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1 Nomenclature
2 Material Properties
2.1 Viscosity variation with temperature
Exponential model for liquids:
B
= 0 10 (T C) (1)
where 0 , B and C are constants.
For water 0 =2.414105 Pa.s, B=247.8 K and C=140 K.
2
Poiseuille formula for dynamic viscosity:
1
= 0 (2)
1 + AT + BT 2
where 0 , A and B are constants and T is the temperature in C.
For water, the value of 0 is 0.00179 Pa.s, and the values of constants A and B are 0.033368 C1 and 0.000221 C2 ,
respectively.
V2 = V1 + at (3)
1 2
x2 = x1 + V1 t + a (t) (4)
2
1
x2 = x1 + (V2 + V1 ) t (5)
2
V22 = V12 + 2a (x2 x1 ) (6)
4 Fluid Mechanics
4.1 Fluid Statics
Pascals law
dp
= g (7)
dz
Force on a submerged plane
IG
yp = + yG (8)
A.yG
where yp is the distance to the centre of pressure and yG is distance to the centre of gravity, measured along the surface
of the plane. IG is the second moment of area about the centroid, A is the area of the submerged plane.
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4.2 Flow in pipes
Continuity
m = V A (9)
dm
= min mout (10)
dt
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Component k
Sharp Entry 0.5
Rounded Entry 0.25
Contraction (50% area) 0.24
Contraction (50% diameter,based on V2 ) 0.35
A2
Expansion (based on V2 ) A1 1
180o elbow 0.9
90o elbow 0.9
45o elbow 0.4
Globe valve (open) 10
Angle valve (open) 2
Gate valve (open) 0.15
Gate valve (25% closed) 0.25
Gate valve (50% closed) 2.1
Gate valve (75% closed) 17
Angle valve (open) 2
Swing check valve (open) 2
Ball valve (open) 17
Ball valve (33% closed) 5.5
Ball valve (66% closed) 200
Diaphragm valve (open) 2.3
Diaphragm valve (50% closed) 4.3
Diaphragm valve (75% closed) 21
Water meter 7
Moody Diagram:
5
4.3 Conservation of linear momentum
Force on fluid in control volume
F = mout Vout min Vin (20)
Coefficients of skin friction drag for turbulent flow over flat plate
0.074
105 < Re < 107
CD = (24)
Re0.2
0.455
107 < Re < 109
CD = (25)
(log(Re))2.58
Coefficients of form drag around a cylinder
24
CD = (Re < 1) (26)
Re
Speed of sound s
K p
a= = RT (28)
Stagnation conditions
T 1 V2
= 1 T = T0 + (32)
T0 1 + M2 2 2cp
p 1
= (33)
p0
1 + M 2 1
1
2
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Critical conditions
T 2
= (34)
T0 +1
1
p 2
= (35)
p0 +1
where D is the internal diameter of the pipe, t is the thickness of the pipe wall and E is the Youngs modulus.
pD
= (38)
2t
where is the hoop stress, t is the thickness of the pipe wall and E is the Youngs modulus.
5 Heat Transfer
5.1 Thermal expansion
Linear expansion
L = L1 T (39)
3
Area expansion
2
A = A1 T (40)
3
Volumetric expansion
V = V1 T (41)
where 3 is the coefficient of linear expansion, sometimes referred to as in other texts.
Convection
Q = hAT (44)
where h can be found using the Nusselt number, given in equation 99.
Resistor analogy for composite surfaces
T
Q = (45)
R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . + Rn
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L
Rcond,planar = (46)
kA
R2
ln R1
Rcond,clyind = (47)
2kL
1
Rconvect = (48)
hA
(49)
Radiation
Q = A T14 T24
(50)
where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, of 5.67051 108 W.m2 .K4
Reciprocity Relation
Ai Fij = Aj Fji (52)
valid for ReL > 108 and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
For an isothermal horizontal cylinder
1
Nu = CRem
D Pr
3 (56)
C = 0.193, m = 0.618 for 4000 < Re < 40000 and C = 0.027, m = 0.805 for 40000 < Re < 400000.
Dittus-Boelter equation for forced convection in pipes.
4
Nu = 0.023ReD
5
Prn (57)
where n = 0.4 for heating fluid and n = 0.3 for cooling fluid. Valid for Re 10000 and 0.7 Pr 160
Log mean temperature difference
T1 T2
TLM = (58)
ln T
T2
1
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5.5 Heat exchanger design
Capacity rates (m cp )
Cmin
Cmin = min(CH , CC ) Cmax = max(CH , CC ) C = (60)
Cmax
Correction factor F
q = F U ATLM (61)
where F is a function of P and R:
Ttube,o Ttube,i Ctube Tshell,i Tshell,o
P = R= = (62)
Tshell,i Ttube,i Cshell Ttube,o Ttube,i
Effectiveness-NTU
Qmax = Cmin (TH,i TC,i ) (63)
Qact
= (64)
Qmax
For the horizontal surface with the bottom surface of a hot object in a colder environment or top surface of a cold object
in a hotter environment.
