Advanced Melting Technologies:

Energy Saving Concepts and Opportunities

for the Metal Casting Industry

November 2005

BCS, Incorporated
5550 Sterrett Place, Suite 306
Columbia, MD 21044
www.bcs-hq.com
 Advanced Melting Technologies:
Energy Saving Concepts and Opportunities for
the Metal Casting Industry

Prepared for ITP Metal Casting

by

BCS, Incorporated

November 2005
Acknowledgments

This study was a collaborative effort by a team of researchers from University of

MissouriRolla, Case Western Reserve University, and Carnegie Mellon University with
BCS, Incorporated as the project coordinator and lead.

The research findings for the nonferrous casting industry were contributed by Dr. Jack
Wallace and Dr. David Schwam, while the ferrous melting technologies were addressed
by Dr. Kent Peaslee and Dr. Richard Fruehan. BCS, Incorporated researched
independently to provide an overview of the melting process and the U.S. metal casting
industry. The final report was prepared by Robert D. Naranjo, Ji-Yea Kwon, Rajita
Majumdar, and William T. Choate of BCS, Incorporated.

We also gratefully acknowledge the support of the U.S. Department of Energy and Cast
Metal Coalition (CMC) in conducting this study.

Disclaimer

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an Agency of the United States
Government. Neither the United States Government nor any Agency thereof, nor any of their
employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or
responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus,
product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name,
trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any Agency thereof. The views
and opinions expressed by the authors herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the
United States Government or any Agency thereof.
Contents

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................i
1. Objective and Scope of the Study................................................................................................ 1
2. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1
3. Melting Process Overview............................................................................................................ 3
3.1 The Melting Process .............................................................................................................. 3
3.2 Energy Efficiency of the Melting Process .............................................................................. 6
3.3 Melting Process Emissions.................................................................................................... 8
3.4 Selecting Appropriate Melting Technology............................................................................ 9
4. Current and Emerging Melting Technologies and Practices........................................................ 9
4.1 Established Melting Furnaces ............................................................................................. 10
4.1.1 Crucible Furnaces ........................................................................................................ 10
4.1.2 Cupola Furnaces .......................................................................................................... 10
4.1.3 Electric Arc Furnaces ................................................................................................... 13
4.1.4 Immersion Heaters (Low-Temperature Melting) .......................................................... 15
4.1.5 Induction Furnaces....................................................................................................... 15
4.1.6 Reverberatory Furnaces............................................................................................... 17
4.1.7 Rotary Furnaces........................................................................................................... 19
4.1.8 Stack Furnaces ............................................................................................................ 20
4.2 Experimental Melting Furnaces ........................................................................................... 21
4.2.1 Electron Beam Melting (EBM) ...................................................................................... 21
4.2.2 Immersion Heaters (High-Temperature Melting).......................................................... 22
4.2.3 Infrared Heating............................................................................................................ 23
4.2.4 Microwave Melting........................................................................................................ 24
4.2.5 Plasma Heating ............................................................................................................ 25
4.2.6 Solar Furnaces ............................................................................................................. 25
4.3 Heat Recovery Methods ...................................................................................................... 26
4.3.1 Recuperators ................................................................................................................ 26
4.3.2 Refrigeration ................................................................................................................. 27
4.3.3 Regenerators................................................................................................................ 27
4.3.4 Thermoelectric Devices................................................................................................ 28
4.4 Molten Metal Handling Systems .......................................................................................... 28
4.4.1 Dosing Furnaces .......................................................................................................... 29
4.4.2 Electro-Magnetic Pump Systems ................................................................................. 29
4.4.3 Ladles ........................................................................................................................... 30
4.4.4 Launder Systems ......................................................................................................... 30
4.4.5 Mechanical Circulating Pumps ..................................................................................... 31
4.5 Fuel Combustion Technologies: Oxy-Fuel Burners............................................................. 31
4.6 Preheating Systems............................................................................................................. 32
4.6.1 Shaft Furnace ............................................................................................................... 32
4.6.2 Twin Shell System........................................................................................................ 33
4.7 Refractories ......................................................................................................................... 33
4.8 Melting Schedule ................................................................................................................. 34
5. Challenges to Adopting New Technologies ............................................................................... 34
6. Future Direction of Research: Potential Energy-Saving Technologies...................................... 36
7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 39
Endnotes.................................................................................................................................... 42
Executive Summary

The metal casting industry is one of the most energy-intensive manufacturing sectors with the
melting process accounting for over half (55%) of its energy consumption. Although its high
energy expenses have been a significant concern for metal casters, the industry continues to use
melting technologies with poor energy efficiency. The purpose of this study is to explore Grand
Challenge or breakthrough opportunities that might dramatically reduce melting energy and to
identify potentially energy-saving R&D areas based on the findings. The study was conducted to
guide the Metal Casting subprogram of the Industrial Technologies Program (an initiative of the
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy) in pursuing its
energy reduction goal. The scope of the study includes current and emerging melting
technologies in the industry worldwide, along with experimental technologies, retrofits for
existing systems, and best practices.

The seemingly simple melting operation heating metals to turn them into liquids for pouring
is actually complex, involving a series of steps that incur material and energy losses. These
losses are attributable to several factors: undesired conduction, radiation and convection, stack
loss (flue gases), and metal loss. The extent of the losses depends on the furnace design, the fuel
used, and the method of imparting heat to the metals. Exhibit 1 compares the efficiency and
metal loss for different types of furnaces. The low thermal efficiency of current furnaces calls for
high-priority R&D to improve melting technologies.
Typical Thermal
Melting Furnace Common Use Melt Loss
Capacities* Efficiency
Aluminum 4-6% 7-19%
Crucible (Gas) 15 lbs - 1.5 tons Magnesium 4-6% 7-19%
Copper-base 2-3% 7-15%
Cupola 100 lb/hr - 20 tons/hr Iron 3-12% 40-50%

Direct Arc 1.5 tons -100 tons Steel 5-8% 35-45%
Immersion (low temperature
1,600lb/hr Zinc N/A 63-67%
melting)
Aluminum 0.75-1.25% 59-76%
Copper-base 2-3% 50-70%

Induction 2 lbs - 50 tons Magnesium 2-3% 59-76%
Iron 1-2% 50-70%
Steel 2-3% 50-70%
Aluminum 1-2% 59-76%
Electric 0.5 tons - 125 tons
Zinc 2-3% 59-76%
Reverberatory
Aluminum 3-5% 30-45%
Gas 0.5 tons - 125 tons
Zinc 4-7% 32-40%
Rotary N/A Aluminum N/A 35%
Stack Melter (Gas) 1 ton/hr - 10 tons/hr Aluminum 1-2% 40-45%
Source: DOE/CMC http://cmc.aticorp.org/datafactors.html
*Information received from communication with AFS
The primary energy efficiencies of these furnaces are much lower (about one-third) than the listed efficiencies due to the use of
electricity, which involves sizeable energy losses during generation and transmission.

Exhibit 1: Efficiency and metal loss for different furnaces

i
The U.S. metal casting industry, primarily consisting of small businesses (80% have <100
employees), are averse to taking new financial risks due to the typically small profit margins of
the metal casting operations; they are, therefore, hesitant to invest in long-term R&D and to
implement advanced technologies that involve replacing the entire furnace, even if they offer
significant energy savings. The prime criterion for the commercial acceptance of new advanced
melting technologies is that they must not be capital intensive for installation.

Emerging technologies such as solar melting, microwave melting, infrared heating, or plasma
heating offer unconventional ways of providing enormous amounts of energy effectively to the
metals; however, barriers like limited capital resources and melting capacities, and/or large space
requirements make these innovative methods financially unviable for the metal casting industry.
The plausible advances in melting technologies that hold potential for energy reduction,
therefore, center on retrofit improvements for existing furnaces; these advances include oxygen-
enriched fuel combustion, preheating of charge, molten metal delivery, and heat recovery from
flue gases. Exhibit 2 shows estimated percentage energy savings achievable by implementing
these advanced technologies. Furnace efficiency can be increased by 25-30% by utilizing one or
a combination of the technologies identified.1
Melting Technologies Estimated Energy Saving
Charge Preheating 5-10%
Refrigeration 5-10%
Air Preheating 10-20%
Molten Metal Stirring 5-30%
Operational Adjustments 0-30%
Oxygen Enrichment Technologies 0-40%
Source: Albany Research Center, Improving Energy Efficiency in Aluminum Melting
presentation at 2005 Aluminum Portfolio Review
Exhibit 2: Estimated energy savings from new advanced melting technologies

This study found that there is little potential for a single melting technology to provide a one-
size-fits-all solution because foundries vary from each other in several respects, such as the
metals being melted, alloying requirements, product specifications, furnace capacities, and the
casting process. Further, the melting operation comprises several steps, each providing an
opportunity for improving energy use. It is, therefore, conclusive that the path to achieving the
maximum possible energy reduction at a given metal casting operation lies in implementing a
combination of energy-efficient retrofits that are best suited for that individual facility. It is,
accordingly, recommended to develop a web-based database tool that will inform metal casters
about the currently available retrofits and accept inputs on their melt operation specifics to
determine the optimal energy-efficient solution for their facility.

The energy-saving melting technologies still pose several technical barriers for implementation.
Pursuing R&D to remove these barriers, as well as continuing further development of the
innovative melting methods will provide the best results in the long term. The key to improving
efficiency of melting technologies for the metal casting industry resides in developing retrofitting
technologies and logistics improvements that offer large energy savings and require low financial
risk.

ii
1. Objective and Scope of the Study

The objective of this study was to explore the concepts of breakthrough technologies in melting
metals that may dramatically reduce the energy consumption. The study will guide the Industrial
Technologies Programs (ITP) Metal Casting subprogram in pursuing high-value R&D
opportunities for enhancing energy efficiency of the metal casting industry.

The study was undertaken as part of ITPs Grand Challenge mission, a strategy seeking dramatic
improvements in industrial energy efficiency. The study aims to provide a preliminary concept
definition of Grand Challenge opportunities in the context of advanced melting technologies. It
accomplishes its purpose by examining current and emerging melting technologies and
discussing their technical barriers to scale-up issues and research needed to advance these
technologies. It identifies potential avenues for improving melting efficiency, lowering metal
transfer heat loss, and reducing scrap and improving yield.

The scope of the study includes ferrous and non-ferrous melting applications in the metal casting
industry, both in domestic and international markets. Although, the report focuses on metal
melting applications, the melting technologies and developments discussed in this report are in
general applicable to all furnaces and molten material processes, including primary aluminum,
secondary aluminum, glass, iron and steel, and other industries.

2. Introduction

Melting of metals, glass, and other materials has been a vital manufacturing process for several
thousand years, producing molten liquids that can be poured and solidified into useful shapes.
Although the basic process continues to be the same, the utility of cast products has come a long
way. The process that created tools and exotic goods for only a privileged few in the Bronze Age
contributes to components used in over 90% of manufactured goods in our society today. Since
the dawn of the industrial age, the tremendous progress in the melting process equipment, the
range of molten materials, the chemistry and thermal controls, and the complexity of the finished
products has enabled cast components in building a vast variety of products automobiles,
power generators, railroad cars, oil pipelines, military hardware, medical instruments, etc. to
name just a few.

The energy efficiency of any foundry largely rides on the efficiency of the melting process a
multi-step operation where the metal is heated, treated, alloyed, and transported into die or mold
cavities to form a casting. The melting process is not only responsible for the energy
consumption and cost-effectiveness of producing the castings (Exhibit 3), but it is also critical to
the control of quality, composition, and the physical and chemical properties of the final product.

1
 Melting is the most energy-intensive
operation in metal casting industry,
accounting for about 55% of the total
energy use in foundries

Source: 2004 Metal Casting Annual Report

Exhibit 3: Process energy costs in
metal casting

Melting being highly energy intensive, the metal casting industry is one of largest spenders on
energy in the U.S. manufacturing sector. The industry spent $1.2 billion in fuels and electricity
purchases alone in 1998. The concern over the energy efficiency of processes has been growing
with the recent rising costs of energy. The metal casting industry is specially impacted by the
large price swings of natural gas as it is the industrys largest energy source (Exhibit 4). Factors
like increasing energy demands, compounded by spikes in energy costs from world events and
natural disasters (like Hurricanes Katrina and Rita), will continue the upward trend in energy
costs, pressing the need for developing energy-efficient solutions for the melting process.

Although the energy consumption in the

Source: 2004 Metal Casting Annual Report
*The amount of electricity represents delivered energy
Exhibit 4: Energy source in metal casting
melting process has been a significant concern
in foundry operations, the industry continues
to use melting technologies with low energy
efficiencies. Studies have shown that by
implementing best practice technologies, iron
and aluminum melting can save approximately
1.2 and 3 million Btu per ton respectively.2
Considering that iron and aluminum casting
tonnages comprise more than 85% of the total
casting tonnage, potential savings in melting
these metals are substantial. In summary,
striving to reduce energy consumption in
melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals shows
a promising path to lowering operating costs
in foundries and, in turn, cutting down the
production costs for the entire U.S.
manufacturing sector.

