match
the fuse characteristic to the circuit needs, while keeping in mind that the curves are based
on average data.
Maximum Fault current

The Interrupting Rating of a fuse must meet or exceed the Maximum Fault Current of the
circuit.
Pulses
The general term pulses is used in this context to describe the broad category of wave
shapes referred to as surge currents, start-up currents, inrush currents, and
transients. Electrical pulse conditions can vary considerably from one application to
another. Different fuse constructions may not react the same to a given pulse condition.
Electrical pulses produce thermal cycling and possible mechanical fatigue that could
affect the life of the fuse. Initial or start-up pulses are normal for some applications and
require the characteristic of a Slo-Blo fuse. Slo-Blo fuses incorporate a thermal delay
design to enable them to survive normal start-up pulses and still provide protection
against prolonged overloads. The startup pulse should be defined and then compared to
the time current curve and I2t rating for the fuse. Application testing is recommended to
establish the ability of the fuse design to withstand the pulse conditions.
Nominal melting I2t is a measure of the energy required to melt the fusing element and is
expressed as Ampere Squared Seconds (A2 Sec.). This nominal melting I2t, and the
energy it represents (within a time duration of 8 milliseconds [0.008 second] or less and
1 millisecond [0.001 second] or less for thin film fuses), is a value that is constant for each
different fusing element. Because every fuse type and rating, as well as its corresponding
part number, has a different fusing element, it is necessary to determine the I2t for each.
This I2t value is a parameter of the fuse itself and is controlled by the element material
and the configuration of the fuse element. In addition to selecting fuses on the basis of
Normal Operating Currents, Rerating, and Ambient Temperature as discussed
earlier, it is also necessary to apply the I2t design approach. This nominal melting I2t is
not only a constant value for each fuse element design, but it is also independent of
temperature and voltage. Most often, the nominal melting I2t method of fuse selection is
applied to those applications in which the fuse must sustain large current pulses of a short
duration. These high-energy currents are common in many applications and are critical
to the design analysis.
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The following example should assist in providing a better understanding of the

application of I2t.
EXAMPLE: Select a 125V, very fast-acting PICOII fuse that is capable of

withstanding 100,000 pulses of current (I) of the pulse waveform shown in Figure 1.
The normal operating current is 0.75 ampere at an ambient temperature of 25C.
Step 1 Refer to Chart 1 and select the appropriate pulse waveform, which is waveform
(E) in this example. Place the applicable value for peak pulse current (I p) and time (t)
into the corresponding formula for wave shape (E), and calculate the result, as shown:
This value is referred to as the Pulse I2t.
Step 2 Determine the required value of Nominal Melting I2t by referring to Chart 2. A
figure of 22% is shown in Chart II for 100,000 occurrences of the Pulse I2t calculated in
Step 1. This Pulse I2t is converted to its required value of Nominal Melting I2t as follows:
Step 3 Examine the I2t rating data for the PICO II, 125V, very fast-acting fuse. The
part number 251001, 1 ampere design is rated at 0.256 A2 Sec., which is the minimum
fuse rating that will accommodate the 0.2327 A2 Sec. value calculated in Step 2. This 1
ampere fuse will also accommodate the specified 0.75 ampere normal operating current,
when a 25% derating factor is applied to the 1 ampere rating, as previously described.
Physical Size Limitations

See the dimensions of your fuse from datasheet.
Agency Approvals
See standards as mentioned above in this chapter.
Fuse Features
See datasheets for the fuse features such as type, ratings, etc.
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Fuse holder features and Rerating

For 25C ambient temperatures, it is recommended that fuse holders be operated at no
more than 60% of the nominal current rating established using the controlled test
conditions specified by Underwriters Laboratories. The primary objective of these UL test
conditions is to specify common test standards necessary for the continued control of
manufactured items intended for protection against fire, etc. A copper dummy fuse is
inserted in the fuse holder by Underwriters Laboratories, and then the current is
increased until a certain temperature rise occurs. The majority of the heat is produced by
the contact resistance of the fuse holder clips. This value of current is considered to be the
rated current of the fuse holder, expressed as 100% of rating. Some of the more common,
everyday applications may differ from these UL test conditions as follows: fully enclosed
fuse holders, high contact resistance, air movement, transient spikes, and changes in
connecting cable size (diameter and length). Even small variations from the controlled
test conditions can greatly affect the ratings of the fuse-holder. For this reason, it is
recommended that fuse holders be de-rated by 40% (operated at no more than 60% of
the nominal current rating established using the Underwriter Laboratories test
conditions, as previously stated).
Testing
The factors presented here should be considered in selecting a fuse for a given application.
The next step is to verify the selection by requesting samples for testing in the actual
circuit. Before evaluating the samples, make sure the fuse is properly mounted with good
electrical connections, using adequately sized wires or traces. The testing should include
life tests under normal conditions and overload tests Under fault conditions, to ensure
that the fuse will operate properly in the circuit.
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CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
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What is a Circuit Breaker?

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. It detects a fault
condition and interrupts current flow.
Types of CB
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In Routine Depictions
MAGNETIC CB-CROSS SECTION D IAGRAM 1
METALLIC HYDRAULIC CB FIG 1
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METALLIC HYDRAULIC CB FIG 2 C LOSE CIRCUIT
METALLIC HYDRAULIC CB FIG 3 O PEN C IRCUIT
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T HERMAL METALLIC CB
T HERMAL CB OPERATION
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To comprehend more about their operations, please visit:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJU2pTdUyY0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iY9skBNKFGE
Derating Factor
The specifications of a circuit breaker are only valid under the conditions quoted in the
data sheet; a frequency of 60 Hz in an open-air environment at 40C ambient, for
example. If the real-world conditions differ from those under which the specifications
were derived, derating factors must be applied.
For example, circuit breakers with uncompensated thermal-tripping elements have a

tripping-current level that depends on the surrounding temperature. If the circuit breaker
is installed in an enclosure, or in a hot location such a boiler room, the current required
to trip the circuit breaker on overload will be reduced; the reverse applies at low
temperatures.
Similarly, operation at higher or lower frequencies than specified may also require
modification of the specification. On the one hand, eddy currents and iron losses at the
higher frequency cause greater heating within the thermal-trip components, requiring the
breaker to be de-rated. At the low end, even DC operation can cause issues with
extinguishing the arc that occurs when the contacts are separated in high-current
applications.
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In general, any unusual operating conditions may require modification of data sheet
parameters or special design provisions if the circuit breaker is to perform as expected. In
addition to those already discussed, such conditions may include corrosion, moisture,
mechanical shock and vibration, altitude, and perhaps even mounting position. Circuit
breaker manufacturers provide derating tables and operating guidelines to help you in
this task. When in doubt, consult the experts at the factory.
Packaging
Circuit breakers come in a variety of sizes and mounting configurations for use on printed
circuit boards, racks, and panels, all the way up to highly specialized installations for high-
voltage electrical grid use.
Standards & Safety Agencies

Since circuit breakers perform a safety-related function, there are numerous standards
issued by the various regulatory agencies. Some of the key ones are shown in Table. In
addition, many applicationsnotably aerospace, automotive, and militaryhave their
own testing and qualification requirements.
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Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB)

This type of circuit breaker includes both overload protection (thermal or electronic) and
fault protection (magnetic). The trip characteristics of an MPCB are specifically designed
for the protection of motors, allowing the inrush current but preventing any over-current
condition that exceeds it.
Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)

MCPs only offer magnetic protection against fault currents, and therefore their trip is
instantaneous. To provide overload protection, it is necessary to complement them with
an overload relay and a contactor.
The main advantage of MCPs is that their trip response can be fine-tuned according to
the expected inrush current, which may vary according to the type of motor starter used.
Selection Factors of CB
General Steps
Step 1: Basic Electrical Parameters

What is the voltage? Is it AC or DC? If AC, what frequency?
What is the normal load current? Trip current?
Number of poles and typenormally open (N/O) or normally closed (N/C)?
Are any electrically separate auxiliary contacts needed? N/O or N/C?
Required trip characteristic (see time/current curves above)
Step 2: Other Required Features

Mechanical form factor (for example, DIN rail, panel mount, standalone, etc.), or
size constraint?
Connection method? (for example, blade, stud or screw terminals, round
connectors, or solder pins)
Additional features required? (for example, a manual trip, manual or automatic
reset, arc-fault detection)
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Step 3: Operational Considerations

Environmental conditions (maximum operating temperature, shock, vibration,
altitude, corrosion, ionizing radiation, etc.)
Required safety approvals
Industry-specific requirements (for example, automotive, aviation, medical,
hazardous operation, MIL STD, etc.)
Choice of rated current in terms of ambient temperature

The rated current of a circuit-breaker is defined for operation at a given ambient
temperature, in general:
30C for domestic-type CBs
40C for industrial-type CBs
Performance of these CBs in a different ambient temperature depends mainly on the
technology of their tripping units.
37 | P a g e
Uncompensated thermal magnetic tripping units
Circuit-breakers with uncompensated thermal tripping units

have a trip current level that depends on the surrounding
temperature.
Circuit-breakers with uncompensated thermal tripping elements have a tripping-current

level that depends on the surrounding temperature. If the CB is installed in an enclosure,
or in a hot location (boiler room, etc.), the current required to trip the CB on overload will
be sensibly reduced. When the temperature in which the CB is located exceeds its
reference temperature, it will therefore be de-rated. For this reason, CB manufacturers
provide tables which indicate factors to apply at temperatures different to the CB
reference temperature. It may be noted from typical examples of such tables that a lower
temperature than the reference value produces an up-rating of the CB. Moreover, small
modular-type CBs mounted in juxtaposition, as shown typically in Figure below, are
usually mounted in a small closed metal case. In this situation, mutual heating, when
passing normal load currents, generally requires them to be de-rated by a factor of 0.8.
EXAMPLE: What rating (In) should be selected for a iC60 N?