1
NuL = 0.27RaL4 105 < RaL < 1010 (69)
5.7 Combustion
Molar masses of atoms and heats of combustion of fuels
V RT
= (70)
n p
At 1 bar and 25 degrees C, the recommended value is 24.5 litres per mole.
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6 Thermodynamics
6.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
First Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change from one form to another.
Second The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value
at equilibrium.
Third As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant minimum.
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6.3 Conventions for Conservation of Energy
Surroundings
System
2
3 n
In finite form
E1 + E2 + E3 + ... + En = E (71)
In rate form
dE
E1 + E2 + E3 + ... + En = (72)
dt
Internal energy
du = cv dT (77)
Gas constant
R
R = cp cv R= (78)
M
where R = 8.314 kJ.kmol1 K1
Polytropic processes
pV n = constant (79)
where n is the polytropic constant.
Process n
Isochoric (const volume) n = inf
Isothermal (const temperature) n=1
Isobaric (const pressure) n=0
Isentropic (const entropy) n=
Entropy
q = sdT (80)
dq
ds = (81)
T
T2 v2 T2 p2
s2 s2 = cv ln + Rln = cp ln + Rln (82)
T1 v1 T1 p1
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Isentropic expansion and compression
1
p2 ( ) T2 ( 1 ) T1 ( 1 )
(1) () 1 ( 1 )
T2 v1 p2 v1 v2 p1
= = = = = = (83)
T1 p1 v2 p1 T1 v2 v1 T2 p2
The value of the ratio of specific heats, , can usually be considered to be 1.4 for air.
pV = const p1 V 1 = p 2 V 2 (84)
V V1 V2
= const = (85)
T T1 T2
pV = nRT (87)
pV = mRT (88)
pv = RT (89)
p = RT (90)
12
Carnot COP:
1 1
COPHP = COPR = (95)
1 TTHL TH
TL 1
7 Dimensionless Numbers
Reynolds number
U D
Re = (98)
Nusselt number
hL
Nu = (99)
k
Mach number
V
M= (100)
a
Prandtl number
cp
Pr = (101)
k
Grashof number
g2 (TS Tf ) L3
Gr = (102)
2
1
where is T for an ideal gas.
Rayleigh number
Ra = Gr Pr (103)
Biot number
hL
Bi = (104)
k
10 g a pen
100 g mobile phone
500 g bottle of drink
1 kg house brick 8 cm finger
1.5 kg bag of sugar 20 cm width A4 sheet
70 kg person 30 cm length A4 sheet
1000 kg mass of small car 2m door height
1500 kg mass of family saloon 30 m Owen building
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8.3 Volume 8.8 Conductivity of solids
5 ml tea spoon 0.004 W/mK Cork
25 ml shot of whisky 0.033 W/mK Styrofoam
330 ml can of coke 0.04 W/mK Fibreglass
568 ml a pint of beer 0.04 W/mK General insulation
750 ml bottle of wine 0.05 W/mK Paper
2l bottle of coke 0.055 W/mK Wood (balsa)
2,500,000 l Olympic swimming pool 0.12 W/mK Wood (pine)
0.14 W/mK Leather
8.4 Velocity 0.15 W/mK Wood (oak)
0.17 W/mK Plasterboard
1.5 m/s walking
0.2 W/mK PVC
3 m/s running
0.5 W/mK HD Polyethene
10 m/s sprinter
0.75 W/mK Asphalt
13 m/s residential speed limit
30 m/s motorway speed limit
45 m/s British train 8.9 Further conductivity of solids
150 m/s good train 0.004 W/mK Cork
330 m/s speed of sound in air 0.033 W/mK Styrofoam
0.04 W/mK Fibreglass
8.5 Density 0.04 W/mK General insulation
0.05 W/mK Paper
1.2 kg/m3 air
0.055 W/mK Wood (balsa)
700 kg/m3 petrol
0.12 W/mK Wood (pine)
800 kg/m3 oil
0.14 W/mK Leather
1,000 kg/m3 water
0.15 W/mK Wood (oak)
2,700 kg/m3 aluminium
0.17 W/mK Plasterboard
7,800 kg/m3 steel
0.2 W/mK PVC
13,500 kg/m3 mercury
0.5 W/mK HD Polyethene
0.75 W/mK Asphalt
8.6 Viscosity @ 20 C 1 W/mK Bricks
1105 Pa.s CO2 /Ar/He/N2 1.05 W/mK Glass
2105 Pa.s air 16 W/mK Stainless Steel
0.000 6 Pa.s Petrol 35 W/mK Lead
0.001 Pa.s water 55 W/mK Carbon Steel
0.2 Pa.s oil 109 W/mK Brass
2 Pa.s honey 250 W/mK Aluminium
400 W/mK Copper
8.7 Power
10 W energy saving lightbulb
100 W electric light bulb (incandescent)
2.5 kW domestic kettle
100 kW Car engine (135 bhp)
5 MW Big wind turbine
4,000 MW Drax power station output
40,000 MW UK power consumption
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9 Space for your notes
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10 Credits
Compiled and edited by Dr Andrew Garrard (a.garrard@shu.ac.uk)
Cover illustration by Jack Good (www.jackgood.co.uk)
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