2
3. Melting Process Overview

The melting of any industrial metal used in manufacturing involves the following steps:
1. Preparing the Metal and Loading removing dirt and moisture and sometimes,
preheating the charge material, such as scrap metal or ingot; and introducing solid charge
into the furnace system
2. Melting the Metal supplying energy from combustion of fuels, electricity or other
sources to raise the metal temperature above its melting point to a pouring temperature
3. Refining and Treating Molten Metals introducing elements or materials to purify,
adjust molten bath composition to provide a specific alloy chemistry and/or affect
nucleation and growth during solidification
4. Holding Molten Metal maintaining the molten metal in molten state until it is ready
for tapping
5. Tapping Molten Metal transferring the molten metal from the furnace to transport
ladle
6. Transporting Molten Metal moving the molten metal to the point of use and keeping
the metal in molten state until it is completely poured
Material and energy losses during these process steps represent inefficiencies that waste energy
and increase the costs of melting operations. Modifying the design and/or operation of any step
in the melting process may affect the subsequent steps. It is, therefore, important to examine the
impact of all proposed modifications over the entire melting process to ensure that energy
improvement in one step is not translating to energy burden in another step.

3.1 The Melting Process

1. Preparing and Loading Metal for Melting

Preheating or drying the scrap or ingot is often practiced in many melting applications, especially
those that involve iron or aluminum. It offers several benefits: removal of moisture and other
volatiles from the charge, preventing the risk of an explosion in the furnace and inhibiting slag
formation from absorption of hydrogen formed when hot aluminum comes in contact with
moisture; reduction in melting energy requirements; and increase in the melting capacity of the
furnace. Aluminum scrap (containers, sidings, etc.) requires removal of paint, lacquers,
machining oils, and other contaminants. This removal is usually accomplished thermally.

Preheating and contaminant removal are typically accomplished by natural gas heating. Some
foundries employ preheating systems that reuse hot flue gases of the melting furnace to pretreat
and preheat. A scrap decoater developed by Energy Research Company (ERCo) removes various
organics found in scrap aluminum.3 The scrap is decoated in a low-oxygen, controlled
atmosphere rotary kiln. Hot gases enter the kilns center tube, flow parallel to the scrap, and
vaporize the organics in the scrap in the kiln. The oxygen in the kiln is kept below the
flammability limits of the organic components, avoiding combustion in the kiln. These systems
recover energy that is otherwise lost in most operations.

3
Energy can be lost during the loading process when the prepared materials are loaded into the
furnace for melting. If batch furnaces are loaded cold, the melting operation becomes inefficient
as the entire furnace mass must be heated along with the metal. Conversely, a continuously
operated furnace offers greater efficiency, not requiring additional energy to heat up the furnace
in each melting cycle. However, loading a hot furnace requires opening the furnace door or lid,
which allows vast quantities of heat to escape by convective flow of hot gases and by radiation.
Numerous techniques and systems have been developed to address this problem. These include
side wells furnace where heat loss is minimized as molten metal circulates through the charge
well and back into the hearth for reheating during the charging period of furnace cycle.4 It has
also been demonstrated that submerging the scrap into the molten bath for melting reduces metal
lost to oxidation (particularly for aluminum).

2. Melting the Metal

Furnaces operate in aggressive environments, where several componentsmolten metals,

furnace linings, atmospheric gases, and products from combustion of fuelscoexist at extremely
high temperatures. Several factors come into play besides the core ingredients of heat and metal
as illustrated in Exhibit 5.
Conductive, Convective,
and Radiant Heat Losses

Energy (natural gas,

fuel, electricity, coke)

Air Melting Flue Gas

Melting
Furnace
Fluxes & Alloy Elements Furnace Dross/Slag
350C to 1,700C
350C to 1,700C Molten Metal
Base Metal

Exhibit 5: Schematic of melting process

A melting furnace derives its heat from solid fuels (coke and breeze), natural gas, electricity, or
other sources of energy. Furnaces vary in design, geometry, capacity productivity (melting rates),
materials-of-construction, and mode of operation (batch or continuous). Other factors related to
the energy source also affect the furnace design which include how the energy is transferred to
the molten material, how combustion gases are removed, what refining and treating equipment
must enter the furnace, how long the holding periods are, and how the molten metal will be
tapped. The operating temperatures required in the furnace depend on the melting and pouring
temperature of the materials being melted. They can range from about 350C (650F) for zinc
alloys to 1,700C (3,100F) for alloy steels.

3. Refining/Treating Molten Metals

Refining is the process of degassing the melt, removing undesirable solid phase (typically
oxides), and trimming the alloy composition to be within desired limits. The molten metal stage

4
offers a critical opportunity to refine and maximize the quality of the final casting. Therefore,
processes such as alloying, degassing, filtration, fluxing, and grain refinement and modification
are usually carried out in the liquid metal prior to casting. At this stage, the composition of the
melt can be fine-tuned to the desired proportions by appropriate additions.

Alloying elements with high vapor pressure and high reactivity at elevated temperatures, such as
sodium, calcium and magnesium, tend to be depleted from the molten alloy with time and high
temperature. Loss of these elements will affect the physical/mechanical properties of the castings,
leading to increased scrap and waste.

Gases that dissolve into the molten charge from the ambient air, combustion byproducts, and the
furnace linings can also affect the quality of the final product. For example, molten aluminum
has a high affinity for hydrogen formed when aluminum comes in contact with water vapor, a
natural by-product from combustion and occurring naturally in the atmosphere. The hydrogen
solubility increases with time and temperature. As aluminum solidifies, the dissolved hydrogen
escapes imparting an undesirable porosity to the final product, a common problem at cast
aluminum facilities. Degassing and filtering out solid inclusions, such as oxides, has, therefore,
become a norm at U.S. casting facilities. Disposable ceramic filter is one of the current methods
that reduces cost and improves the quality of the castings. Disposable ceramic filters are placed
in the mold runner system to trap solid inclusions formed during melt transfer between the
furnace and its entry into the mold cavity. Determining hydrogen content in aluminum alloys has
also become common. Currently, ultrasound is being explored as a potential means in
commercial operations to reduce the porosity. Continued development of better technologies is
needed to monitor the quality of the molten metal economically.

The current practice to control the composition of molten metal is expensive and time consuming.
It requires taking a small sample of molten metal out of the molten bath and transporting it to a
laboratory for chemical analysis. This creates a lag time between measured and actual
composition, which can lead to excessive processing, increased energy use and emission, and
off-spec product that may need to be down-graded or scrapped. ERCo has recently introduced
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) technology that employs a laser and a
spectrometer to measure in-situ and in real time the constituents of the melt in a process furnace.5
Such technologies can reduce defects, increase furnace cycle times leading to continuous and
semi-continuous operations, increase furnace life by diagnosing the state of the furnace, and
increase automation of furnace operations.

4. Holding Molten Metals

The molten metal is often held in a furnace before being poured or injected into molds to allow
for a continuous supply of molten metal from the melting furnace with consistent composition
and quality. This is especially important when the charge materials are composed of large
amounts of low-quality metallic scrap with poor composition such as blends of consumer durable
goods. Holding furnaces also help casters take advantage of the off-peak electricity hours to melt
charges at reduced energy rates. However, the holding step in the melting process adds to
melting inefficiencies because energy is utilized in holding the metal in its molten state. An ideal
melting operation would melt metal into its liquid state and then transport that metal directly to
the pouring lines, eliminating the need to hold the molten bath in a holding furnace.

5
5. Tapping Molten Metals

Tapping is the process of removing the molten metal from the furnace and pouring it into ladles
or molds. Tilting furnaces can pour molten metal directly into transfer ladles for casting or can
transfer it to an adjacent holding furnace. A tilting furnace is ideally suited for providing a
controlled and consistent metal flow safely and reliably with minimal harm to the melt quality.

6. Transporting Molten Metals

After being tapped, the molten metal must be transported from the melting furnace to the holding
furnace or the pouring lines. Different types of ladles are used to pour the molten metal into the
mold cavities. These include bottom-pour, lip-pour, teapot, hand, bull, trolley, and crane. Ideally,
transfer ladles are preheated to maintain the required pouring temperature at the pouring station.
Some operations also practice superheating the melt, i.e., raising the temperature several
hundred degrees above the pouring temperature, to achieve the same result. The transfer ladle
capacities can range from 100 pounds to 35 tons or higher depending on the foundrys
production capacity.

Transfer ladles consume significant energy because they require preheating and/or superheating
the melt to maintain the desired pouring temperature. Additionally, substantial radiation loss can
occur from the top and the sides of the ladle. Researchers at University of MissouriRolla
noticed that the radiation losses for steel occur predominantly from the ladle sides because the
slag cover acts as a natural insulator for the top surface. This finding stresses the need for
improved refractory material for steel foundry transfer ladles.

3.2 Energy Efficiency of the Melting Process

The energy efficiency of the melting process is calculated by dividing the amount of theoretical
energy needed to melt a metal and raise it to its pouring temperature by the actual amount of
energy consumed in melting, treating, holding and handling the material.

Theoretical Energy Required

Energy Efficiency = X 100
Actual Energy Used

Several factors affect the energy efficiency of a furnace:

1. Stack Losses: Stack losses are due to the heat discharged via flue gases and partially
combusted gases. These represent the greatest energy loss in a fuel-fired furnace. The amount
of energy lost is related to the stack gas temperature, gas mass, and composition.
Thermodynamically, the temperature will always be in excess of the molten metal holding
temperature. There is no way to design a furnace with the exiting gas temperature equal or
less than the metal temperature. The furnace design can control the mass of gas that exits a
furnace system, which is a function of the oxygen required to combust the furnace fuel.
When air is used as the source of oxygen, the mass of exiting gases is nearly 21 pounds for
each pound of fuel consumed. Pure oxygen would lower the mass of exiting gas to only 5
pounds. Oxygen enrichment systems offer a significant opportunity to reduce the mass of hot
exiting gas, as well as provide hotter flame temperature, which will lead to higher heat

6
 transfer rate and reduced time required to melt the charge. This, in turn, would increase the
productivity and cut down the energy lost through the furnace walls. The ratio of air (or
oxygen) to fuel in the furnace is also crucial. Too little air will result in unburnt and wasted
fuel, while excess air will waste energy in heating the additional air mass. Flue stack energy
can be recovered to some degree if a regenerator or a recuperator is placed in the path of the
exhaust gases and used to heat the incoming combustion air or if the flue gases can be used to
preheat the metal charge.
2. Metal Loss: The surface of the molten metal can oxidize leading to substantial metal loss in
the form of slag (term associated with ferrous alloys such as steel) or dross (in case of
non-ferrous alloys such as aluminum). This lost metal must be replaced by new metal. The
extent of the metal loss depends upon the affinity of the molten constituents for oxygen and
the melting method. These losses are the highest in aluminum-magnesium alloys.6 Molten
metal loss is a serious issue when considering a furnace design. If the metal losses are high,
the overall operation would be inherently inefficient and uneconomical.
3. Radiation Losses: These occur as energy emitted from hot furnace and enclosure surfaces.
When the furnace lid or door is opened for charging and tapping, radiation heat losses
increase significantly. Radiation losses from an uncovered bath can reach up to130 kWh/hr
(0.44 MBtu/hr) for an iron furnace with a 10-ton capacity.
4. Conduction and Convection Losses: These losses can be controlled by using suitable
refractory materials and maintaining a tight fit between the lid and the furnace body.
5. Slag/Dross Removal: This can also contribute to energy loss. The extent depends on the
temperature, the composition of the slag/dross, the technique used and how long the furnace
is left open to remove the slag/dross. This loss is not substantial to affect the overall furnace
efficiency, unless huge amounts of slag/dross are removed.
The extent of these energy losses vary depending on the furnace design, operating practices,
metals being melted and the source of energy being used. Exhibit 6 displays a breakdown of the
energy consumption (different forms of energy loss and energy used in melting) for ferrous and
non-ferrous melting.
Energy Spent Ferrous Melting7,8 Non-Ferrous Melting9,10
Stack Losses (flue gases) 0 to 50% 35 to 50%
Dross/Slag 0 to 10% 10 to 20%
*
Radiation/Conduction/Convection 10 to 50% 0 to 10%
Molten Metal 40 to 80% 10 to 40%
* Heat lost from walls
The ferrous melting efficiency is much lower than listed due to the use of electricity, which involves sizeable energy losses
during generation and transmission.

Exhibit 6: Heat loss through various modes and useful energy

7
3.3 Melting Process Emissions

Emissions formed as a result of the melting process are a concern in improving melting
technology. Emissions are primarily generated from two sources during the melting process:
Emissions related to energy supply
Emissions related to preparing, refining and treating

Energy supply emissions are the result of combustion either at the melting facility or at the plant
generating the electric power used in melting. Preparing, refining and metal treating also result in
emissions that are related to the raw materials brought into the process.