Protecting a circuit, the maximum load current of which is estimated to be 34 A.
Installed side-by-side with other CBs in a closed distribution box.
In an ambient temperature of 50 C.
A iC60N circuit-breaker rated at 40 A would be de-rated to 35.6 A in ambient air at 50C
(see Fig.). To allow for mutual heating in the enclosed space, however, the 0.8 factor noted
above must be employed, so that, 35.6 x 0.8 = 28.5 A, which is not suitable for the 34 A
load.
A 50 A circuit-breaker would therefore be selected, giving a (de-rated) current rating of
44 x 0.8 = 35.2 A.
Compensated thermal-magnetic tripping units

These tripping units include a bi-metal compensating strip which allows the overload trip-
current setting (Ir or Irth) to be adjusted, within a specified range, irrespective of the
ambient temperature.
For example:
38 | P a g e
In certain countries, the TT system is standard on LV distribution systems, and

domestic (and similar) installations are protected at the service position by a
circuit-breaker provided by the supply authority. This CB, besides affording
protection against indirect-contact hazard, will trip on overload; in this case, if the
consumer exceeds the current level stated in his supply contract with the power
authority. The circuit-breaker ( 60 A) is compensated for a temperature range of
- 5 C to + 40 C.
LV circuit-breakers at ratings 630 A are commonly equipped with compensated
tripping units for this range (- 5 C to + 40 C).
Examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to apply to CBs with
uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature.
39 | P a g e
Electronic trip units
Electronic tripping units are highly stable in changing

temperature levels.
An important advantage with electronic tripping units is their stable performance in

changing temperature conditions. However, the switchgear itself often imposes
operational limits in elevated temperatures, so that manufacturers generally provide an
operating chart relating the maximum values of permissible trip-current levels to the
ambient temperature.
Moreover, electronic trip units can provide information that can be used for a better
management of the electrical distribution, including energy efficiency and power quality.
40 | P a g e
41 | P a g e
Selection of an instantaneous, or short-time-delay, tripping

threshold
Figure below summarizes the main characteristics of the instantaneous or short-time

delay trip units.
Selection of a circuit-breaker according to the short-circuit

breaking capacity requirements
The installation of a LV circuit-breaker requires that its short-

circuit breaking capacity (or that of the CB together with an
associated device) be equal to or exceeds the calculated
prospective short-circuit current at its point of installation
42 | P a g e
The installation of a circuit-breaker in a LV installation must fulfil one of the two following
conditions:
Either have a rated short-circuit breaking capacity Icu (or Icn) which is equal to or
exceeds the prospective short-circuit current calculated for its point of installation,
or
If this is not the case, be associated with another device which is located upstream,
and which has the required short-circuit breaking capacity.
In the second case, the characteristics of the two devices must be coordinated such that
the energy permitted to pass through the upstream device must not exceed that which the
downstream device and all associated cables, wires and other components can withstand,
without being damaged in any way. This technique is profitably employed in:
Associations of fuses and circuit-breakers
Associations of current-limiting circuit-breakers and standard circuit-breakers.
The technique is known as cascading.
The selection of main and principal circuit-breakers
The circuit-breaker at the output of the smallest transformer

must have a short-circuit capacity adequate for a fault current
which is higher than that through any of the other transformer
LV circuit-breakers.
A single transformer
If the transformer is located in a consumers substation, certain national standards
require a LV circuit-breaker in which the open contacts are clearly visible such as Compact
NSX withdrawable circuit-breaker.
EXAMPLE: What type of circuit-breaker is suitable for the main circuit-breaker of

an installation supplied through a 250 kVA MV/LV (400 V) 3-phase transformer in a
consumers substation? (see Fig. Below)
In transformer = 360 A
Isc (3-phase) = 9 kA
43 | P a g e
A Compact NSX400N with an adjustable tripping-unit range of 160 A - 400 A and a short-
circuit breaking capacity (Icu) of 50 kA would be a suitable choice for this duty.
Several transformers in parallel

The circuit-breakers CBP outgoing from the LV distribution board must each be
capable of breaking the total fault current from all transformers connected to the
busbars, viz: Isc1 + Isc2 + Isc3
The circuit-breakers CBM, each controlling the output of a transformer, must be
capable of dealing with a maximum short-circuit current of (for example) Isc2 +
Isc3 only, for a short-circuit located on the upstream side of CBM1.
From these considerations, it will be seen that the circuit-breaker of the smallest
transformer will be subjected to the highest level of fault current in these circumstances,
while the circuit-breaker of the largest transformer will pass the lowest level of short-
circuit current.
The ratings of CBMs must be chosen according to the kVA ratings of the associated
transformers.
44 | P a g e
Note: The essential conditions for the successful operation of 3-phase transformers in
parallel may be summarized as follows:
1. the phase shift of the voltages, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units
to be paralleled.
2. the open-circuit voltage ratios, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units.
3. the short-circuit impedance voltage (Zsc%) must be the same for all units.
For example, a 750-kVA transformer with a Zsc = 6% will share the load correctly
with a 1,000-kVA transformer having a Zsc of 6%, i.e. the transformers will be loaded
automatically in proportion to their kVA ratings. For transformers having a ratio of kVA
ratings exceeding 2, parallel operation is not recommended.
Table below indicates, for the most usual arrangement (2 or 3 transformers of equal kVA
ratings) the maximum short-circuit currents to which main and principal CBs (CBM and
CBP respectively, in Figure H45) are subjected. It is based on the following hypotheses:
The short-circuit 3-phase power on the MV side of the transformer is 500 MVA.
The transformers are standard 20/0.4 kV distribution-type units rated as listed.
The cables from each transformer to its LV circuit-breaker comprise 5 meters of
single core conductors.
Between each incoming-circuit CBM and each outgoing-circuit CBP there is 1
meter of busbar.
The switchgear is installed in a floor mounted enclosed switchboard, in an
ambient-air temperature of 30 C.
Moreover, this table shows selected circuit-breakers of M-G manufacture recommended
for main and principal circuit-breakers in each case.
45 | P a g e
Example
Circuit-breaker selection for CBM duty:
For a 800 kVA transformer In = 1155 A; Icu (minimum) = 38 kA (from Table
above), the CBM indicated in the table is a Compact NS1250N (Icu = 50 kA).
Circuit-breaker selection for CBP duty:

The s.c. breaking capacity (Icu) required for these circuit-breakers is given in the
Table above as 56 kA.
A recommended choice for the three outgoing circuits 1, 2 and 3 would be current-limiting
circuit-breakers types NSX400 L, NSX250 L and NSX100 L. The Icu rating in each case
= 150 kA.
These circuit-breakers provide the advantages of:
46 | P a g e
Design Example
To illustrate the process, heres a real-world design example. The customer wanted to
replace an existing fuse-block assembly that protected field I/O devices in a demanding
industrial application. Previously, a large variety of fuses had been used to meet both
catastrophic short-circuit and overload protection needs, including both slow-blow
(delay) and fast-acting types.
Basic Electrical Parameters

Operating Voltage: 24 Vdc
Normal load current: 10 @ 5 A each
Number of poles and type: single pole
Required trip characteristic: 100 ms trip time (approximately) at 3 times rated
current to replicate performance of fuses.
Other Required Features

Mechanical form factor: PCB mount, small size (approximately 1 in. x 1 in.)
Connection method: solder terminals
Additional features required: provide indication of tripped state (auxiliary
contact/alarm); switchable; resettable
47 | P a g e
Operational Considerations
Environmental conditions: high shock and vibration specifications (seismic testing
is part of the customers approval process)
Enclosed cabinet installation with temperature excursions.
Selection Process
Several circuit breaker technologies can meet the aforementioned electrical
requirements; the initial solution utilized a fast-acting thermal (TO) miniature circuit
breaker. Temperature-derating factors were applied, but during testing, the thermal
technology had too many nuisance trips within the allowable temperature window, ruling
it out as a possible solution.
The next step was to move to a technology immune to the swing in temperature of the
cabinet environment, but which could disconnect in the same amount of time as a
standard fuse; in other words, a purely magnetic (MO) solution.
The 808 product (see Fig.) family was a good fit for the application as its magnetic; single-
pole; includes indications via a discrete signal and an LED; is designed to meet UL60950-
1, CE, and CSA standards; operates over a wide -30 C to +70 C range; and is mounted
on a symmetrical DIN rail that can be plugged into a PCB.
Figure: Single 808 circuit breaker and DIN installation.
The result is a very satisfied customer! There are many potential options when picking a
circuit breaker for your application. A systematic selection procedure will help you make
the right choice.
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POWER
SUPPLIES
49 | P a g e
What is a Power Supply?