Sixty percent of the metal casting industrys energy requirements is supplied by natural gas and
27% from electricity. The remainder includes other fuel sources such as coke and breeze.11
Natural gas is the cleanest burning of all the fossil fuels. Composed primarily of methane, the
main products of the combustion of natural gas are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor.
Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particles from natural gas
combustion are one to three orders of magnitude lower than that for coal and fuel oil, as shown
in Exhibit 7.
Emissions
Natural Gas Oil Coal
(pounds per billion Btu of energy input)
Carbon Dioxide 117,000 164,000 208,000
Carbon Monoxide 40 33 208
Nitrogen Oxides 92 448 457
Sulfur Dioxide 1 1,122 2,591
Particulates 7 94 2,744
Mercury 0 0.007 0.016
Source: EIA - Natural Gas Issues and Trends 1998
Exhibit 7: Fossil fuel emission levels

Melting systems that use electricity do not produce onsite emissions related to the actual heating
of materials. However, significant offsite emissions are produced in the generation and
transmission of electricity. These offsite emissions are directly related to the fuels used to
produce electricity. The major fuels for electric power generation are coal, producing about 51%
of the electricity in the United States; nuclear, producing 20%; and natural gas, producing 6%.
The low efficiency of electricity generation and transmission is also an important factor to
consider in energy and emission analyses. It requires about 10,600 Btu of fuel to produce 1 kWh
(3,412 Btu) of electricity. When coke is used as a fuel and a carbon source in melting furnaces
(e.g., for iron and steel melting), emissions consist mainly of CO2 and CO from incomplete
combustion and to a lesser extent, NOx and SOx.

Emissions related to preparing, refining, and treating are generated in varying amounts
depending on the degree of processing that must be accomplished. These emissions result from
the dirt, moisture, and metallic impurities in the metal charge; erosion and corrosion products
from the metals contact with the refractory; and the addition of alloying elements and treatment
chemicals used for removal of impurities and dissolved gases.

8
3.4 Selecting Appropriate Melting Technology

Industrial operations have to address a broad range of considerations that have a direct effect on
their bottom line when faced with the choice of melting technologies. These factors include:
Space availability (floor space & height) Capital investment
Type and variety of alloys to be melted Quantity of the metal required
Fluctuations in metal demand during operation Alloying requirement
Quality of the metal Operating costs, especially in labor
Quantity of dross/slag Reliability of the equipment
Emissions and environmental considerations Durability of the furnace
Maintenance requirements

Since each foundry may attribute a different priority to each one of these factors, there is no
one-size-fits-all decision in the selection of melting technologies. Energy efficiency is not
necessarily the only significant criterion in selecting melting equipment. Where energy costs are
high (e.g., in Europe), energy efficiency has been an operating priority for many years. For
example, stack furnaces are more common than reverberatory furnaces for melting aluminum in
Europe. However, in the United States, 95% of aluminum is melted in gas reverberatory
furnaces, which operate with energy efficiency of 20-30% but require lower capital cost and
provide easier operation and maintenance than stack melters.

A furnace design must meet some requirements to provide for an efficient melting process.
These requirements include the ability to produce high-quality metal, to accurately control bath
temperatures, to minimize metal losses, and to meet environmental concerns, while maintaining
high energy efficiency. Although the cost of fuels, metals and labor are constantly changing
variables, energy efficiency will always be an important consideration, especially in the face of
the current trend of rapidly rising energy costs. Improving efficiency of melting, while
addressing all other aspects of the operation, is critical in keeping the metal casting industry
competitive.12

4. Current and Emerging Melting Technologies and

Practices

This section of the report describes different types of melting technologies that are currently used
in the metal casting industry. It discusses their benefits, technical barriers, and scale-up issues,
and examines advances in furnace technologies that improve energy efficiency and reduce melt
loss. Non-conventional melting technologies are included even though their practical application
may be limited, as they offer alternative approaches and add to our knowledge base in the
melting technology field. Additionally, the more practical energy-saving opportunities are
described, such as retrofits for existing furnace systems, changes in fuel source, and best
practices.

9
4.1 Established Melting Furnaces

4.1.1 Crucible Furnaces

A crucible furnace is the least expensive melting method preferred for melting small volumes of
non-ferrous metals. They are popular in jobbing foundries and die casting shops because they are
easy to tap and charge with another alloy. There is no direct impingement of the flame on the
metal, and the heat loss to the outside is limited by the refractory walls.13 However, the energy
efficiency of the crucible furnace is low at 7 to 19%, with over 60% of the heat loss attributed to
radiation. The life of the crucible furnace is short and temperature control is difficult.

Radiant energy transmission in a gas

crucible furnace can be minimized by
installing a radiant panel lining,14 which
combines a dense, high-alumina radiant
panel with low thermal mass insulation
back-up material. The radiant panels
incorporate a series of raised nodules
(Exhibit 8). This design creates a high
surface area that promotes radiant energy
transfer to the outer surface of the crucible.
Backing up the non-insulating radiant panel
with low thermal conductivity refractory
Source: Case Western Reserve University
insulation products allows the outside
Exhibit 8: Radiant panel installed in gas
crucible furnace surface of the furnace to stay cooler,
reducing heat loss through the sides of the
furnace and increasing the efficiency of the furnace. The pre-fired radiant panels do not require
mixing or drying-out period as in castable linings, nor do they require forms to be placed and
removed. It is estimated that the technology can improve crucible furnace efficiency by 30% and
improve the melt rates. A benchmarking study by Case Western Reserve University is currently
underway to substantiate these claims.

4.1.2 Cupola Furnaces

The cupola furnace is a vertical shaft furnace used primarily for melting cast iron (Exhibit 9). It
is similar in principle (except in scale) to the blast furnace used for chemically reducing metal
oxides in the production of iron, zinc and lead. Typically, cupola melting is used in large tonnage
foundries (e.g., plants producing cast iron pipes or automotive parts). In fact, 60% of iron casting
tonnage is melted in a cupola. The cupola is ideal for melting cast iron because the molten
droplets of metal directly contact the coke and flux during their descent, saturating the liquid iron
with carbon and refining the metal product. This structure allows the cupola to melt nearly
almost all ferrous scrap. The energy efficiency of cupola melting ranges from 40 to over 70%.
Although the concept of cupola melting has not changed in recent years, best practices include
many new technologies to improve energy efficiency and productivity.

10
 Source: Metals Handbook by ASM International (pg. 753)
Exhibit 9: Sectional view of conventional (non-water cooled) & water-cooled cupolas
(The conventional type is refractory lined. Water-cooled types incorporate either an enclosed jacket
or an open cascade flow.)

The potential areas of improvement in cupola melting are as follows.

Refractories: Solid materials charged into the top of the cupola slowly move downward as the
heat melts the charge. This movement creates abrasive conditions which wears the refractories
rapidly. The conventional designs of cupolas used refractory-lined shells and were typically
limited to short periods of operation (~1 week) before requiring refractory relining or
repairing/maintenance. Water-cooled cupolas use a steel internal surface with little to no
refractory materials, reducing maintenance and extending the continuous operating time to over
two weeks. However, water cooling results in significantly greater energy losses requiring higher
charge rates of coke per ton of iron produced. This problem has led to improved designs using a
smaller volume of water on the outside of the shell in addition to a thin refractory lining. The
steep temperature gradient on the inside cupola wall maintains a thin layer of refractory
throughout the melting campaign. The aggressive melting conditions in modern cupolas has
resulted in the development of new cement castables and spray monolithic linings (requiring no
forms) which provide superior properties in terms of wear, heat transfer, and ease of installation
and repair.15

Air Blast Preheating: Hot blast operations offer several advantages like energy savings, lower
sulfur pick-up, and higher carbon pick-up. However, these benefits are substantially reduced if
the blast air temperature is below 400C (750F). Therefore, secondary gas/oil firing is often
used to supplement recuperative waste gas systems to produce high-temperature blast air
consistently. Some new cupola installations with efficient off-gas combustion systems (which
utilize the energy associated with CO emissions) and waste heat recuperators preheat the hot

11
blast air up to 650oC (1,200F).16 Also, some plants dehumidify the hot blast air as it reduces the
rate of coke consumption.

Oxygen Enrichment of Blast: Plants using oxygen enrichment typically add oxygen at volumetric
flow rates of 2 to 20% of the blast air to increase the temperature and the melt rate. Oxygen is
usually introduced at the tuyere level of the cupola. Oxygen enrichment is common in the United
States and Europe, especially in large cupolas. However, the process is not widely used in
smaller shops because oxygen enrichment is difficult to justify in terms of cost (of oxygen).

Supplemental Energy: Although coke is the main source of energy for cupola melting, the use of
supplemental energy is a promising way for improving energy and operational efficiency of
cupola melting. Oxygen-fuel burners with dust injection systems provide a method of recycling
plant-generated residues (cupola dust, finishing dust, and sand reclamation dust) while increasing
the cupola volume for melting, leading to better energy efficiency.17 Injection of powdered
alloying materials also provides a method of quickly adjusting the iron chemistry.

Intelligent Control: The harsh interior of the cupola has made it difficult to introduce the sensors
required to measure and control process variables.
Therefore, many cupolas are operated in open-loop
mode. Recently, computer models have become
available, including neural network models, to provide
rapid estimates of process variables for use in
automated control schemes. Computer control of the
cupola process lowers material and processing costs,
reduces scrap and improves quality.

Plasma-Fired Cupola: This technology was developed

by Westinghouse Electric Corporation with
participation from several major U.S. foundries.18 As
shown in Exhibit 10, a plasma torch is installed in the
tuyere zone of the cupola where blast air is supplied
Center for Material Production and mixed with the plasma torch flow in a special
mixing chamber. This arrangement is reported to
Exhibit 10: Plasma cupola
increase productivity (up to 60%) from decoupling of
the combustion process and total heat input to the cupola. Air blast velocity and penetration can
be lower due to the high-energy output of the plasma torch, resulting in lower cost of air
pollution control and less dependency on premium quality coke. Smaller-sized anthracite coal
can be used without a negative effect on the melt rate or the composition. Since the conditions in
the furnace are less reducing, charge material can be very thin and include materials such as cast
iron borings without oxidation loss of silicon. A commercial-scale plasma cupola was built with
1.5 MW plasma torch in each of the six tuyeres at General Motors Powertrain Plant in Defiance,
Ohio.19 This plant demonstrated that a plasma-fired cupola could be operated economically and
melt up to 75% iron borings.

12
Cokeless Cupola: Iron is melted in this cupola
using fuels such as natural gas, propane, diesel
oil or pulverized coal in place of coke. Although
invented over 30 years ago, only a few large
foundries in Europe and India have adopted the
technology. A water-cooled grate supports
specially developed refractory spheres, which
act as heat exchangers in a cokeless cupola
(Exhibit 11). Below the grate are burners, which
are operated to impart partially reducing
conditions inside the cupola to reduce oxidation
losses. The hot gases from the burners maintain
the bed of spheres at high temperature, and
Source: DOE, EERE Energy Environmental Profile of the
preheat and melt the scrap in the shaft. The U.S. Metal Casting Industry
metal is superheated in passing through the bed Exhibit 11: Cokeless gas-melting
and is then collected in the well prior to tapping. cupola
A carburizer is continually injected into the well
to give the correct carbon analysis. Elimination of coke decreases the CO content in the waste
gas to 1%, indicating more efficient energy use when compared with the 12 to 20% CO emission
typical in a conventional cupola. Use of cokeless cupolas simplifies the emission control system
and results in lower sulfur content in metal and reduced slag production.

Cokeless cupolas are typically operated at relatively low tapping temperatures of about 1,400oC
(2,550F) to extend the refractory life, followed by superheating and re-carburization in an
electric furnace. Cokeless cupolas duplexing through electric furnaces are presently in use in
Germany, Spain, Japan, Austria, and Korea. In terms of energy efficiency, a typical cold blast
cupola averaging 12% coke consumption and 1,450C (2,640F) tap temperature effectively
utilizes 40% of the energy input while a cokeless cupola with natural gas consumption of 50
Nm3/t (1,770Nft3/t) and an iron temperature of 1,380C (2,520F) utilizes 72% of the available
energy.20

4.1.3 Electric Arc Furnaces

Steel automobile shredded scrap with high residual elements and virgin iron raw materials, such
as direct reduced iron, are difficult to melt efficiently in a cupola or coreless induction furnace.
Cupola melting requires clean steel scrap and coke, materials that are becoming increasingly
scarce and expensive. Electric arc furnaces are well suited for these purposes. Almost 87% of the
electric arc furnaces are used to melt steel (or iron and steel) and 13% to melt iron.21

Electric arc furnace uses electrodes that are lowered to strike an arc on the cold scrap; the
electrical system automatically controls the level of the electrode, lifting and lowering each
individual electrode according to the electrical settings. The arc provides heat by radiation and
current resistance (through the metal) to melt the scrap.22 An intrinsic advantage of electrical
heating is the lower metal loss.

13
 Source: DOE, EERE Energy Environmental Profile of the U.S. Metal Casting Industry

Exhibit 12: Electric arc furnace

Nearly all furnaces are three-phase AC direct arc with three electrodes in a dome-shaped
refractory roof (Exhibit 12). The hearth and sidewalls are typically lined with bricks, monolithic
materials, or a combination of both. Acid refractories (silica-based), basic refractories
(magnesite-based), and in some cases, neutral refractories (alumina-based) are used to line the
furnace sidewalls, hearth, and roof. All major additions are made to the furnace through the roof
by swinging the roof out of the way and charging scrap, fluxes, and carbon from loaded buckets.

Most foundry steel is melted in electric arc furnaces. Energy losses from the surface of the bath
are large due to the large surface area to volume ratio of the furnace resulting in significant
energy losses during delays in the operation. In addition, the large surface area of the furnace
results in large losses through the refractory walls, hearth, and roof. Nearly all steel foundries
blow oxygen into the bath after most of the scrap is melted which generates chemical energy
from exothermic decarburization, assisting in the melting process. Some operations use
additional sources of chemical energy to decrease tap-to-tap time.

The first continuous submerged direct current electric arc (Contiarc) furnace for melting iron was
installed by American Cast Iron Pipe Company (ACIPCO) in July 2001. The key to the electric
arc furnaces molten iron production is that it can tap, charge, and arc continuously and
simultaneously. As a result, the power does not need to be turned off to tap or charge the furnace.
The submerged arc design and the continuous nature of the furnace operation make it more
energy efficient than the cupola. In addition, the furnace can either take low-grade steel scrap,
direct reduced iron and/or hot briquette iron and combine it with coal and silica to melt steel or
smelt iron in the same furnace system, producing 80 ton/hour.

14
4.1.4 Immersion Heaters (Low-Temperature Melting)

Immersion furnaces or heaters are currently used

for low-temperature melting of zinc. The heat is
generated by combustion or electrical resistance
inside a tube submerged in molten material (Exhibit
13). The heat is efficiently transmitted to the molten
material through the wall of the tube by conduction.
Combustion gases are never exposed to the molten
metal, reducing oxidation losses and enhancing heat
transfer to the molten metal.23 The efficiency of a
zinc immersion furnace is high at 63 to 67%24 and
provides melting rates of up to 1,600 lbs/hr.

Immersion heat tubes are typically made of metallic

materials that have high thermal conductivity and Source: Metals Processing Advisor
are coated with ceramic or cement materials to www.energysolutionscenter.org

resist corrosive attack by the molten metal. When Exhibit 13: Immersion heater
melting aluminum or other higher-temperature-
melting materials, heavier ceramic coatings are applied because these molten materials act more
aggressively on the tubes. The ceramic coatings, however, act as a thermal barrier and lower the
productivity of the immersion heater. The mechanical demands on ceramic-coated metallic tubes
are also very high. These tubes must be structurally strong to survive in an industrial
environment and must be able to operate under frequent thermal cycling. A small crack in the
coating can lead to rapid destruction of the tube and lost productivity. Higher-temperature
melting furnaces utilizing immersion tubes are still considered experimental, and efforts have
been made to develop more robust and protective tubes (see section 4.2.2).

4.1.5 Induction Furnaces

Induction furnaces have increased in capacity to where modern high-power-density induction

furnaces are competing successfully with cupola melting (Exhibit 14). There are fewer chemical
reactions to manage in induction furnaces than in cupola furnaces, making it easier to achieve
melt composition. However, induction melting is more sensitive to quality of charge materials
when compared to cupola or electric arc furnace, limiting the types of scrap that can be melted.
The inherent induction stirring provides excellent metal homogeneity. Induction melting
produces a fraction of the fumes that result from melting in an electric arc furnace (heavy metal
fumes and particulate emissions) or cupola (wide range of undesirable gaseous and particulate
emissions as a result of the less restrictive charge materials).25

15
 Source: DOE, EERE Energy Environmental Profile of the U.S. Metal Casting Industry

Exhibit 14: Schematic of induction furnace

A new generation of industrial induction melting furnaces has been developed during the last 25
years.26,27,28,29 The development of flexible, constant power-tracking, medium-frequency
induction power supplies has resulted in the widespread use of the batch melting methods in
modern foundries. The batch-melting furnace empties the furnace after each cycle, reducing the
power required for holding. These power units incorporate heavy-duty silicon-controlled
rectifiers that are able to generate both the frequency and the amperage needed for batch melting
and are able to achieve electrical efficiency levels exceeding 97%, a substantial improvement
over the 85% efficiency typical of induction power supplies of the 1970s. The new designs allow
maximum utilization of furnace power throughout the melting cycle with good control of stirring.
Some of the largest commercial units are capable of melting at nearly 60 tons per hour and small
furnaces with very high power densities of 700 to 1,000 kWh/ton can now melt a cold charge in
30 to 35 minutes.

These newer power supplies improve the overall melting efficiency and furnace production at
lower operation and fixed costs. Electrical efficiency is improved by the higher electrical
resistance of the solid charge material compared with that of the molten metal. Melting in
batches without a liquid heel allows for melting of lower-quality (less expensive) scraps
containing moisture or oil residues without having to dry them first. At the same time, refractory
materials in linings have improved due to new materials and reduced average thermal stress.30
Induction furnaces have benefited from improvements in the following areas:

Scrap Charging Systems: Scrap sorting and charging systems that achieve higher density
charges show increase in efficiency through increase in coil efficiency and shortening of melting
time. Furnace loading time has been shortened by utilizing special vibrating conveyor systems
designed to directly feed scrap into the furnace during melting. Melting time is reduced by
preheating the charge before loading to remove moisture and residual oil.

Furnace Designs: Newer furnaces with more efficient and larger power supplies (kWh capacity
per ton) reduce energy consumption. Dual-output power supplies, increasing the production and
efficiency of a single power supply, have been shown to be effective in melting steel. In addition,
new high power density furnaces have been designed with heavy copper tubing, rigid structural

16
elements, advanced coil insulation, and noise reduction. Wide-bodied furnaces for large capacity
operations allow loading of larger scrap and give better access for slag removal.

Furnace Covers: The use of furnace cover is critical to energy efficiency once the metal is
molten. The simplest system is to keep a slag on the molten metal, reducing radiation losses from
the top surface. Higher efficiency systems include furnace lids constructed from refractories or
ceramics with low thermal conductivity, which reduces conduction and radiation heat losses.

Harmonics Controls: Harmonics problem, or feedback of electrical equipment on the power

source, can be caused by the high power of the furnace power supplies. These power interface
problems include low-power factor, high-frequency harmonics, line voltage notching, and inter-
harmonic distortions. Special technologies and equipments have been developed to minimize the
negative influence of induction furnaces on the power supply. Computerized controls and
diagnostic systems are available to provide close control of the melting operation and reduce the
chances of accidental overheating. A typical control system uses information from load cells for
the weight of the furnace charge and thermocouple readings for melt control optimization.

Multiple-Output Power Supplies: Dual-output or butterfly operations utilize a single power

supply and two furnaces with mechanized or electronic switching. This results in continuous and
completely controllable power to two furnaces at the same time. Recently, multiple-output power
units with three or more outputs have been developed. These new systems are designed with
capacitive furnace isolation and include one or two AC rectifiers. Such systems are capable of
achieving the high volumes of metal production previously possible only with cupolas.

Refractories: Push-out lining systems use a large plug to quickly remove the old lining for easy
disposal. This system reduces time and cost for periodic lining changes, lowers refractory dust,
and is less likely to damage back-up lining than manual refractory removal.31 In addition, lining
life has been improved to nearly 400 heats by optimizing melt parameters, lining compositions,
lining installation techniques and sintering procedures.32One of the major technical hurdles to
operating induction furnaces for extended periods is chemical erosion of the silica linings, one of
the main causes of lining failure.

4.1.6 Reverberatory Furnaces

Reverberatory furnaces melt aluminum with the heat that re-radiates from the hot refractory
heated by the burners mounted in the roof or in a sidewall of the furnace, as shown in Exhibit 15.
The molten metal is held inside the furnace at the required temperature before it is tapped out for
pouring or transferred to a holding furnace.

17
 Exhibit 15: Reverberatory furnace schematic33

Gas reverberatory furnaces are commonly used in large nonferrous casting foundries as they
provide a large reservoir of molten metal, ensuring a steady and reliable supply of molten metal
to the shop. For this reason, many large- and medium-sized shops use them as central melters to
supply multiple operations located within the shop. Typical capacity of the furnace can range
widely from 1 to 75,000 tons. The advantages of reverberatory furnaces reside in high-volume
processing rates and low maintenance costs.

There are two types of gas reverberatory furnace based on whether the sows, ingots, and revert
materials are preheated before melting or not. A dry hearth reverberatory charges and preheats
sows, ingots, and revert materials on a slope between the charging door and the molten metal
bath, removing any contamination or water residue prior to melting, preventing splashing or
explosions. A wet bath reverberatory directly dumps the sows, ingots, and reverts into the molten
metal bath. The wet bath system is beneficial for melting scrap types with large surface to
volume ratios, which may oxidize excessively unless melted quickly.

Another type is a side-well reverberatory furnace that consists of a number of burners firing
inside the hearth, against the furnaces hot wall or door. A charging well and a pump well are
attached to the furnaces hot wall on the outside of the furnace. Both wells are connected to each
other and with the furnace hearth by arches, which permit aluminum circulation between the
furnace chambers.34 During the charging period of the furnace cycle, molten aluminum circulates
through the charge well where it melts the scrap, then circulates back into the hearth for
reheating. Charging continues until the molten bath reaches the desired level. Subsequent steps
in the smelting process may include degassing and alloying.

Although the reverberatory furnace has the advantages of large supply of molten metal, it has
low energy efficiency, high oxidation rate, and large floor space requirement. The energy
efficiency of the reverberatory furnaces ranges from 20 to 25%. Energy is mainly lost through
the hot flue gases. In addition, as the molten metal comes in contact with the furnace gases, it
forms slag/dross. The melt loss rate is 3 to 5% in aluminum gas reverberatory operations.35
Improvements in burner technology, fuel/air ratio control, insulating refractories, and
temperature control have contributed to a slow but steady improvement in the efficiency of

18
reverberatory furnace. Energy benefits from refractories in reverberatory furnace alone could
save up to 78 trillion Btu per year.36

4.1.7 Rotary Furnaces

Rotary furnaces are an alternative for all small- and mid-sized foundries using cupola furnaces or
induction furnaces.37 They are more efficient than reverb furnaces, transferring heat via both
radiation and direct contact between the melt and the refractory as the heat passes beneath the
charge (Exhibit 16).

SECO/WARWICK Corporation

Exhibit 16: Rotary furnace

The air/fuel rotary furnaces that were used to melt iron, lead, brass and aluminum have almost
disappeared in the foundry industry because they had low melting rates and were difficult to
control the temperature and quality. However, in the last decade, a new generation of rotary
furnaces has been introduced which are fully automated and include a tilting mechanism for the
furnace.38 The ability of the furnace to tilt minimizes the amount of time spent on non-melting
operations such as charging, tapping, drossing off and cleaning. As compared to the old type, the
new generation of rotary furnaces uses oxygen to combust the fuel. Higher melting rates, reduced
emissions, consistent metal composition and lower fuel consumption are achieved with this
furnace because the hot refractory rotates to transfer more heat to the charge/bath via direct
contact. (Direct-charging oily scrap can further reduce effective Btu/lb requirements in rotary
furnaces due to the combustion of the evolved hydrocarbons.) Other advantages of the system
are its minimal space requirement, ease of operation, and simplicity to maintain.

A properly designed door and control system enable more efficient furnace operation by
monitoring flue gas emissions, temperature, and furnace rotation parameters. Adding a door and
control system to an oxy-fuel double-pass rotary furnace often increases production by 15%.
Other advantages of a properly designed door include radiation heat loss reduced by almost 1

19
million Btu/hr, better control of free oxygen from elimination of air entrainment, reduced dusting
and noise, and improved fuel efficiency of up to 20%. These benefits can cut processing cost by
a further 10% compared to furnaces without a door.39

4.1.8 Stack Furnaces

The stack furnaces are receiving more attention in recent years due to their higher energy
efficiency than of the reverberatory furnaces. It can be considered as a modified reverberatory
where its efficiency is improved by better sealing of the furnace and the use of the flue gases to
preheat the charge materials. The charge materials slide down the shaft and reach the melting
zone where they are melted by the burners, and the molten metal flows down to the holding area
(Exhibit 17). The hot exhaust gases from the melting zone flow through the shaft to preheat the
incoming charge, improving the energy efficiency of the stack furnace by 40 to 50%.

Source: Case Western Reserve University

Exhibit 17: Schematic of stack furnace

The disadvantage of the stack furnace is that due to the charging mechanism, the height of the
stack furnace has to be more than 20 feet.40 In addition, as the furnace is charged from the top of
the shaft, the refractories at the bottom of the charging door are subjected to repeated impact and
wear. This requires additional maintenance. The stack furnace can be coupled with other melting
systems to improve its efficiency. For example, it can be used with a crucible furnace, reducing
its melt losses since the crucible melts by indirect heat to the metal through the wall of the
furnace.