A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric
energy to an electrical load.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical
energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells,
electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply.
All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and
a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input
and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections.
General Classifications
1. Functional
Power supplies are categorized in various ways, including by functional features. For
example, a regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or
current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of an
unregulated power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load current
changes. Adjustable power supplies allow the output voltage or current to be programmed
by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front panel), or by means of a
control input, or both. An adjustable regulated power supply is one that is both adjustable
and regulated. An isolated power supply has a power output that is electrically
independent of its power input; this is in contrast to other power supplies that share a
common connection between power input and output.
2. Mechanical
Power supplies are packaged in different ways and classified accordingly. A bench power
supply is a stand-alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and
development. Open frame power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure,
sometimes consisting of only a mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or
50 | P a g e
other equipment. Rack mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard
electronic equipment racks. An integrated power supply is one that shares a common
printed circuit board with its load.
3. Power conversion method

Power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear power
converters process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components
operating in their linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the input
power is converted to AC or to DC pulses before processing, by components that operate
predominantly in non-linear modes (e.g., transistors that spend most of their time in
cutoff or saturation). Power is "lost" (converted to heat) when components operate in
their linear regions and, consequently, switching converters are usually more efficient
than linear converters because their components spend less time in linear operating
regions.
Types
1. DC Power Supply
A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load. Depending on
its design, a DC power
supply may be powered
from a DC source or from
an AC source such as the
power mains.
P HOENIX CONTACT DC POWER

S UPPLY
51 | P a g e
2. AC to DC Power Supply
Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power
supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or
lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying
DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to convert it to an
unregulated DC voltage.
The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC voltage
is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount
of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high ripple is
tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery charging
applications it is possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with nothing
more than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the
output to limit charging current.
P HOENIX C ONTACT AC TO DC POWER SUPPLY
52 | P a g e
3. Linear Regulator
The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant,
often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current limiting function
to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially destructive
current).
A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the voltage
provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance. Furthermore,
when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy source, its output voltage will also
vary with changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear
voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value, independent of
fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can also reduce the
magnitude of ripple and noise on the output voltage.
P HOENIX C ONTACT UPS & BATTERY CASE
53 | P a g e
4. AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and
lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.
In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three phase
systems. "The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC power is the
constancy of delivery." AC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as
well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the suitability of their
products for use in other countries. 230V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics
testing.
P HOENIX C ONTACT AC P OWER SUPPLY
5. Switched-mode power supply

In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and
then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off
at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that
54 | P a g e
will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very

high frequency (typically 10 kHz 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of transformers and
filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in
linear power supplies operating at mains frequency. After the inductor or transformer
secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered to produce the DC output
voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output
will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output voltage
constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn by
the load. The switching duty cycle increases as power output requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help
protect the device and the user from harm. In the event that an abnormal high-current
power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and
will shut itself down before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power
good signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when
abnormal supply voltages are present.
Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. They are only able
to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load
condition, the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the
isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high
voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn
on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy
load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply
to allow it to run with no primary load attached.
The switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had low power
factors and have also been significant sources of line interference (due to induced power
line harmonics and transients). In simple switch-mode power supplies, the input stage
may distort the line voltage waveform, which can adversely affect other loads (and result
in poor power quality for other utility customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires
and distribution equipment. Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when
operating lower power factor loads. To circumvent these problems, some computer
switch-mode power supplies perform power factor correction, and may employ input
filters or additional switching stages to reduce line interference.
55 | P a g e
GIC SWITCH M ODE P OWER SUPPLY
6. Programmable power supply

A programmable power supply is one that allows remote control of its operation through
an analog input or digital interface such as RS232
or GPIB. Controlled properties may include
voltage, current, and in the case of AC output
power supplies, frequency. They are used in a wide
variety of applications, including automated
equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring,
semiconductor fabrication, and x-ray generators.
Programmable power supplies typically employ an
integral microcomputer to control and monitor
power supply operation. Power supplies equipped
with a computer interface may use proprietary
communication protocols or standard protocols
and device control languages such as SCPI.
P ROGRAMMABLE POWER SUPPLY
56 | P a g e
7. Uninterruptible power supply

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources
simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously
charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery
instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. In a computer
installation, this gives the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other
UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to continuously supply
power to a system in parallel with power coming from the AC. The engine-driven
generators would normally be idling, but could come to full power in a matter of a few
seconds in order to keep vital equipment running without interruption. Such a scheme
might be found in hospitals or telephone central offices.
U NINTERRUPTABLE P OWER SUPPLY P HOENIX
8. High voltage power supply

A high voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts. A special
output connector is used that prevents arcing, insulation breakdown and accidental
human contact. Federal Standard connectors are typically used for applications above 20
kV, though other types of connectors (e.g., SHV connector) may be used at lower voltages.
Some high voltage power supplies provide an analog input that can be used to control the
output voltage. High voltage power supplies are commonly used to accelerate and
manipulate electron and ion beams in equipment such as x-ray generators, electron
microscopes, and focused ion beam columns, and in a variety of other applications,
including electrophoresis and electrostatics.
High voltage power supplies typically apply the bulk of their input energy to a power
inverter, which in turn drives a voltage multiplier or a high turns ratio, high voltage
transformer, or both (usually a transformer followed by a multiplier) to produce high
voltage. The high voltage is passed out of the power supply through the special connector,
and is also applied to a voltage divider that converts it to a low voltage metering signal
57 | P a g e
compatible with low voltage circuitry. The metering signal is used by a closed-loop
controller that regulates the high voltage by controlling inverter input power, and it may
also be conveyed out of the power supply to allow external circuitry to monitor the high
voltage output.
25KV HIGH V OLTAGE P OWER SUPPLY
Efficiency
All power supplies have a specific efficiency curve. As an example, we will use the Cooler
Master UCP 900W power supply. Here is the efficiency curve we measured during testing:
58 | P a g e
Efficiency is the output power divided by the input power, as there is a certain amount
of power lost during the AC to DC conversion. The x-axis shows the power supply load in
Watts and the y-axis shows efficiency. Let's include our three sample systems in the chart
see what sort of efficiency they would get with this power supply.
59 | P a g e
The first system causes this high-performance power supply to only run at 73% to 81%
efficiency, depending on input voltage. Obviously, there's absolutely no need for a 900W
power supply if you're running this type of computer.
The midrange system looks quite a bit better, allowing the PSU to run at 80% to 88%
efficiency, although the latter only occurs at maximum load. Considering the vast majority
of systems rarely run at 100% load most of the time, real-world efficiency will average
closer to 82%. Office work and Internet surfing in particular will be at that level.
For the third system, a 900W power supply actually might start to make sense. It's still
more than you need, but having a bit of extra room to grow isn't a bad idea. This system
idles at over 300W, so it achieves a minimum 86% efficiency with 120VAC. When running
a game or other demanding task, the PSU is finally able to reach its potential and provide
89% efficiency with 230VAC (or 87.5% with 120VAC).
The quick summary then is that if you don't have a system that uses 350W of power when
idle, it's probably not worthwhile to purchase this type of power supply. Our high-end
sample system more or less meets this qualification, and if you were to take such a system
and overclock it, these high-end power supplies are actually required. The 8800 Ultra is
one of the most demanding graphics cards currently available; however, the GTX 280
appears to require even more power, making that another candidate for this sort of PSU.
(Unfortunately, our power supply testing labs didn't have the latest GPUs available for
testing.)
6 Important Factors When Choosing a

Power Supply
1. Maximum power output, in Watts (W)
2. Maximum amperage output
3. Power efficiency, in %
4. Number and type of connections
5. Hours of operation
6. Peak power loads
7. Ambient temperature
8. Corrosive or dusty environment
9. AC line noise (Electro Magnetic Induction)
10. Price
60 | P a g e
Power efficiency is very important. Wasted power is converted to heat, which need to be
dissipated with a fan. The lower the efficiency, the more heat. The more heat, the faster
the fan will have to run to dissipate it. The faster the fan, the noisier it will be. So, high
efficiency = less noise basically.
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RELAYS
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What is a Relay?
A relay is an electrically operated switch.
Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating
principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary
to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal.
Basic Design and Operations