20
4.2 Experimental Melting Furnaces

Several innovative melting technologies are being currently experimented world over, each with
its advantages and barriers that are keeping it from wide commercial applicability. Exhibit 18
lists these technologies with their current capacities.

Experimental Melting Technologies Capacities

100 to 3,000 kW power melting cast ingots of sizes up to 10 ton for
Electron Beam Melting steel, 2-5 ton for titanium, up to 2 ton for zirconium, and 5 ton for
41
niobium, tantalum and molybdenum
2
Immersion Heater (High-Temperature 70,000 Btu/hr-ft in Isothermal Melting Process (ITM); melt rate of
42
Melting) 2.5-3.75 tons/hr
Infrared Heating Heating at 50-400C/sec (120-750F/sec)
Melting one to hundreds of pounds of titanium, aluminum, gold, or
Microwave Melting 43
silver at a rate of 1 ton/hr (still under development)
44
Plasma Heating Melting 4,000 tons per year at 5,100 kWh
Melting temperature up to 33,000C (60,000F) and producing over
Solar Furnace
1,000 kWh of energy

Exhibit 18: Experimental melting technologies and their capacities

4.2.1 Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

EBM furnaces melt the metal by focusing a beam of electrons from an electron gun on the metal.
When the electrons strike the material, their energy is absorbed in quantities sufficient to melt the
metal. EBM method was first introduced in 1907 to melt high-melting-point metals, such as
tantalum and tungsten. It was not until recently that electron beam was recognized for its
application in metal-purifying processes. This is the principal technology for processing of
reactive metal scrap. EB technology is also the only technology that makes it possible to monitor
the cleanliness of metals using specially designed button melters.

There are two processes used today: drip melting and

electron beam cold-hearth refining (EBCHR). Drip
melting melts the metal in a water-cooled ingot mold
enabling removal of entrapped gases and evaporation of
all impurities as their vapor pressures exceed that of the
metal being processed. In EBCHR, the molten metal
flows along a water-cooled hearth before entering a
water-cooled ingot (Exhibit 19). While flowing along
the hearth, high- and low-density inclusions are
removed in addition to evaporative purification. High-
density inclusions settle and are removed in the scull,
while lighter inclusions either are dissolved in the metal
or held back by a dam prior to flowing into the ingot.
Source: http://www.timet.com/naops/vebchrmelt.html
Exhibit 19: Electron Beam Cold-
Hearth Refining

21
EBM is distinguished by its refining capacity. However, electron beam technology is primarily
for melting refractory metals and laboratory-scale melts. One of the disadvantages of the electron
beam process is its high capital cost due to its requirement of vacuum pumps. In addition, the fit
up must be precise and locating the parts with respect to the beam must be perfect.45 Therefore,
the technology is not applicable in typical foundry operations.

4.2.2 Immersion Heaters (High-Temperature Melting)

Immersion heaters, although well established for melting zinc, is currently not well-adapted for
melting metals with higher melting points. The protective ceramic coatings pose thermal barrier,
lowering the melting efficiency. Several ITP Metal Casting projects are currently focusing on
enabling this technology commercially.

One ITP-sponsored project addresses the critical need for advanced materials that are lighter,
stronger, and more corrosion-resistant than metals.46 Work has been done to optimize the nitride-
bonded, silicon-carbide-fiber-reinforced Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composite (CFCC)
immersion tube burners for application in aluminum and other light metal melting. The project
validated that CFCC materials are stable in molten aluminum and in combustion gas for long
periods. When tested at an industrial site, the immersion tube survived over 1,000 hours and 31
cycles in an aluminum casting furnace. In another testing, the immersion tube successfully
survived for 1,752 hours in the furnace.

ITP has also been supporting research effort in the development of intermetallic alloys that
possess improved or unique environmental resistance, which can result in efficiency benefits and
energy savings.47 Recently, researchers developed Ni3Al alloy that can withstand service
temperatures of 100 to 150C (180-270F) higher than commercial Ni3Al alloys. Other alloys
under study are based on the intermetallic alloy FeAl. These alloys can resist carburization and
sulfidation that most commercial alloys cannot. In addition, alloys based on Ni3Si are being
developed. The Ni3Si alloys have good mechanical properties and excellent resistance to
oxidizing conditions, such as in sulfuric acid and seawater, and to ammonia at temperatures up to
900C (1,650F). These kinds of intermetallic alloys can be applied in immersion heater tubes to
withstand any wear from chemical reactions.

An ITP cost-shared project called Isothermal Melting (ITM) shows promise for developing
future models with in-plant thermal efficiencies of 97%. New materials and construction
techniques allow immersion heaters to be built with high heat flux (approximately 70,000 Btu/hr-
ft2) and external coatings that provide mechanical and chemical protection. These new heater
designs are based on a highly conductive, impact- resistant ceramic coating on a metallic sheath
and a highly thermally conductive, dielectric integral coupling medium between the sheath and
the heat-producing element. This allows heat transfer by conduction to be the dominant mode,
rather than particle-to-particle radiation heat transfer that prevails in conventional electric
immersion heaters with compacted powder coupling media. The composite refractory coating is
resistant to corrosive attack by the molten aluminum, yet sufficiently thin enough to provide a
high heat flux. High flux heaters incorporated into the ITM are practical for large-scale
applications.48

22
Another project sponsored by the ITP Metal Casting is developing integrated retrofit
technologies for clean aluminum melting systems by focusing on immersion heating coupled
with metal circulation systems.49 This is being achieved through substitution of conventional
radiant burner method with immersion heating in reverberatory furnaces. The program will
enable cost-effective retrofits to a range of existing furnace sizes, reducing economic barrier to
implementing new applications.

4.2.3 Infrared Heating

Infrared heating is currently being employed by the forging industry; this technology can also be
used for die heating and heat treatment in the metal casting industry. It offers a method for
reducing time and energy costs of die preheating. A study conducted by ORNL indicated that the
surface of the die can be heated to 300C (572F) in less than 20 minutes.50 An infrared panel
heater can bring the furnace to full power in a matter of seconds, saving energy to maintain a hot
furnace while idle (Exhibit 20).51 The rapid heating could also reduce heat-treatment cycle time
and increase product throughput.

Infrared radiation is often supplied by high-intensity quartz heat lamps, producing radiation of
around 1 micron wavelength. This radiation melts metals with uniform heat distribution. The
high-density infrared technology can achieve a heating rate of 50 to 400C/sec (120 to
750F/sec).52

Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Exhibit 20: Electric infrared flatbed furnace

(used for both laboratory and industrial testing)

Recently, DOE funded a study on surface treatments on refractories used in aluminum

processing.53 High-density infrared processing will be used to apply corrosion-resistant, high
emissivity coatings on refractories so as to reduce its porosity.

23
4.2.4 Microwave Melting

Originally developed by the DOEs Y-12 National Security Complex for melting of uranium,
microwave technology is now capable of melting a wide range of alloys in large quantities.54
While conventional heating involves transferring of heat through the outer surface of the material
to the interior, microwaves can penetrate the mass, enabling rapid transfer of high-intensity heat
throughout the bulk. This translates into significant savings in time and energy.

Three basic elements are required to heat and

melt bulk metals using microwaves: a
multimode microwave cavity, a microwave-
absorbing ceramic crucible, and a thermally
insulating casket that is microwave-transparent.
Although metal is supposed to reflect
microwaves, researchers at Y-12 and
Pennsylvania State University found that metal
actually starts to absorb the energy and heat at
three-fourths of the melting temperature.55 A
uniquely designed suscepting crucible used for
microwave melting is shown in Exhibit 21.56
The metal charge is placed in an open (no lid)
ceramic crucible, and the insulating casket is
positioned to cover the open crucible
completely. The heated crucible walls quickly
heat the metal charged in the crucible by means
of radiation, conduction, and convection. The Source: Y-12 National Security Complex

thermally insulating casket increases the energy Exhibit 21: Suscepting crucible
efficiency of the microwave system by trapping
the heat generated in the crucible. According to a Y-12 publication, microwave melting could cut
melting cost by 30%. Germany and Japan are taking a strong lead in the microwave technology
applications in high-temperature processes and microwave-assisted kilns/furnaces.

Some of the current focus areas in microwave melting technology include use of microwaves for
roasting ores, heat-treating glass, detoxifying filter dusts and slag in the metal industry, and
decontaminating asbestos containing wastes.57 In addition, research is being conducted by
Michigan Technological University using a combination of microwave, electric arc and
exothermic reactions to heat and smelt iron.58 Since iron ore and carbon are excellent microwave
absorbers, microwave technologies can aid more effective melting in electric arc furnaces used in
steel foundries.

However, bulk metals do not readily couple directly with microwave energy at room temperature
because they are electrically conductive, readily reflecting the incident energy.59 In addition,
microwave melting requires 2.35 micron radiation which is very expensive. This limits the use of
microwave melting to high-end processes and alloys such as investment casting and super alloys.

24
4.2.5 Plasma Heating

Plasmas are gaseous collections of electrically

charged particles such as electrons and protons.
These charged particles carry energy; as the ionized
plasma flow hits the metal surface, it releases its
energy melting the metal.

The plasma melting process is proved to be more

energy efficient than the conventional melting
technologies as it can raise the temperature very
rapidly (Exhibit 22). Plasma aluminum melting
furnaces are reported to impart heat 60% quicker
than the conventional high rate melters. Due to the
fast heat transfer, the melting process is also rapid.
The energy consumption rate is as low as
Exhibit 22: Plasma heating
0.198 kWh/lb (of aluminum) compared to 0.345
kWh/lb (of aluminum) in induction melting.60

The plasma melting process also minimizes metal loss due to oxidation and contamination. The
plasma keeps a thin oxide film on molten metal intact, protecting the molten metal from
absorbing gases. In fact, the dross rate of melting aluminum is lowered to less than 1% compared
to the conventional 3 to 12%.61 Plasma heating also reduces the cost of fuel. A recent
development of plasma heating utilizes ambient air and converts it to nitrogen, eliminating the
need to purchase expensive gases such as nitrogen or argon required in conventional plasma
heating.

4.2.6 Solar Furnaces

Solar furnaces use large arrays of mirrors to concentrate

the sun's energy into a small space and produce high
heat flux and very high temperatures (Exhibit 23). They
can achieve temperatures up to 33,000C (60,000F)
and produce over 1,000 kWh of energy. Solar furnace
system consists of a solar concentrator, featuring
advanced structural mirrors, and system controls, which
provide fully automated operation, fault detection, data
acquisition, and communications. The sun-tracking
mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver that sits on
top of a platform extended about 18 feet from the wall
mirrors. The receiver collects and transfers the suns
heat to experimental equipment.

One aspect of the solar system that makes it appealing

for electricity production at remote sites is its ability to
Source: The Institute for Material Science and
operate automatically. Without operator intervention or Process Engineering (IMP)
even onsite human presence, it starts up each morning Exhibit 23: Solar furnace

25
at dawn and operates throughout the day, responding to clouds and wind as needed. Finally, it
shuts itself down at sunset. The system can be monitored and controlled over the Internet.62

Although solar furnaces are the ideal metal melting systems in terms of energy efficiency, they
are very capital intensive and operate only under a sunny sky. These furnaces also require acres
of land to place the reflective mirrors. Because of these restrictions, solar furnace is used mainly
for scientific experiments, lacking the practicality to be applicable immediately in typical
foundry operations.

4.3 Heat Recovery Methods

Much of the heat produced in melting operation is lost to atmosphere. When this waste energy is
re-used, it may save up to approximately 20%63 of a facilitys energy cost and, in some cases,
reduce emissions. Waste-heat-recovery devices (recuperators, regenerators, shaft/stack melters,
etc.) simply transfer thermal energy from the high-temperature effluent stream to a lower-
temperature input stream (make-up air or metal charge). Waste-heat-conversion methods, such
as absorption refrigeration, thermoelectrics and thermionics, utilize the elevated flue gas
temperatures to drive energy conversion devices.

4.3.1 Recuperators

A recuperator is a gas-to-gas heat exchanger

placed on the stack of the furnace (Exhibit 24).
Heat recuperators recover heat from the exhaust
gases and heat the incoming combustion air.64
Recuperators are available in many sizes,
configurations, and temperature ranges. All rely
on tubes or plates to transfer heat from the
outgoing exhaust gas to the incoming
combustion air, while keeping the two streams
from mixing.65 Due to the continuous high-
temperature process, recuperators must be
protected against heat and may not be suitable
for unclean, corrosive exhaust gases. Chlorine
gas is frequently used to purify molten
aluminum and its byproducts are very corrosive
to a recuperators materials.
Exhibit 24: Schematic of a heat recuperator66

One of the most common recuperators is a metallic radiation recuperator, which consists of two
concentric lengths of metal tubes. The inner tube carries hot exhaust gases that radiate heat to the
inner wall of the recuperator, and the external tube carries the cooler gas to be heated.

A convective recuperator is another type of recuperator that circulates hot gases through several
small-diameter pipes contained within a larger shell. The cooler gases pass over the pipes and
absorb much of their heat.

26
A vertical tube-within-tube convective recuperator is an alternative arrangement of the
convective recuperator where the cold combustion air is heated in a tank of parallel vertical tubes
extending in to the path of flue gas stream. The tube is easy to replace during full operation,
minimizing cost, inconvenience, and equipment damage from forced shutdowns in case of
recuperator failures.67

4.3.2 Refrigeration

Absorption chillers use heat instead of mechanical energy to provide cooling for applications
such as air conditioning. They transfer their thermal energy from the heat source to the heat sink
through an absorbent fluid and a refrigerant. The two most common refrigerant/absorbent
mixtures used in absorption chillers are water/lithium bromide and ammonia/water. The
absorption chiller creates refrigerating effect by absorbing and then releasing water vapor into
and out of a refrigerant solution (Exhibit 25).68

Source: Gulf Coast CHP Application Center

Exhibit 25: Simplified absorption cycle

Absorption chillers are economically attractive because they utilize inexpensive thermal energy
(waste heat). Mechanical chillers must be driven by motor or engine; however, absorption
chillers primarily use low-grade waste heat at a temperature between 100C and 200C (212F
and 392F). These chillers can change a buildings thermal and electric energy and cost profile
by shifting cooling needs from an electric load to a waste-heat thermal load.

4.3.3 Regenerators

A regenerator is a container that is capable of absorbing and storing large amount of thermal
energy. It is charged with the hot exhaust gas during the melting operation cycle; when the
regenerator is fully charged, it stops the flow of the exhaust gas and starts allowing in

27
combustion air to pass through the regenerator. The combustion air then enters the furnace with
increased temperature.

A continuous heat recovery operation requires at least two regenerators one that provides
energy to the combustion air, while the other recharges from the flue gases (Exhibit 26). An
alternative arrangement involves a continuously rotating wheel where flue gas and the
combustion gas flow through different parts of the wheel as it rotates allowing for heat transfer.

Source: http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/35876.pdf

Exhibit 26: Schematic of a regenerator system

While recuperators separate the gas streams with physical barriers for a continuous operation,
regenerators separate gas streams by time lag and operate intermittently.69 The switching of gas
stream back and forth requires more complex, expensive control system than recuperators.

4.3.4 Thermoelectric Devices

Thermoelectric, thermionic, and IR-photovoltaic materials use temperature gradients to produce

electricity. Their conversion efficiencies today are low (typically <8%), limiting their use to
small-scale (<50,000 Btu/day of useful work) applications in niche markets where energy
efficiency is not a concern. Significant R&D worldwide is leading to development of new
materials with efficiencies of 12% and potential of up to 30% for future materials. These newer
materials may become advantageous for recovering waste heat that is lost in melting
applications.

4.4 Molten Metal Handling Systems

Handling of the molten metal at various stages in the metal casting operation (melting, holding,
and delivering) can significantly impact the overall process energy. For example, transferring

28
molten metal between furnaces or to the casting station is a critical step in the casting process
that could be improved for energy efficiency. With the rising gas and electric prices, maintaining
the temperature of the metal between the melting furnace and the pouring station can be
expensive. If the distance between the melting room and pouring room is short or negligible,
then less heat would be needed to do so.70 Thus, close proximity of the furnace to the pouring
location can add up to substantial annual savings and improved safety.

4.4.1 Dosing Furnaces

Dosing furnaces are closed holding furnaces with a

spout for direct metal delivery (Exhibit 27). They are
used to dispense an accurate amount of molten metal to
the die casting machine or mold line. The advantage of
the dosing furnace is that because of the closed
structure, it minimizes heat loss and protects the molten
metal from excessive oxidation. These furnaces require
only about one-fifth of the energy to hold 2,000 pounds
of aluminum in comparison to an open crucible furnace,
and one-third of the operating costs of a comparable
holding furnace. In Europe, dosing furnaces are
replacing ladle furnaces in die casting because of their
ability to pour accurate amount of molten metal at the Source: Case Western Reserve University

right temperature.71 Exhibit 27: Schematic of dosing

furnace

4.4.2 Electro-Magnetic Pump Systems

An electromagnetic pump (EMP) may be used to

circulate hot metal through a patented scrap charging
chamber (Exhibit 28).72 The pump circulates the
molten bath in the reverberatory furnace at a maximum
flow rate of approximately 10 tons/minute. Melting of
metal inside wells, supplied with molten metal from
electro-magnetic pumps, has become more common
since the mid-1990s.

EMP systems offer two opportunities to improve

melting efficiency: temperature homogeneity of the
melt pool and side-well melting. The melt pool in most
furnaces is stagnant, which contributes to the
http://www.sovereign-publications.com/emp.htm
development of a vertical temperature profile in the
Exhibit 28: Electro-magnetic pump
system
pool. When the surface temperature of the molten
metal is different from the floor temperature, it creates
inefficiency since radiant energy from the roof and conductive energy from the hot flue gases is
being directed at the hot side of the metal pool. Stirring of the pool with electro-magnetic pumps
can eliminate the vertical temperature profile, enhancing efficiency and productivity. Also EMP

29
systems can be used in combination with a reverberatory furnace where hot metal is circulated
by means of a high-capacity pump from the hearth to a special charging well, then back into the
hearth, either directly or through a dross-settling well.

EMP systems can be adapted and retrofitted to varied furnace configurations, including closed
hearth, twin chamber, open-well, and tilting furnaces. The pump itself has no moving parts and
requires limited preventive maintenance. High recovery rates are also achievable without the use
of salts.

4.4.3 Ladles

Ladles are also used to transfer molten metal from a holding furnace to the pouring station or
shot sleeve of a die cast machine. The automation of the ladle system allows the delivery of
molten metal in a consistent period for every cycle with accurate quantity of molten metal. The
use of auto ladling equipment has become commonplace in aluminum die casting, resulting in
less pouring-related casting defects and low burden on the manpower used in hand pouring.73
Effective insulation of the ladle allows more efficient transfer of the molten metal. This increases
ladle capacity and reduces largely operating costs. Other benefits include the ability to maintain
the current lining profile, minimize heat loss, and reduce energy consumption.74

Preheated ladles can also reduce the melting energy required in the furnace (higher tap
temperatures are required). Plants driven by productivity (tapping as many heats as possible
every shift) typically tap into ladles that are fully soaked and preheated. On the other hand, plants
that are limited in productivity by schedule (limited number of heats per shift) typically have
ladles that are not completely soaked. At this time, most ladle metallurgy consists of wire
feeding with limited use of gas stirring or metal heating.

4.4.4 Launder Systems

Improvements in launder system allow uninterrupted flow of molten metal from furnace to the
pouring station/die casting machines. This improved system eliminates time and labor expenses.
The launder is insulated well to conserve energy as the molten metal travels from the central
furnace to another location. The use of a central melting furnace with a fully covered design of
the launder substantially reduces metal loss due to oxidation and eliminates the hazards of
exposed molten metal and radiant heat to the work area. In aluminum launder systems, effective
insulation helps maintain the temperature of the molten material at approximately 750C
(1,400F) to avoid freezing the molten aluminum and to maintain consistent flow throughout
the distribution system. The recent development in insulation technology can reduce the
insulation thickness by 1.5 inches, reduce cold face temperatures by 43%, and reduce heat loss
by up to 67%. It also improves product quality and extends launder life.

30
4.4.5 Mechanical Circulating Pumps

Lack of effective circulation in the molten metal in the

furnace tends to concentrate the heat on the surface of the
molten bath and also, increase surface oxidation and dross
formation. Temperature differences within the bath can be
as high as 60 to 100C without effective circulation,75
while good circulation can reduce it to as low as 4C. The
mechanical pump (Exhibit 29) forces the circulation of the
molten metal bath, reducing convective energy loss from
the surface of the bath. Benefits of homogeneous
temperature include improved melting rate, reduced melt
cycle time, enhanced metal quality, and reduced energy
consumption. In addition, the stirring of molten bath
increases refractory life as more heat is transferred to the
metal and less is absorbed into refractories. Traditional
pump systems have graphite posts that are vulnerable to
oxidation and, therefore, require frequent replacements. A Source: Metaullics Systems
recent technology replaces graphite with stronger material Exhibit 29: Mechanical
such as ceramic and steel.76 Circulating Pump

4.5 Fuel Combustion Technologies: Oxy-Fuel Burners

Alternative combustion technologies, especially oxy-fuel burners, have been attracting

significant attention because of the increasing environmental demands for reduced emissions,
particularly of NOx and improved energy efficiency in remelt furnaces. The use of oxy-fuel
burners increases the chemical energy and decreases the electrical energy.

Increased oxygen in the furnace environment, however, can lead to greater oxidation of the melt
surface and increased dross formation. These effects translate into reduced thermal transfer to the
melt and increased melt loss. Further, some foundries are hesitant to implement oxy-fuel burners
because they are afraid of wearing the refractories at a greater rate. Balancing these apparently
competing effects has been the focus in designing combustion approaches to ideally obtain low
NOx emissions and minimal melt loss.

ITP-sponsored research has been conducted on minimizing NOx emission using oxygen-
enhanced combustion.77 Researchers found that the thermal performance of a burner was
optimized by enriching the flame within a range of 35 to 50% oxygen, consuming roughly half
of the oxygen of traditional oxy-fuel system. Use of a novel air-oxy-natural-gas burner at a
commercial furnace at Wabash Alloys plant in East Syracuse, New York has demonstrated 30%
increase in productivity, 40% increase in energy efficiency, as well as substantial reduction in
NOx emission.

A project led by the Gas Technology Institute (GTI) and sponsored by ITP addressed the
combined issues of burner efficiency and dross formation on aluminum melt.78 The work focused
on air-oxy-fuel mixture burners, with the optimum oxygen range of 30 to 35%; the project is

31
developing burners that allow specific control of flame shape and oxygen distribution within the
flame. Using the concept of self-optimized combustion system, a flame was produced that has
a fuel-rich zone at the bottom to minimize exposure of the aluminum surface to oxygen.

Innovative burners can also contribute to the reduction of melt loss. Studies in formation of
oxides and spinals, turbulence, and alloy constituents can reduce melt loss. Secat, Inc. is
currently leading quantitative research on formation mechanisms and potential alternative
solutions.79 Possible solutions identified in the early stages of the project are control of furnace
atmosphere, use of minor alloying elements that dramatically affect the kinetics of oxide
formation, and reduced melt surface/furnace atmosphere interface through various barrier
techniques. The project aims to reduce melt loss by 2%.

4.6 Preheating Systems

The high-temperature off-gas from the melting furnace can be used to preheat scrap for the
second charge of the heat or the first charge of the next heat. Scrap preheating has proven to
reduce the energy for melting (by up to 50-75 kWh per ton).

The off-gas, which normally exits through the fourth hole, preheats the scrap to a temperature
in the range of 450C to 600C (840F to 1,110F). A side benefit of preheating is complete
removal of moisture from the scrap. Preheating the scrap to an average temperature of 500C
(930F) reduces the electrical energy requirements by 30 to 60 kWh per ton and power-on time
by 5 to15%. However, in some cases, the delays associated with scrap preheating can reduce
productivity. Some specific technologies are reviewed below.

4.6.1 Shaft Furnace

A shaft furnace is an advanced form of scrap preheating. It is mounted on top of the electric arc
furnace; off-gases leaving the melt zone rise up the shaft and pass through the next scrap charge.
A number of shaft furnaces are in operation in the steel industry in the United States, Mexico,
and Europe. It is reported that up to180 kWh/ton energy savings can be achieved with a twin
shaft and 135 kWh/ton with a single shaft. Types of shaft furnaces include Comelt,80 a furnace
designed with inclined electrodes and a shaft furnace feeding the scrap between the electrodes; a
single electrode DC furnace with scrap preheating and extensive use of burners; and Conarc,81 a
basic oxygen furnace and electric arc furnace using extensive decarburization of hot metal.

In order for the shaft furnace to be practical, the heat size must be at least 45 tons and the furnace
must be equipped with gas burners to generate sufficient off-gas. The complexity of these
technologies requires large capacity furnaces operated on a continuous basis to be technically
and economically feasible. Therefore, these technologies are not applicable to typical foundry
operations.

The Japanese steel industry is developing the Econarc process, which uses extensive methane
and shaft furnace preheating.82 They have operated a 130-ton furnace. However, because the

32
scrap preheating system must be of large capacity to capture the energy from combustion, this
system is also impractical for foundry operations.

4.6.2 Twin Shell System

Preheating systems have been in use for more than a decade in electric arc furnace steel melting
shops. Twin-shell furnaces are among the more recent developments, incorporating preheating as
an integral part of the melting process. At a twin-shell operation, while one part of the furnace is
making steel, the other side is being loaded with scrap. The off-gas from the operating side of the
two-furnace system is piped to the other side to heat the charge before melting. Generally, this
technology is used with a single graphite electrode DC furnace.