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core
(a solenoid), an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a
movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts in the
relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or
more sets of moving contacts. The armature is held in place by a spring so that when the
relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of
the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity
of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the
printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either
makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the
set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high
voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such
diodes were not widely used before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon
63 | P a g e
became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge.
Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem
of surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a
capacitor and resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated
capacitors and the associated resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this
commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used
to split the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small
copper "shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-
of-phase component, which holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the control
voltage.
Types
Latching Relay
Reed Relay
Mercury Wetted relay
Mercury Relay
Polarized Relay
Machine tool Relay
Coaxial Relay
Contactor
Solid State Relay
Static Relay
Solid State Contactor Relay
Buchholz Relay
Force Guided Contacts Relay
Overload Protection Relay
Vacuum Relay
Safety Relay
Multi Voltage Relays
Thermal Relay
64 | P a g e
Latching Relay
A latching relay (also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays) maintains either contact
position indefinitely without power applied to the coil. The advantage is that one coil
consumes power only for an instant while the relay is being switched, and the relay
contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A latching relay allows remote control
of building lighting without the hum that may be produced from a continuously (AC)
energized coil.
In one mechanism, two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet
hold the contacts in position after the coil is de-energized. A pulse to one coil turns the
relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type is widely used where
control is from simple switches or single-ended outputs of a control system, and such
relays are found in avionics and numerous industrial applications.
Another latching type has a remanent core that retains the contacts in the operated
position by the remanent magnetism in the core. This type requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to release the contacts. A variation uses a permanent magnet that
produces part of the force required to close the contact; the coil supplies sufficient force
to move the contact open or closed by aiding or opposing the field of the permanent
magnet. A polarity controlled relay needs changeover switches or an H bridge drive circuit
to control it. The relay may be less expensive than other types, but this is partly offset by
the increased costs in the external circuit.
In another type, a ratchet relay has a ratchet mechanism that holds the contacts closed
after the coil is momentarily energized. A second impulse, in the same or a separate coil,
releases the contacts. This type may be found in certain cars, for headlamp dipping and
other functions where alternating
operation on each switch actuation is
needed.
A stepping relay is a specialized kind
of multi-way latching relay designed
for early automatic telephone
exchanges.
An earth leakage circuit breaker
includes a specialized latching relay.
L ATCHING RELAY BI -STABLE PERMANENT MAGNET
65 | P a g e
Reed Relay
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside
an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid or an external magnet.
Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays and require very little power from the
control circuit. However, they have relatively low switching current and voltage ratings.
Though rare, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick 'on'
even when no current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the
solenoid's magnetic field can resolve this problem.
Sealed contacts with mercury-wetted contacts have longer operating lives and less contact
chatter than any other kind of relay.
Mercury Wetted Relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the
mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current
signals where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed
applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are
position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the
toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely used.
The mercury-wetted relay has one particular advantage, in that the contact closure
appears to be virtually instantaneous, as the mercury globules on each contact coalesce.
The current rise time through the contacts is generally considered to be a few picoseconds,
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however in a practical circuit it will be limited by the inductance of the contacts and
wiring. It was quite common, before the restrictions on the use of mercury, to use a
mercury-wetted relay in the laboratory as a convenient means of generating fast rise time
pulses, however although the rise time may be picoseconds, the exact timing of the event
is, like all other types of relay, subject to considerable jitter, possibly milliseconds, due to
mechanical imperfections.
The same coalescence process causes another effect, which is a nuisance in some
applications. The contact resistance is not stable immediately after contact closure, and
drifts, mostly downwards, for several seconds after closure, the change perhaps being 0.5
ohm.
Polarized Relay
A polarized relay places the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
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exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on
screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a
bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.
Machine tool Relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number
of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally
open to normally closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows
compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the
backbone of automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable
logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control
applications.
A relay allows circuits to be
switched by electrical equipment:
for example, a timer circuit with a
relay could switch power at a preset
time. For many years relays were
the standard method of controlling
industrial electronic systems. A
number of relays could be used
together to carry out complex
functions (relay logic). The
principle of relay logic is based on
relays which energize and de-
energize associated contacts. Relay
logic is the predecessor of ladder
logic, which is commonly used in programmable logic controllers.
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Coaxial relay
Where radio transmitters and receivers share one antenna, often a coaxial relay is used as
a TR (transmit-receive) relay, which switches the antenna from the receiver to the
transmitter. This protects the receiver from the high power of the transmitter. Such relays
are often used in transceivers which combine transmitter and receiver in one unit. The
relay contacts are designed not to reflect any radio frequency power back toward the
source, and to provide very high isolation between receiver and transmitter terminals.
The characteristic impedance of the relay is matched to the transmission line impedance
of the system, for example, 50 ohms.
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Time delay relay

Timing relays are arranged for an intentional
delay in operating their contacts. A very
short (a fraction of a second) delay would use
a copper disk between the armature and
moving blade assembly. Current flowing in
the disk maintains magnetic field for a short
time, lengthening release time. For a slightly
longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is
used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid
that is allowed to escape slowly; both air-
filled and oil-filled dashpots are used. The
time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time
periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed. Relays may be arranged for a fixed
timing period, or may be field adjustable, or
remotely set from a control panel. Modern
microprocessor-based timing relays provide
precision timing over a great range.
Some relays are constructed with a kind of "shock absorber" mechanism attached to the
armature which prevents immediate, full motion when the coil is either energized or de-
energized. This addition gives the relay the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay
relays can be constructed to delay armature motion on coil energization, de-energization,
or both.
Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as either normally open or normally
closed, but whether the delay operates in the direction of closing or in the direction of
opening. The following is a description of the four basic types of time-delay relay contacts.
First, we have the normally open, timed-closed (NOTC) contact. This type of contact is
normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is closed by the
application of power to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously
powered for the specified amount of time. In other words, the direction of the contact's
motion (either to close or to open) is identical to a regular NO contact, but there is a delay
in closing direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization, this
type of contact is alternatively known as a normally open, on-delay.
Contactor
A contactor is a heavy-duty relay with higher current ratings, used for switching electric
motors and lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from
10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing
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silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still
a good conductor. Contactors with overload protection devices are often used to start
motors. For medium-voltage motor control, vacuum interrupters are used in a vacuum
contactor.
Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike a circuit
breaker, a contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current. Contactors range
from those having a breaking current of several amperes to thousands of amperes and 24
V DC to many kilovolts. The physical size of contactors ranges from a device small enough
to pick up with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter (yard) on a side.
Contactors can be noisy when they operate (switch on or off), so they may be unfit for use
where noise is a chief concern. In such cases solid-state relays are preferred.
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Solid State Relay

A solid-state relay or SSR is a solid state
electronic component that provides a
function similar to an electromechanical
relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term
reliability. A solid-state relay uses a
thyristor, TRIAC or other solid-state
switching device, activated by the control
signal, to switch the controlled load,
instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a
light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a
photo transistor) can be used to isolate
control and controlled circuits.
As every solid-state device has a small
voltage drop across it, this voltage drop limits the amount of current a given SSR can
handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is a function of the material used to
make the device. Solid-state relays rated to handle as much as 1,200 amperes have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients and in general may be susceptible to damage by extreme cosmic
ray and EMP episodes.
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Static relay
A static relay consists of electronic circuitry to emulate all those characteristics which are
achieved by moving parts in an electro-magnetic relay.
Solid state contactor relay

A solid-state contactor is a
heavy-duty solid-state relay,
including the necessary heat
sink, used where frequent
on/off cycles are required, such
as with electric heaters, small
electric motors, and lighting
loads. There are no moving
parts to wear out and there is no
contact bounce due to vibration.
They are activated by AC control
signals or DC control signals
from Programmable logic
controller (PLCs), PCs,
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
sources, or other microprocessor
and microcontroller controls.
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Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a
safety device sensing the
accumulation of gas in
large oil-filled
transformers, which will
alarm on slow
accumulation of gas or
shut down the
transformer if gas is
produced rapidly in the
transformer oil. The
contacts are not operated
by an electric current but
by the pressure of
accumulated gas or oil
flow.
Force-guided contacts relay

A 'force-guided contacts relay' has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together,
so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move
together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the
same relay will be able to move. The function of force-guided contacts is to enable the
safety circuit to check the status of the relay. Force-guided contacts are also known as
"positive-guided contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", "mechanically linked
contacts", or "safety relays".
These safety relays have to follow design rules and manufacturing rules that are defined
in one main machinery standard EN 50205: Relays with forcibly guided (mechanically
linked) contacts. These rules for the safety design are the one that are defined in type B
standards such as EN 13849-2 as Basic safety principles and Well-tried safety principles
for machinery that applies to all machines.
Force-guided contacts by themselves cannot guarantee that all contacts are in the same
state, however they do guarantee, subject to no gross mechanical fault, that no contacts
are in opposite states. Otherwise, a relay with several normally open (NO) contacts may
stick when energized, with some contacts closed and others still slightly open, due to
mechanical tolerances. Similarly, a relay with several normally closed (NC) contacts may
stick to the unenergized position, so that when energized, the circuit through one set of
contacts is broken, with a marginal gap, while the other remains closed. By introducing
both NO and NC contacts, or more commonly, changeover contacts, on the same relay, it
then becomes possible to guarantee that if any NC contact is closed, all NO contacts are
open, and conversely, if any NO contact is closed, all NC contacts are open. It is not
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possible to reliably ensure that any

particular contact is closed, except by
potentially intrusive and safety-
degrading sensing of its circuit
conditions, however in safety systems it
is usually the NO state that is most
important, and as explained above, this
is reliably verifiable by detecting the
closure of a contact of opposite sense.
Force-guided contact relays are made
with different main contact sets, either
NO, NC or changeover, and one or more
auxiliary contact sets, often of reduced
current or voltage rating, used for the
monitoring system. Contacts may be all
NO, all NC, changeover, or a mixture of
these, for the monitoring contacts, so
that the safety system designer can
select the correct configuration for the
particular application. Safety relays are used as part of an engineered safety system.
Overload protection relay

Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the
motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the
motor windings. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a
coil heats a bimetallic strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate
auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload
senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized.
This thermal protection operates relatively slowly allowing the motor to draw higher
starting currents before the protection relay will trip. Where the overload relay is exposed
to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor
ambient temperature is provided.
The other common overload protection system uses an electromagnet coil in series with
the motor circuit that directly operates contacts. This is similar to a control relay but
requires a rather high fault current to operate the contacts. To prevent short over current
spikes from causing nuisance triggering the armature movement is damped with a
dashpot. The thermal and magnetic overload detections are typically used together in a
motor protection relay.
Electronic overload protection relays measure motor current and can estimate motor
winding temperature using a "thermal model" of the motor armature system that can be
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set to provide more accurate motor protection. Some motor protection relays include
temperature detector inputs for direct measurement from a thermocouple or resistance
thermometer sensor embedded in the winding.
Vacuum relays
A sensitive relay having its contacts mounted in a highly evacuated glass housing, to
permit handling radio-frequency voltages as high as 20,000 volts without flashover
between contacts even though contact spacing is but a few hundredths of an inch when
open.
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Safety relays
Safety relays are devices
which generally implement
safety functions. In the
event of a hazard, the task of
such a safety function is to
use appropriate measures to
reduce the existing risk to an
acceptable level.
Multi-voltage relays
Multi-voltage relays are devices designed to work for wide voltage ranges such as 24 to
240 VAC/VDC and wide frequency ranges such as 0 to 300 Hz. They are indicated for use
in installations that do not have stable supply voltages.
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Thermal Relay
These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means the rise in the ambient
temperature from the limit, directs the contacts to switch from one position to other.
These are mainly used in motor protection and consist of bimetallic elements like
temperature sensors as well as control elements. Thermal overload relays are the best
examples of these relays.
Pole and Throw

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays; a
relay switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the
coil. Normally open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. Normally closed (NC) contacts
disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay
is inactive. All of the contact forms involve combinations of NO and NC connections.
The National Association of Relay Manufacturers and its successor, the Relay and Switch
Industry Association define 23 distinct electrical contact forms found in relays and
switches. Of these, the following are commonly encountered:
SPST-NO (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Open) relays have a single Form A
contact or make contact. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total.
SPST-NC (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Closed) relays have a single Form
B or break contact. As with an SPST-NO relay, such a relay has four terminals in
total.
SPDT (Single-Pole Double-Throw) relays have a single set of Form C, break before
make or transfer contacts. That is, a common terminal connects to either of two
others, never connecting to both at the same time. Including two for the coil, such
a relay has a total of five terminals.
DPST Double-Pole Single-Throw relays are equivalent to a pair of SPST switches
or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has a total
of six terminals. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each; the
designations NO and NC should be used to resolve the ambiguity).
DPDT Double-Pole Double-Throw relays have two sets of Form C contacts. These
are equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay
has eight terminals, including the coil
The S (single) or D (double) designator for the pole count may be replaced with a number,
indicating multiple contacts connected to a single actuator. For example, 4PDT
indicates a four-pole double-throw relay that has 12 switching terminals.
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Selection of Relay
Electromechanical relays provide a good all-around solution, although they have
limitations in package size, switching speed, and mechanical lifetime. Reed relays
improve on package size, density, and speed but are less robust in situations where surge
currents may be present. SSRs are a nice alternative to mechanical relays but have higher
path resistances and are not fully isolated between the contacts. FET switches provide a
fast, low-cost solution but have the limitation of only working with low voltages.
For any application, consider all of the system parameters before choosing a given relay
type. Using this information will allow you to make the appropriate tradeoffs for your
application.
The following table might help you select an appropriate relay.
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DRY/WET
CONTACTS
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These contacts are normally associated with the relays and can be defined in terms of
Relays in the following way:
Dry Contact Relays

This type of relay does not provide power to the equipment attached to it (i.e. if
there is a light hooked up to this type of relay, it must be powered by another source).
Wet Contact Relays

This type of relay does provide power to the equipment attached to it (i.e. if a light
was hooked up to this type of relay, it would be powered by the relay). When using a Wet
Contact Relay, power should run through the COMM terminal to the end equipment.
Although these terms are related to Relays but they may be used in industries in
the scenarios where there is small current involved. We may put it in this way:
A dry contact is one that does not switch the primary controlling current, some examples
are input to PLC or Pic where the subsequent result is switched elsewhere, or an auxiliary
contact on a motor Contactor or overload, that indicates to some other source that the
contactor or O/L has been activated.
The C-form set of contacts depicted below is voltage-free, or "dry." They can be associated
with a relay, a temperature switch, a limit switch, a pressure switch, a pushbutton, etc.
The concept is that at the terminals (represented by the "0" character, there is NO voltage
present.
-----|/|-----0
|
|-------------0
|
-----| |-----0
The set of C-form contacts below is also voltage-free, or "dry". Although someone has
connected a red indicating lamp to the terminals there is no voltage/current source to
illuminate the lamp filament (LED) when the NO (Normally Open) contact closes.
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-----|/|-----0
| \ /
|-------------0------- R ------
| / \ |
-----| |-----0-----------------
The set of C-form contacts below is also voltage-free, or "dry." However, in this case
someone has provided a source of voltage current, connected to the COM (COMmon)
terminal, connected one side of the red indicating lamp to the NO terminal, and connected
the other side of the red indicating lamp to a Neutral, so that when the NO contact closes
the red indicating lamp will illuminate. The voltage source (and Neutral) is external to the
set of contacts--hence, the contacts are still "dry" (voltage-free).
-----|/|-----0
|
|-------------0---- 220 VAC
| \ /
-----| |-----0-------------- R -------- Neutral
In the C-form set of contacts below, an "internal" source of voltage/current is connected

to the COM leg of the contact set. This is usually done internal to the control system and
so the contacts have a source of power that can be used for many (but not all) applications.
THIS is considered to be a "wet" set of contacts--one which does not require an external
source of voltage/current for the load. One simply connects an appropriate load to the
terminals and the contacts will switch an internal voltage/current source.
-----|/|-----0
|
220 VAC -----|-------------0
|
-----| |------0
Neutral ---------------------0
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In the drawing below, a red indicating lamp is connected to the "wet" set of C-form
contacts and when the NO contact closes the lamp filament (or LED) will be illuminated.
No external source of voltage/current is required--it's available at the contact terminals.
-----|/|-----0
|
220 VAC------|-------------0
| \ /
-----| |-----0---- R ------
/ \ |
Neutral -------------------0-------------
The voltage/current source can be 12 VDC, 5 VDC, 24 VDC, 24 VAC, 110 VAC, 125 VDC,
etc.--it all depends on the type device/output being used. The caveat is that one can't
simply connect any load to a wet contact--the ability of the "contact" to supply current has
to be taken into account. In other words, you can't connect a load that requires 3.2 Amps
to a set of wet contacts that can only supply 1.0 Amps; well you can, but you can't expect
the load to work for very long and you can expect to have to replace the contacts or the
fuse (if included) in the source.
Another use of the dry contacts can be, the dry contacts are not the ones Wetted by the
power source. The synonym for the dry contacts is Volt Free Contacts. Power source
doesnt have a direct connection with the contacts as shown in this figure.
Where to apply dry contacts

Wet contacts are obviously used for high currents or where power is directly involved. The
dry contacts, however, are used to monitor alarms such as fire alarms, burglar alarms,
and alarms on power systems such as
UPSs. A very common use for dry
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contacts is to detect whether a cabinet door is open or closed.
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The following figure is another example of where the dry contact relays are needed. Same
is true for industrial control panels.
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EARTHING
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What is Grounding or Earthing?

To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the
earth (ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.
In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth
plate or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor
wire (which has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or
grounding.
To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as
metallic covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry
current to the earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a power
supply system to the earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of electrical
energy.
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Difference between Earthing, Grounding

and Bonding
Earthing and Grounding is the same terms used for earthing. Grounding is the commonly
word used for earthing in the North American standards like IEEE, NEC, ANSI and UL
etc. while, Earthing is used in European, Common wealth countries and Britain standards
like IS and IEC etc.
The word Bonding used for jointing two wires (as well as conductors, pipes or appliances
together. Bonding is known as connecting the metallic parts of different machines which
is not considered to be carrying electric current during normal operation of the machines
to bring them at the same level of electric potential.
Need of Earthing or Grounding. Why

Earthing is Important?
The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution, fire
due to earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the potential
of a current carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its designed
insulation.
When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage
of electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of installations
or failure in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge accumulates on
it. If a person touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.
To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be
earthed so as to transfer the charge directly to the earth.
Below are the basic needs of Earthing.
To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances
from leakage current.
To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.
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Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing

Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via
conductor to the buried plate in the earth is known as Earth.
Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring system connected to the
earth through earth electrode, it is known as earthed device or simple Earthed.
Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is
connected to the earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or
resistance/Impedance, it is called solidly earthed.
Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for
electrical earthing system. It is known to be Earth Electrode. Earth electrodes are
in different shapes like, conductive plate, conductive rod, metal water pipe or any
other conductor with low resistance.
Earthing Lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between Earth
electrode and Electrical installation system and devices in called Earthing lead.
Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor wire, which is connected among
different electrical devices and appliances like, distribution board, different plugs
and appliances etc. in other words, the wire between earthing lead and electrical
device or appliance is called earth continuity conductor. It may be in the shape of
metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic sheath or flexible wire.
Sub Main Earthing Conductor: A wire connected between switch board and
distribution board i.e. that conductor is related to sub main circuits.
Earth Resistance: This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth
in (Ohms). Earth resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances of earth
continuity conductor, earthing lead, earth electrode and earth.
Points to be Earthed
Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute of Electrical
Engineers) regulations,
Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug sockets and 4-pin power plug should be efficiently
and permanently earthed.
All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any electric supply
line or apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC cables, iron
clad switches, iron clad distribution fuse boards etc. should be earthed (connected
to earth).
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The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of all
transformers used for controlling energy should be earthed by two separate and
yet distinct connections with the earth.
In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the generating
station.
Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by connecting
at least one strand to the earth wires.
Components of Earthing System

A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic components.
Earth Continuity Conductor
Earthing Lead
Earth Electrode
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Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire

That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of
electrical installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches,
distribution boards, Switches, fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of
electrical machines such as, motors, generators, transformers and the metallic framework
where electrical devices and components are installed is known as earth wire or earth
continuity conductor as shown in the above fig.
The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE rules,
resistance between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the end)
should not be increased than 1. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should be less
than 1.
Size of the Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire depends on the cable size used in
the wiring circuit.
Size of Earth Continuity Conductor

The cross-sectional area of the Earth Continuity Conductor should not be less than the
half of the cross-sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring
installation.
Generally, the size of the bare copper wire used as earth continuity conductor is 3SWG.
But keep in mind that, dont use less than 14SWG as earth wire. Copper strip is also can
be used as earth continuity conductor instead of bare copper wire but dont go for it until
manufacture recommend it.
Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint

The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or
earth plate is called earthing joint or Earthing lead. The point where earth continuity
conductor and earth electrode meet is known as connecting point as shown in the above
fig.
Earthing lead is the final part of the earthing system which is connected to the earth
electrode (which is underground) through earth connecting point.
There should be minimum joints in earthing lead as well as lower in size and straight in
the direction.
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Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for high
installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the copper
wire.
A hard-drawn bare copper wire is also used as an earthing lead. In this method, all earth
conductors connected to a common (one or more) connecting points and then, earthing
lead is used to connect earth electrode (earth plat) to the connecting point.
To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead to
connect the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use two
earth electrodes or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be
considered that the two earth leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents
but both paths should work properly to carry the fault current because it is important for
better safety.
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Size of the Earthing Lead

The size or area of earthing lead should not be less than the half of the thickest wire used
in the installation.
The largest size for earthing lead is 3SWG and the minimum size should not be less than
8SWG. If 37/.083 wire is used or the load current is 200A from the supply voltage, then
it is recommended to use copper strip instead of double earthing lead. The earth lead
connection methods are shown in the above fig.
Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate

A metallic electrode or plate which is buried in the earth (underground) and it is the last
part of the electrical earthing system. In simple words, the final underground metallic
(plate) part of the earthing system which is connected with earthing lead is called earth
plate or earth electrode.
A metallic plate, pipe or rode can be used as an earth electrode which has very low
resistance and carry the fault current safely towards ground (earth).
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Size of Earthing Electrode

Both copper and iron can be used as earthing electrode.
The size of earth electrode (In case of copper)
22 (two-foot-wide as well as in length) and 1/8-inch thickness... I.e. 2 x 2 x 1/8.
(600x600x300 mm)
In case of Iron
2 x2 x = 600x600x6 mm
It is recommended to bury the earth electrode in the moisture earth. If it is not possible,
then put water in the GI (Galvanized Iron) pipe to make possible the moisture condition.
In the earthing system, put the earth electrode in vertical position (underground) as
shown in the above fig. Also, put a 1-foot (about 30cm) layer of powdered charcoal and
lime mixture around the earth plate (dont confuse with earth electrode and earth plate
as both are the same thing).
This action makes the possible increase in the size of the earth electrode which leads a
better continuity in the earth (earthing system) and also helps to maintain the moisture
condition around earth plate.
Earth Plate or Earth Electrode Size for

Small installation
In small installation, use metallic rod (diameter = 25mm (1inch) and length = 2m (6ft)
instead of earth plate for earthing system. The metallic pipe should be 2 meters below
from the surface of ground. To maintain the moister condition, put 25mm (1inch) coal
and lime mixture around the earth plate.
For effectiveness and convenience, you may use the copper rods 12.5mm (0.5 inch) to
25mm (1 inch) diameter and 4m (12ft) length. We will discuss the installation method of
rod earthing latter.
Methods of Earthing | Types of Earthing

Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in house
wiring or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are discussed
as follows:
95 | P a g e
Plate Earthing
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm
x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be
less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.
For proper earthing system, follow the above-mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate
introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth
plate.
96 | P a g e
Pipe Earthing
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of
earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for
ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the
length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
97 | P a g e
Rod Earthing
It is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or
16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of
length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth
resistance to a desired value.
Earthing through the Waterman
In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing
purpose. Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to
minimize the resistance for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire
and make sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect
tightly to the waterman pipe.
Strip or Wire Earthing

In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm
(1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trench of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with
98 | P a g e
a cross-section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if its a
galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say
less than 6.0mm2 if its a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in
the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than
15m.
General method of Earthing

The usual method of earthing of electric equipment, devices and appliances are as follow:
1. First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.51.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in the ground.
(Note that, depth and width depends on the nature and structure of the ground)
2. Bury an appropriate (usually 2 x 2 x 1/8 (600x600x300 mm) copper plate in that
pit in vertical position.
3. Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth plate
4. Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth plates) and tight
them.
5. To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
6. Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s). Make sure the
pipe is 1ft (30cm) above the surface of the ground.
7. To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft (30cm) layer
of powdered charcoal (powdered wood coal) and lime mixture around the earth
plate of around the earth plate
8. Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of machines.
Each machine should be earthed from two different places. The minimum distance
between two earth electrodes should be 10 ft (3m).
9. Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic parts of all
installation should be tightly connected to earth lead.
10. At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester. If
everything is going about the planning, then fill the pit with soil. The maximum
allowable resistance for earthing is 1. If it is more than 1 ohm, then increase the
size (not length) of earth lead and earth continuity conductors. Keep the external
ends of the pipes open and put the water time to time to maintain the moisture
condition around the earth electrode which is important for the better earthing
system.
99 | P a g e
SI specification for Earthing

Various specifications in respect to earthing as recommended by Indian Standards are
given below. Here are few;
An earthing electrode should not be situated (installed) close to the building whose
installation system is being earthed at least more than 1.5m away.
The earth resistance should be low enough to cause the flow of current sufficient
to operate the protective relays or blow fuses. Its value is not constant as it varies
with weather because it depends on moisture (but should not be less than 1 Ohm).
The earth wire and earth electrode will be the same material.
The earthing electrode should always be placed in a vertical position inside the
earth or pit so that it may be in contact with all the different earth layers.
Dangers of Not Earthing a Supply System

As emphasized on earlier, earthing is provided in order
To avoid electric shock
To avoid risk of fire as a result of earth leakage current through unwanted path and
To ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to
general mass of earth than its designed insulation.
However, if excessive current is not earthed, appliances will be damaged without the help
of fuse in place. You should note that excessive current is earthed at their generating
stations which is why earth wires carries very little or no current at all. It therefore implies
that it is not necessary to earth any of the wires (live, earth and neutral wires) contained
in a PVC. Earthing the live wire is catastrophic.
I have seen a person killed simply because a live wire got cut from overhead pole and fell
to the ground while the ground was wet. Excessive current is earthed at generating
stations and if at all the earthing is not efficient due to fault, earth fault interrupters will
be there to help. Fuse help only when the power transmitted is above the rating of our
appliances, it blocks the current from reaching our appliances by blowing off and
protecting our appliances in the process.
In our electrical appliances, if excessive currents are not earthed, we would experience
severe shock. Earthing takes place in electrical appliances only when there is a problem
and it is to save us from danger. If in an electronic installation, a metallic part of an
electrical appliance comes in direct contact with a live wire that results from maybe failure
of installation or otherwise, the metal will be charged and static charge will accumulate
on it.
If you happen to touch the metallic part at that moment you will be zapped. But if the
metallic part of the appliance is earthed, the charge will be transferred to earth instead of
accumulating on the metallic part of the appliance. Current dont flow through earth wires
100 | P a g e
in electrical appliances, it does so only when there is problem and only to direct the
unwanted current to earth in order to protect us from severe shock.
In addition, if a live wire touches accidentally (in a faulty system) to the metallic part of a
machine. Now, if a man touches that metallic part of the machine, then the current will
flow through their body to the ground, hence, he will get shocked (electrocuted) which
may lead to serious injuries even to death. Thats why earthing is so important.
IEC terminology
International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing arrangements,
using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.
The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply equipment
(generator or transformer):
"T" Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra)
"I" No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high
impedance.
The second letter indicates the connection between earth or network and the electrical
device being supplied:
"T" Earth connection is by a local direct connection to earth (Latin: terra),
usually via a ground rod.
"N" Earth connection is supplied by the electricity supply Network, either as a
separate protective earth (PE) conductor or combined with the neutral conductor.
Types of TN networks
In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is connected

with earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical device
is connected with earth via this earth connection at the transformer. This arrangement is
a current standard for residential and industrial electric systems particularly in Europe.
The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer's electrical
installation is called protective earth (PE; see also: Ground). The conductor that connects
101 | P a g e
to the star point in a three-phase system, or that carries the return current in a single-
phase system, is called neutral (N). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:
TNS
PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power source.
TNC
A combined PEN conductor fulfils the functions of both a PE and an N conductor. (on
230/400v systems normally only used for distribution networks)
TNCS
Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split up into
separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the
substation and the entry point into the building, and earth and neutral are separated in
the service head. In the UK, this system is also known as protective multiple earthing
(PME), because of the practice of connecting the combined neutral-and-earth conductor
to real earth at many locations, to reduce the risk of electric shock in the event of a broken
PEN conductor. Similar systems in Australia and New Zealand are designated as multiple
earthed neutral (MEN) and, in North America, as multi-grounded neutral (MGN).
TN-C EARTHING TN-C-S EARTHING
102 | P a g e
TN-S EARTHING
It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies taken from the same transformer.
For example, the sheaths on some underground cables corrode and stop providing good
earth connections, and so homes where high resistance "bad earths" are found may be
converted to TN-C-S. This is only possible on a network when the neutral is suitably
robust against failure, and conversion is not always possible. The PEN must be suitable
reinforced against failure, as an open circuit PEN can impress full phase voltage on any
exposed metal connected to the system earth downstream of the break. The alternative is
to provide a local earth and convert to TT. The main attraction of a TN network is the low
impedance earth path allows easy automatic disconnection (ADS) on a high current
circuit in the case of a line-to-PE short circuit as the same breaker or fuse will operate for
either L-N or L-PE faults, and an RCD is not needed to detect earth faults.
TT network
In a TT (Terra-Terra) earthing system, the protective earth connection for the consumer
is provided by a local earth electrode, (sometimes referred to as the Terra-Firma
connection) and there is another independently installed at the generator. There is no
'earth wire' between the two. The fault loop impedance is higher, and unless the electrode
impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should always have an RCD (GFCI) as its
first isolator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the reduced conducted interference from
other users' connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for special applications
103 | P a g e
like telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT
networks do not pose any serious risks in the case of a broken neutral. In addition, in
locations where power is distributed overhead, earth conductors are not at risk of
becoming live should any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen
tree or branch.
In pre-RCD era, the TT earthing
system was unattractive for general
use because of the difficulty of
arranging reliable automatic
disconnection (ADS) in the case of a
line-to-PE short circuit (in
comparison with TN systems, where
the same breaker or fuse will operate
for either L-N or L-PE faults). But as
residual current devices mitigate
this disadvantage, the TT earthing
system has become much more
attractive providing that all AC
power circuits are RCD-protected.
In some countries (such as the UK)
is recommended for situations
where a low impedance
equipotential zone is impractical to
maintain by bonding, where there In a TT (Terra-Terra) earthing system, the protective
earth connection for the consumer is provided by a local earth electrode, (sometimes
referred to as the Terra-Firma connection) and there is another independently installed
at the generator. There is no 'earth wire' between the two. The fault loop impedance is
higher, and unless the electrode impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should
always have an RCD (GFCI) as its first isolator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the reduced conducted interference from
other users' connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for special applications
like telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT
networks do not pose any serious risks in the case of a broken neutral. In addition, in
locations where power is distributed overhead, earth conductors are not at risk of
becoming live should any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen
tree or branch.
In pre-RCD era, the TT earthing system was unattractive for general use because of the
difficulty of arranging reliable automatic disconnection (ADS) in the case of a line-to-PE
short circuit (in comparison with TN systems, where the same breaker or fuse will operate
for either L-N or L-PE faults). But as residual current devices mitigate this disadvantage,
the TT earthing system has become much more attractive providing that all AC power
circuits are RCD-protected. In some countries (such as the UK) is recommended for
104 | P a g e
situations where a low impedance equipotential zone is impractical to maintain by

bonding, where there is significant outdoor wiring, such as supplies to mobile homes and
some agricultural settings, or where a high fault current could pose other dangers, such
as at fuel depots or marinas.
The TT earthing system is used throughout Japan, with RCD units in most industrial
settings. This can impose added requirements on variable frequency drives and switched-
mode power supplies which often have substantial filters passing high frequency noise to
the ground conductor.is significant outdoor wiring, such as supplies to mobile homes and
some agricultural settings, or where a high fault current could pose other dangers, such
as at fuel depots or marinas.
The TT earthing system is used throughout Japan, with RCD units in most industrial
settings. This can impose added requirements on variable frequency drives and switched-
mode power supplies which often have substantial filters passing high frequency noise to
the ground conductor.
IT network
In an IT network, the electrical distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it
has only a high impedance connection.
Comparison
105 | P a g e
DIODES
106 | P a g e
What is a Diode?
A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing
the flow of current in one direction only.
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and
the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber
evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as
rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers,
signal demodulators, and oscillators.
Forward and Reversed Biased Diodes

When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below)
Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current
flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is backward
and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be
thought of as like a switch: closed when forward-biased and open when reverse-
biased.
107 | P a g e
Diode Characteristics and Specifications

Diode datasheets provide a large
amount of data - diode specifications
and parameters about the diodes. The
exact explanations of what these diode
specifications and parameters are may
not always be available.
The list below provides a summary of some of the more widely used diode specifications,
parameters and limits detailing their meanings.
The list below provides details of the various diode characteristics, and diode parameters
found in the datasheets and specifications for diodes.
Semiconductor material The semiconductor material used in the PN junction

diode is of paramount importance because the material used affects many of the
major diode characteristics and properties. Silicon is the most widely used material
as if offers high levels of performance for most applications and it offers low
manufacturing costs. The other material that is used is germanium. Other
materials are generally reserved for more specialist diodes. The semiconductor
material choice is of particular importance as it governs the turn on voltage for the
diode - around 0.6volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, etc.
Forward voltage drops (Vf) Any electronics device passing current will
develop a resulting voltage across it and this diode characteristic is of great
importance, especially for power rectification where power losses will be higher for
a high forward voltage drop. Also, RF diodes often need a small forward voltage
drop as signals may be small but still need to overcome it.
The voltage across a PN junction diode arise for two reasons. The first of the nature
of the semiconductor PN junction and results from the turn-on voltage mentioned
above. This voltage enables the depletion layer to be overcome and for current to
flow. The second arises from the normal resistive losses in the device. As a result,
a figure for the forward voltage drop are a specified current level will be given. This
figure is particularly important for rectifier diodes where significant levels of
current may be passed.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) This diode characteristics is the maximum voltage
a diode can withstand in the reverse direction. This voltage must not be exceeded
otherwise the device may fail. This voltage is not simply the RMS voltage of the
incoming waveform. Each circuit needs to be considered on its own merits, but for
a simple single diode half wave rectifier with some form of smoothing capacitor
108 | P a g e
afterwards, it should be remembered that the capacitor will hold a voltage equal to
the peak of the incoming voltage waveform. The diode will then also see the peak
of the incoming waveform in the reverse direction and therefore under these
circumstances it will see a peak inverse voltage equal to the peak to peak value of
the waveform.
Maximum forward current When designing a circuit that passes any levels
of current it is necessary to ensure that the maximum current levels for the diode
are not exceeded. As the current levels rise, so additional heat is dissipated and this
needs to be removed.
Leakage current If a perfect diode were available, then no current would flow
when it was reverse biased. It is found that for a real PN junction diode, a very
small amount of current flow in the reverse direction as a result of the minority
carriers in the semiconductor. The level of leakage current is dependent upon three
main factors. The reverse voltage is obviously significant. It is also temperature
dependent, rising appreciably with temperature. It is also found that it is very
dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used - silicon is very much
better than germanium.
The leakage current characteristic or specification for a PN junction diode is
specified at a certain reverse voltage and particular temperature. The specification
is normally defined in terms of in microamps, A or picoamps, pA.
Junction capacitance All PN junction diodes exhibit a junction capacitance.