The off-gas from the current heat being melted or refined is passed through the scrap for the next
heat in the second furnace shell. Typically, only the first charge is preheated. Therefore, most
plants try to operate with a single charge. Twin shell systems are cheaper than having two
separate electric arc furnaces because they require only one set of electrodes and achieve similar
production rate. Electricity costs are also lower with the twin shell system. When two scrap
charges are required, the first (preheated charge) contains approximately 60% more scrap than
the second charge. Preheating in the second shell can also be supplemented by gas burners.

Nippon Steel reported energy consumption of 260 kWh/ton steel with preheating to about 900C
(1,650F), achieving a 30% energy reduction from conventional melting. This technology is
applicable to larger foundries arc furnaces (greater than 20 ton) but would be difficult to retrofit
as it requires replacement of furnaces.

4.7 Refractories

Refractories are used throughout the various processes conducted in all kinds of furnaces in the
metal casting industry, affecting approximately 90% of the direct energy consumption in these
processes. Improvements in refractory systems, such as life extension, offer high potential to
save energy up to 8.5 trillion Btu per year.83 Ceramic linings are used in most furnaces to
minimize reaction resulting in corrosion or mechanical damage in the furnace when processing
specific metals. Although the service life of refractory linings has been extended in the last
decade, there still exists a substantial problem where thermal efficiency may be sacrificed for a
better protective refractory lining.

A recent development in insulating materials is the use of micro-porous silica. The improved
opacifiers block heat transfer in radiation lowering thermal conductivity. The low thermal
conductivity can increase the capacity of ladles, kilns, industrial ovens and commercial
appliances while maintaining or improving thermal performance. It can reduce weight, which in
turn, can reduce structural requirements for furnaces and other high-temperature vessels.

The development of insulation system within refractory system also ensures proper temperature
control in melting systems (for example, maintaining a homogeneous aluminum liquid
throughout the aluminum melter). The board form of the new insulation materials can backup

33
insulation to reduce heat loss, improve product quality, and reduce operation costs. In addition, it
can reduce insulation thickness by 50% compared to ceramic fiberboards and minimize heat loss
by 30%. It also improves product quality and extends furnace life.

However, barriers still exist. Research is required to develop methods to reduce/eliminate

refractory failure due to physical erosion and chemical corrosion (by MnO and FeO in steel
foundries), fusion of refractories, clogging or build-up formation in channels and throats, highly
basic (calcia-containing) slags in steel casting, and other factors. Reducing the thermal
conductivity, as well as improving the chemical and mechanical properties of the refractories,
will have a significant payoff in the overall fuel efficiency of melting operations.84

4.8 Melting Schedule

Even the most efficient furnace could be inefficient with poor scheduling. Melting in cold
furnaces increases the energy requirement by as much as 30 to 50%85 from that used by melting
in a hot furnace with a heel. Unlike induction furnaces where a heel reduces energy efficiency,
electric arc furnaces increase efficiency when melting with a liquid heel. The most efficient
operations use creative scheduling (fewer melting days per week, fewer furnaces, etc.) to
maximize the number of heats each day per furnace. Schedules that minimize melting delays
achieve lower energy loss from conduction to the refractory and from liquid surface radiation. In
addition, energy efficiency is maximized when consistent heat size is scheduled. Scheduling
different-sized heats in the same furnace reduces energy efficiency.

5. Challenges to Adopting New Technologies

The adoption of new advanced melting methods in foundries faces several more challenges
besides the specific technical barriers described for the various current and emergent melting
technologies in section 4. The industry make-up, domestic business climate and strong global
competition in the metal casting sector discourage the implementation of energy-efficient
melting technologies.

Dominance of Small Businesses

The U.S. metal casting industry is dominated by small- to mid-sized companies. Approximately
80% of the 2,480 metal casting facilities have fewer than 100 employees, 14% have between 100
and 250 employees, and the remaining 6% have more than 250 employees.86Small businesses
find it difficult to assume the high costs (labor and facilities) and the risk associated with R&D,
particularly long-term R&D, to improve metal casting technology and process efficiencies.
Moreover, many companies in the industry are hesitant to adopt new technologies, practices, and
tools for fear of possible negative effects that these changes might bring to long-"proven"
production techniques and, as a result, their already small profit margins.

34
Limited Available Resources

A comparison of surveys conducted in 2001 and 2003 indicate a significant decline in the profit
margin for an average metal caster from 4.6 to 1.81% of sales, with iron operations specifically
losing an average of 1.69% during this period.87 The diminishing of the metal casters already
small profit margins over the last few years has made it difficult for the industry to invest in
R&D and implement capital-intensive advanced melting technologies.

The metal casting industry prefers to spend its limited resources on incremental improvements
and retrofit technologies to the existing equipment, since they require lower capital investments.
Additionally, the metal casters, when considering implementing a new or modified technology,
tend to look at the contribution that the technology can make to their businesss bottom line
rather than its energy efficiency. Many times, metal casters spend significant portions of their
limited resources on new molding technologies and finishing lines in lieu of new melting
systems to improve their casting yield and reduce scrap rates.

Lack of Economies-of-Scale

Energy efficiency is related to the size of the melting system. The smaller equipment size
requirements for the metal casting industry contribute to a higher melting equipment surface area
to volume ratio. This means that the surface radiation and conduction from the melting devices in
the numerous small casting operations are proportionally greater when compared to the larger
melting devices used for wrought steel and aluminum ingot industries.

The small capacity of furnaces in the majority of the metal casting facilities restricts application
of wrought steel technologies. The small furnaces typically lack an adequate electrical control
system and computer control of the furnace or additives system to support the superior
technologies available to the wrought steel and primary metals industries. Technologies from
larger metal industries also require an investment in new emission control systems to deal with
the additional off-gas content. This is an added cost for the metal casters, which further
discourages implementation.

Considering a specific case, the majority of the steel foundries are small operations with average
furnace capacity of 13 tons in electric arc furnace shops and a little over 1 ton in induction
furnace shops, while the furnaces in the wrought industry can range from 100 to 300 tons. The
markedly smaller scale of the steel furnaces leads to higher heat losses and increased difficulty in
implementation of wrought-type technologies in steel foundries. The long arc and foamy slag
technologies that have been effective in reducing energy consumption in the wrought industry
are not practical for the steel foundries because steel foundry transformers are typically
undersized to accommodate these technologies.

Wide Variation in Melting Operations Needs

Current melting technologies within the metal casting industry do not provide for a one-size-fits-
all method because of the immense diversity of the metal casting line of products. Each casting
facility has varying alloying requirements, which influence the type of melting technologies it
uses. Some furnaces are used to reduce the amount of oxidation of the molten alloys and dross
formation, while others are used because their fuel/feedstock provides the alloying ingredients

35
necessary to impart the mechanical properties the casting facility desires. Furthermore, the
temperature requirements vary for each alloy/metal melted in the furnace. Therefore, the concept
of a single melting technology that can crosscut the entire metal casting industry is unreasonable.
Advances along multiple pathways are required that suit the needs of different casting facilities
for achieving significant energy savings in the overall melting process.

Batch-Melting Schedule

The scheduling of melting is traditionally determined by the casting requirements of the metal
casting facility. Most casting facilities melt in batches, in which case, the facilities tend to
schedule to melt at certain hours of the day on certain days of the week. This practice requires
frequent starting and idling of the melting equipment, thus reducing the efficiency of the
operation. In addition, many metal casters produce variable-sized heats, which require the
operation of several different-sized furnaces and involve heating many cold furnaces, a factor
that further reduces the energy efficiency of melting. The inconsistent heat sizes also increase the
maintenance cost because of the stress imposed on the furnace refractory from the significant
swings in the temperature.

Requirement of New Permits

New furnace technologies, particularly those that require new or expanded exhaust systems,
frequently require local and state permits. Obtaining these permits incur financial costs and
require valuable personnel time. Many small metal casters find it difficult to allocate these
resources for acquiring permits when implementing new technologies at their foundries.
Advanced melting technologies that can be retrofitted onto the existing equipment without any
need for new permits are, as a result, more likely to be adopted by the industry.

6. Future Direction of Research: Potential Energy-Saving

Technologies

The following recommendations for R&D offer the most promising opportunities for decreasing
energy consumption in melting operations in the metal casting industry.

Retrofit Technologies Database Tool

Considering the diversity of the U.S. metal casting operations and their limited resources,
possibly the most advantageous path for introducing energy-efficient melting technologies is to
develop a web-based database tool of available retrofit technologies. This tool will enable metal
casters to compare and weigh their options when evaluating the new melting technologies. The
casters must be able to input their furnace type, scheduling, alloy, and tonnage requirements. The
tool could then output various retrofit technology options or a combination of options that can
meet their production demands, along with pros and cons of each option. The tool should also
provide rough estimates of the implementation cost and fine-tune the potential of each retrofit
technology, along with the estimated energy and cost savings. Such a tool would assist the metal
casting industry in making educated and nonbiased decisions on how to improve their foundries

36
energy efficiency within the melt room. This tool would also allow metal casting companies to
identify retrofit technologies that will have the largest impact on their bottom line.

Optimized Use of Natural Gas, Carbon, and Oxygen

The wrought steel producers use significantly more natural gas, carbon, and oxygen during
melting than the metal casting industry. Combustion of natural gas, charge carbon, and CO to
CO2 (post-combustion) can reduce electrical energy consumption by 150 kWh per ton of steel.
The combustion of natural gas and carbon must be at least 40% efficient in order to reduce the
total energy consumption. The use of post-combustion energy can be looked upon as virtually
free energy.

Research should be conducted to develop a computational fluid dynamics model of post

combustion to better understand how to use the CO and CO2. Modeling and optimization of
carbon oxidation is also an important research focus area. Models for the process can be
developed that will use specific input parameters from plant operations.

Flexible Heat Size and Scheduling

Varying heat sizes and scheduling of heats are major sources of energy inefficiencies in the
metal casting industry. If a new furnace was developed that would allow for flexibilities in
production scheduling without the associated energy losses, significant cost and energy savings
could be achieved. The principal batch melters today induction furnaces, electric arc furnaces,
reverberatories, and crucible furnaces are all inefficient when used with flexible scheduling.

New furnace designs must be developed with flexible-sized melting units and reduced heat
requirements for the first heat. Research should also investigate low-conductivity refractory
linings and other options for flexible melting units, such as single electrode DC, which has the
potential to improve both productivity and energy efficiency.

Metal-Casting-Sized Ladle Metallurgy Furnaces

One of the most effective systems in the wrought industry is the ladle metallurgy furnace where
the temperature of the melt can be adjusted, chemistry of the melt optimized, and quality of the
steel enhanced through treatment. It has been difficult to directly transfer this technology to the
metal casting industry because of the small ladles used in the latter. Large heat losses from the
smaller ladles limit the treatment time available without reheating the equipment, reducing the
scope for alloy and flux dissolution.

A potential research field to overcome these issues is to develop a metal casting-sized ladle
metallurgy facility that is flexible in tonnage, allowing for adjustable tonnage within a single
vessel. The system would be designed to minimize heat losses during operation and to allow
reheating. This would offer the advantages of wrought types of ladle metallurgy facilities, such
as enabling large amounts of alloy additions in ladle. This could help the metal casting industry
reduce costs and increase the quality to levels similar in the wrought industry. It would allow
metal casters to use primary furnaces as melters and use the ladle to do metallurgical refining and
alloying.

37
Improved Refractory for Coreless Induction Melters of Cast Iron

Today many cast iron manufacturers use induction melting for cast iron. However, the current
melting practices and refractories result in rapid refractory destruction. Research should examine
new materials for refractories that will last longer. Research should also develop new melting
systems that help increase the refractory campaign life. The combination of new refractories and
new melting systems that dramatically improve refractory campaign life would significantly
reduce energy use in iron melting operations.

Wider Applicability of Induction Furnaces

Current aluminum furnaces are limited in their utility because they are prone to forming excess
oxidation film during the melting process. In addition, the melting of aluminum scrap requires
that a heel of molten metal be left at the bottom of the furnace to promote coupling and only
clean scrap be used because of the limited off-gas cleaning system and the lack of refining
capabilities in the induction furnace design.

Research and development to limit the formation of oxide films offers significant potential for
energy savings. Also, R&D is needed to combine induction melting with some chemical energy
and refining capabilities to promote induction melting in ferrous casting shops. This would
enable ferrous casters to refine their metal during melting and reduce the amount of virgin
materials. This could reduce the cost of steel production in these furnaces. Finally, there is a need
to better educate the metal casting industry on best practices in induction melting, including how
to properly pack these furnaces to ensure better coupling during melting.