The depletion region is the dielectric spacing between the two plates which are
effectively formed at the edge of the depletion region and the area with majority
carriers. The actual value of capacitance being dependent upon the reverse voltage
which causes the depletion region to change (increasing reverse voltage increases
the size of the depletion region and hence decreases the capacitance). This fact is
used in varactor or varicap diodes to good effect, but for many other applications,
especially RF applications this needs to be minimized. As the capacitance is of
importance it is specified. The parameter is normally detailed as a given
capacitance (in pF) at a given voltage or voltages. Also, special low capacitance
diodes are available for many RF applications.
Package type Diodes can be mounted in a variety of packages according to their

applications, and in some circumstances, especially RF applications, the package
is a key element in defining the overall RF diode characteristics. Also for power
applications where heat dissipation is important, the package can define many of
109 | P a g e
the overall diode parameters because high power diodes may require packages that
can be bolted to heat sinks, whereas small signal diodes may be available in leaded
formats or as surface mount devices.
110 | P a g e
Applications of Diodes
While only two pin semiconductor devices, there are a number of applications of diodes
that are vital in modern electronics. Diodes are known for only allowing current to move
in one direction through the component.
This lets a diode acts as a one-way valve, keeping signals where they need to be or routing
them around components. While diodes only let current move in one direction, each type
of diode acts differently, making a number of useful applications for diodes.
Some of the typical applications of diodes include:
Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages
Isolating signals from a supply
Voltage Reference
Controlling the size of a signal
Mixing signals
Detection signals
Lighting
Lasers diodes
Different Types of Diodes

There are several types of diodes are available for use in electronics design, namely; a
Backward diode, BARITT diode, Gunn Diode, Laser diode, Light emitting diodes,
Photodiode, PIN diode, PN Junction, Schottky diodes, Step recovery diode, Tunnel diode,
Varactor diode and a Zener diode.
111 | P a g e
Backward Diode
This type of diode is also called the back diode, and it is not widely used. The backward
diode is a PN-junction diode that is similar to the tunnel diode in its process. It finds a
few special applications where its specific properties can be used.
BARITT Diode
The short term of this diode Barrier Injection Transit Time diode is BARITT diode. It is
applicable in microwave applications and allows many comparisons to the more widely
used IMPATT diode.
Gunn Diode
Gunn diode is a PN junction diode, this sort of diode is a semiconductor device that has
two terminals. Generally, it is used for producing microwave signals.
Laser Diode
The laser diode is not the similar as the ordinary LED
(light emitting diode) because it generates coherent
light. These diodes are extensively used in many
applications like DVDs, CD drives and laser light
pointers for PPTs. Although these diodes are
112 | P a g e
inexpensive than other types of laser generator, they are much more expensive than LEDs.
They also have a partial life.
Light Emitting Diode

The term LED stands for light emitting diode, is one of the most standard types of the
diode. When the diode is connected in forwarding bias, then the current flows through
the junction and generates the light. There are also many new LED developments are
changing they are LEDs and OLEDs.
Photodiode
The photodiode is used to detect light. It is found that when light strikes a PN-junction it
can create electrons and holes. Typically, photodiodes operate under reverse bias
condition where even a small amount of flow of current resulting from the light can be
simply noticed. These diodes can also be used to produce electricity.
PIN Diode
This type of diode is characterized by its construction. It has the standard P-type & N-type
regions, but the area between the two regions namely intrinsic semiconductor has no
113 | P a g e
doping. The region of the intrinsic semiconductor has the effect of increasing the area of
the depletion region which can be beneficial for switching applications.
PN Junction Diode
The standard PN junction may
be thought of as the normal or
standard type of diode in use
today. These diodes can come as
small signal types for use in RF
(radio frequency), or other low
current applications which may
be called as signal diodes. Other
types may be planned for high
voltage and high current
applications and are normally
named rectifier diodes.
Schottky Diode
The Schottky diode has a lower forward voltage drop than ordinary Si PN-junction diodes.
At low currents, the voltage drop may be
between 0.15 & 0.4 volts as opposed to
0.6 volts for a Si diode. To attain this
performance, they are designed in a
different way to compare with normal
diodes having a metal to semiconductor
contact. These diodes are extensively
used in rectifier application, clamping
diodes, and also in RF applications.
114 | P a g e
Step Recovery Diode

A step recovery diode is a type of microwave diode used
to generate pulses at very HF (high frequencies). These
diodes depend on the diode which has a very fast turn-
off characteristic for their operation.
Tunnel Diode
The tunnel diode is used for microwave applications where its performance surpassed
that of other devices of the day.
Varactor Diode or Varicap Diode

A varactor diode is one sort of semiconductor microwave solid-state device and it is used
in where the variable capacitance is chosen which can be accomplished by controlling
voltage. These diodes are also called as variceal diodes. Even though the o/p of the
variable capacitance can be exhibited by the normal PN-junction diodes. But, this diode
is chosen for giving the preferred capacitance changes as they are different types of diodes.
These diodes are precisely designed and enhanced such that they allow a high range of
changes in capacitance.
115 | P a g e
Zener Diode
The Zener diode is used to provide a stable reference voltage. As a result, it is used in vast
amounts. It works under reverse bias condition and found that when a particular voltage
is reached it breaks down. If the flow of current is limited by a resistor, it activates a stable
voltage to be generated. This type of diode is widely used to offer a reference voltage in
power supplies.
Reverse Current Protection Application of

a Diode
In Panels, the main purpose of using the diode is reverse current protection. Here, we
discuss it as a general application of the diode.
Users of battery powered equipment expect safeguards to prevent damage to the internal
electronics in the event of reverse battery installation, accidental short circuiting, or other
inappropriate operation. These safeguards can be either mechanical or electronic. An
example of a mechanical safeguard is requiring the use of special connectors and
instructional pictures and symbols. For example, a 9-V battery has different terminals,
and its rechargeable battery packs are physically designed for one direction of insertion.
Other battery types, like single-cell alkaline, are not so easily protected by mechanical
safeguards. Therefore, battery powered equipment designers and manufacturers must
ensure that any reverse current flow and reverse bias voltage is low enough to prevent
damage to either the battery itself or the equipments internal electronics. To provide
116 | P a g e
these electronic safeguards. Manufacturers typically chose either a diode or transistor for
reverse battery protection.
The simplest protection against reverse battery protection is a diode in series with the
battery, as seen in Figure 1.
In Figure 1, the diode becomes forward biased and the loads normal operating current
flows through the diode. When the battery is installed backwards, the diode reverse
biases and no current flows. This approach is used for any battery type, from single-cell
alkaline to multiple Li-Ion, but it has two major disadvantages. The forward voltage drop
across the diode shortens the usable battery life, i.e., a dual alkaline battery pack capable
of providing 1.8 V, is limited to 1.8 V 0.6 V = 1.2 V. In addition, the efficiency of the
power circuitry (e.g., a boost converter) following the battery suffers due to this drop. To
minimize these disadvantages, many designers use a Schottky diode, since its forward
drop is lower than that of a regular diode. However, the disadvantage of using a Schottky
diode is that it is more expensive than a standard diode.
117 | P a g e

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USMAN KHALID (Design & Application Engineer)

FUSES ____________________________________________________________ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

WHAT IS A CIRCUIT BREAKER?___________________________________________________________________ 29

IN ROUTINE DEPICTIONS _______________________________________________________________________ 31

WHAT IS A POWER SUPPLY? ____________________________________________________________________ 50

6 IMPORTANT FACTORS WHEN CHOOSING A POWER SUPPLY _________________________________________ 60

WHAT IS A RELAY? ____________________________________________________________________________ 63

DRY CONTACT RELAYS _________________________________________________________________________ 82

WHAT IS GROUNDING OR EARTHING? ____________________________________________________________ 88

NEED OF EARTHING OR GROUNDING. WHY EARTHING IS IMPORTANT? ________________________________ 89

WHAT IS A DIODE? ___________________________________________________________________________ 107

PIN Diode _______________________________________________________________________________ 113

Types of fuses (Characteristics)

One time use only fuses:

1. Current carrying Capacity of Fuse

1. Current carrying Capacity of Fuse

2. Breaking capacity / Interrupting Rating

3. I2t value of Fuse

5. Rated voltage of Fuse

Different application requires different packages to be used accurately in the circuit.

REWIREABLE CARTRIDGE DROP-OUT STRIKER SWITCH

2. Link Type Cartridge Fuses

KNIFE BLADE BOLTED TYPE

The melting of fuse causes the fuse element to drop out

Cartridge Type HV HRC Fuse

Liquid Type HV HRC Fuse

Expulsion Type HV Fuse

Types as Per Standards

Selection Factors of Fuses

Normal Operating current

Overall Current Condition

Maximum Fault current

The following example should assist in providing a better understanding of the

EXAMPLE: Select a 125V, very fast-acting PICOII fuse that is capable of

Physical Size Limitations

Fuse holder features and Rerating

What is a Circuit Breaker?

MAGNETIC CB-CROSS SECTION D IAGRAM 1

METALLIC HYDRAULIC CB FIG 1

METALLIC HYDRAULIC CB FIG 2 C LOSE CIRCUIT

METALLIC HYDRAULIC CB FIG 3 O PEN C IRCUIT

To comprehend more about their operations, please visit:

For example, circuit breakers with uncompensated thermal-tripping elements have a

Standards & Safety Agencies

Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB)

Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)

Step 1: Basic Electrical Parameters

Step 2: Other Required Features

Step 3: Operational Considerations

Choice of rated current in terms of ambient temperature

Uncompensated thermal magnetic tripping units

Circuit-breakers with uncompensated thermal tripping units

Circuit-breakers with uncompensated thermal tripping elements have a tripping-current

EXAMPLE: What rating (In) should be selected for a iC60 N?

Compensated thermal-magnetic tripping units

In certain countries, the TT system is standard on LV distribution systems, and

Electronic trip units

Electronic tripping units are highly stable in changing

An important advantage with electronic tripping units is their stable performance in

Selection of an instantaneous, or short-time-delay, tripping

Figure below summarizes the main characteristics of the instantaneous or short-time

Selection of a circuit-breaker according to the short-circuit

The installation of a LV circuit-breaker requires that its short-