Scrap Preheating

Scrap/ingot preheating has the potential to reduce energy by 10 to 20% in batch melting
operations. Preheating systems, such as a second furnace or a shaft above the furnace, are the
most promising. Research is needed to develop a comprehensive energy transfer model linking
the furnace operation with gas generation and scrap/ingot preheating. The model should use
natural gas, carbon and oxygen, and provide for heat transferring to the scrap and ingot.

Research must also focus on the design of efficient scrap/ingot preheating systems for batch
melting operations. The design should consider the space limitations that exist in smaller casting
facilities and the charging requirements, and ensure efficient heat transfer. Most importantly, the
design should offer reliability and require minimal maintenance.

Improved Stack Furnace Design

The rapidly rising energy costs today warrant the need to improve the design and structural
materials utilized in the construction of stack furnaces. This would limit the maintenance
required in operating a stack furnace and make it a viable alternative to the reverberatory furnace.
There is also a need to reduce the size of the stack furnace to enable its installation in smaller
facilities that may not have the ceiling room to accommodate these melting systems.

38
Ferrous Launder System

A launder system is an insulated trough connecting the furnace to the die casting machine or
pouring ladles. These trough systems are refractory lined, insulated and temperature-controlled,
and are covered to prevent contamination and heat loss. They eliminate splashes and dribbles of
molten metal that occur when using ladles to transfer molten metal around a plant, thus ensuring
workers safety. These systems also provide a continuous supply of molten metal to the casting
operation and help keep the temperature constant.88

However, these systems are limited to high-volume nonferrous die casting applications and do
not exist for ferrous casting operations. This is primarily because molten ferrous alloys need to
be held at much higher temperatures than nonferrous alloys. A launder system would need to be
created where it could pump and maintain molten iron and steel at temperatures ranging from
1,320 to 1,760C (2,500F to 3,200F). Such a system would only be applicable to continuous
operations such as iron foundries producing large quantities of parts each day for the automotive
industry. R&D would be needed to develop a system that could pump and maintain molten iron
and/or steel at extremely hot temperatures. Such a development could replace the widely used
ladle system, which causes excessive radiation energy loss.

7. Conclusion

Several advancements in melting technologies have been made over the last few decades, but
significant opportunities still exist for the metal casters to improve the melting efficiency and
reduce the metal loss. The implementation of the existing best practice technologies in the
industry can alone save approximately 1.2 million Btu for melting a ton of iron and 3.0 million
Btu for a ton of aluminum (or 1.2 trillion Btu per year for iron and 3.0 trillion Btu per year for
aluminum).89 Considering that iron and aluminum casting tonnages comprise more than 85% of
the total casting tonnage, the savings potential in melting these metals promises to be substantial.

This study, while exploring breakthrough concepts that could possibly revolutionize melting
within the metal casting industry, identified several emerging melting technologies in the market
that are energy reducing; however, no single technology was determined to be a breakthrough
technology to qualify it as a Grand Challenge opportunity for the ITP Metal Casting
subprogram to pursue. This lack of single revolutionizing technology may be explained by the
fact that the melting process is an amalgamation of several systems functioning independently of
each other, as described in section 3 (page 3). Each of these units in contributing to energy loss
also offers the potential for improving the process efficiency. Thus, to achieve the maximum
energy reduction in any metalcasting operation, a combination of suitable advanced technologies
and practices must be explored.

Further, the research path for advancing melting technologies in the metal casting sector must be
guided by pursuing retrofitting technologies that can supplement the existing furnaces, as they
provide a cost-effective and low-risk method to improve the melting efficiencyfactors that are
crucial in decision-making for the metal casters. Due to the industrys small profit margins, metal

39
casters are reluctant to risk replacing entire melting systems, but will accept retrofit technologies
more easily.

Since the melting technologies deployed by the industry are selected based upon the alloy or the
metal being melted, the casting process and the scale of the operation, there is no one-size-fits-all
solution and hence, the best combination will vary with the application. For instance,
immersion heaters would not revolutionize the steel or iron casting facilities because they can not
reach the temperatures required to melt and maintain a heel, nor do they provide the alloying
requirements for ferrous melting. Varied solutions seem to be the key to accomplishing sizeable
energy savings for a diverse industry like metal casting. Accordingly, metal casters require a
decision-making tool that assists in selecting the best-suited retrofits for their specific operation.
A database tool must, therefore, be developed that serves this purpose. It will not only inform
metal casters about the currently available retrofit technologies, but also identify the optimal
energy-efficient solution tailor-made for each metal casting operation based on specific inputs
about the melt operation and its production needs. Such a non-biased resource geared toward
individual set-ups will encourage metal casters to opt for new technologies that are energy
efficient.

Currently, furnaces typically used in the U.S. metal casting facilities include cupola, induction,
electric arc, and reverberatory furnaces. Research efforts have been aimed at reducing the
thermal losses in these existing furnaces by focusing on the refractory, ladle systems, burner
systems, fuel sources, intelligent control systems, and other aspects of the operations. Although
barriers still exist, the retrofitting technologies provide metal casters with easy-to-implement
measures for enhancing the melting systems already in place. Other than retrofitting current
furnace systems, some melting processes improve efficiency by combining a variety of existing
furnace structures, cashing in on different advantages from each furnace type.

The discussion on some of the more innovative technologies (section 4.2), such as the solar
furnaces, demonstrated how alternative energy sources can be utilized but still lack practicality
for wide-scale commercialization. Microwave melting is another emerging alternative with
potential broad applicability but is currently limited to niche applications being capital intensive.
Such breakthrough melting methods would certainly benefit the metal casting industry in the
long term. However, as of now, they require continued research efforts and extensive evaluation
in pilot plants before their implementation on all aspects of the operation (performance,
durability/maintenance, labor requirements, etc.).

Lastly, advances in melting technologies also include research and development in melting
practices associated with scheduling of operation, heat size, molten metal delivery, and
preheating. Improvements in these areas could significantly enhance energy efficiency and
reduce melt loss without requiring implementation of any new technical system. Although these
technologies require little or no capital for deployment, engineering assistance is needed in order
for the facility to reap its maximum benefits. For example, steel melting energy efficiency can
be improved if there is no time delay in holding the molten metal where additional energy is
required to maintain the temperature of the molten metal until it is poured. If a furnace can be
scheduled so that it can operate at continuous full power, the energy requirements for melting
steel can be reduced substantially.

40
The study concludes that to achieve energy reduction goals, renewed R&D efforts must target
the current technical barriers in the melting technologies and pursue multiple paths as
recommended in section 6 (page 36). Advances from such efforts will not only save substantial
energy in the overall melting process, but also provide high-quality molten metal that will reduce
the cost of the casting process and enhance the quality of the final casting product. Considering
these recommended R&D avenues in shaping the ITP Metal Casting portfolio will ensure
effective utilization of the programs valuable budget resources.

41
Endnotes

1
Albany Research Center, Improving Energy Efficiency in Aluminum Melting, Presentation at
2005 Aluminum Portfolio Review.
2
J.F. Schifo, Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use In Metalcasting Operations, Keramida
Environmental, Inc. May 2005, p 4.
3
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Aluminum Industry of Future, Indirect-Fired, Controlled Atmosphere Decoating of
Aluminum Scrap 2002.
4
Vladimir Y Gershtein, Economics of Oxygen-Based Aluminum Smelters, Industrial Heating,
November 2000.
5
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Aluminum IOF, In-Situ, Real-Time Measurement of Melt Constituents. 2004.
6
Technology of Metalcasting, Melt furnaces. p 113.
7
Thermal Efficiency of Steel Melting, by Kent D. Peaslee, Simon Lekakh and Bradley Randall,
58th T&O Conf Proceedings, SFSA, 2004.
8
Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Metalcasting Industry, September 1999,
Energetics, Incorporated.
9
Albany Research Center, Improving Energy Efficiency in Aluminum Melting
presentation at 2005 Aluminum Portfolio Review
10
Communication with Case Western Reserve University
11
Department of Energy, Metal Casting Multi Year Program Plan, p.1.
12
Natural gas has more than doubled in the last five years and is expected to rise in costs
substantially in the near term as a result of Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf Coast, a key producer
of domestic natural gas.
13
North American Die Casting Association, Energy Saving Manual, 1998.
14
This kits is developed by a British company, Morganite.
15
H.P. Harbin and E.S. Reno Jr., New Ideas for Cupola Refractory Practice, AFS Trans. 98, p.
529-531.
16
Melting More Efficiently. Foundry Management & Technology, April 2005.
17
T.B. Niehoff, S.P. Smith and D. Saha, Cupola Operating System for Dust Injection and
Improved Process Flexibility, AFS Tran. 1998, p. 427-433.
18
W. J. Peck, W. H. Provis, B.A. Buczkowski, A.D. Karp and S.V. Dighe, Plasma-Fired
Cupola: An Innovation in Iron Foundry Melting, AFS Transaction Paper, 90th Casting
Congress, May 11-15, 1986.
19
J. Gray, C. Fry, W. Chaput, M.F. Darr , and S.V. Dighe, Plasma Cupola Operations at General
Motors Foundry, AFS Trans., Vol.98, p. 553-558.
20
E. Schurmann and W. Hein, Contribution to Melting of Cast Iron in Cokeless, Natural Gas-
Fired Cupola Furnace, AFS Trans., Vol. 96, p. 693-698.

42
21
Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Steel Industry, prepared for the
U.S. Department of Energy, August 2000., p37
22
http://www.energysolutionscenter.org/HeatTreat/MetalsAdvisor/iron_and_steel/process_descri
ptions/raw_metals_preparation/steelmaking/electric_arc_furnace/electric_arc_furnace_equipm
ent.htm.
23
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program Advanced Scalable Clean Aluminum Melting Systems.
24
North American Die Casting Association.
25
J. H. Mortimer, Melt Shop 2000, AFS Tran. p. 275-286.
26
J. H. Mortimer, Batch Induction Melting. The Science and Technology, Inductotherm, 2003.
27
R.Q. Sharpless, Induction Melting: Moving into the 21st century, AFS Trans. 97, p.797-803.
28
J. H. Mortimer, The Science Behind Batch Induction Melting, AFS Trans. 96, p.229-235.
29
E. Dotsch, Quiet MF Coreless Furnaces for High Outputs, Foundry Trade Journal International,
09, 1995, p.98-102.
30
E. Dotsch.
31
Charles H. Fink, Jr., Modern Induction Melting Improves Process and Productivity, Foundry
Management and Technology, July 2005. [Electronic version].
32
A.J. Grady.
33
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Refractories for Industrial Processing: Energy Reduction
Opportunities, December 2004.
34
Vladimir Y. Gershtein, Economics of Oxygen Based Aluminum Smelter, Industrial Heating
November, 2000 [Electronic Version].
35
http://cmc.aticorp.org/datafactors.html
36
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Refractories for Industrial processing: Energy Reduction
Opportunities, December 2004, p. 9.
37
http://www.us.lindegas.com/International/Web/LG/US/likelgus.nsf/DocByAlias/nav_ind_iron_
found_rot.
38
A. J. Grady, Refractory Installation and Vibration System for Coreless Induction Furnaces,
AFS Tran, 99, p.413-418.
39
Why Does Oxy-Fuel Make Sense? Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. 2005, [Electronic
version].
40
J.F. Schifo, Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use In Metalcasting Operations, Keramida
Environmental, Inc. May 2005, p.36.
41
R. Bakish, Advancements In Electron Beam Melting and Refining, Bakish Materials Corp.,
Englewood, NJ, Sept 2001
http://www.industrialheating.com/CDA/ArticleInformation/coverstory/BNPCoverStoryItem/0,
2830,62953,00.html

43
42
http://www.ohioshowcase.org/pdf/post-
conference/Wednesday/Industry%20Breakout%20Sessions%20(Afternoon)/Session%20B%20
-%20Metal%20Casting/B-4%20Eckert.pdf
43
Ed Kubel, Advancements in Microwave Heating Technology, IndustrialHeating.com,
January 2004, p.49
44
R. Bakish, Advancements In Electron Beam Melting and Refining, Bakish Materials Corp.,
Englewood, NJ, Sept 2001
http://www.industrialheating.com/CDA/ArticleInformation/coverstory/BNPCoverStoryItem/0,
2830,62953,00.html
45
Beam Welding and Thermit Welding, retrieved from www.key-to-steel.com
46
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites.
47
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Advanced Industrial Material program, Advanced Intermetallic Alloys 1999.
48
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Isothermal Melting Process (ITM).
49
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Metal Casting subprogram, Advanced Scalable Clean Aluminum Melting
Systems.
50
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Infrared Heating of Forging Billets and Dies,
51
Ibid.
52
The Aluminum Association, Inc, High Density Infrared Processing: Opportunities in
Aluminum, Retrieved from
http://www.aluminum.org/Template.cfm?Section=Home&template=/ContentManagement/Con
tentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=2700
53
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, High Density Infrared Surface Treatments of Refractories,
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/imf/pdfs/1758_hdisurfacetreatments.pdf
54
Department of Energy, Microwave and Process Technologies, [Electronic version].
55
Industrial Heating, Advancements in Microwave Heating January 2005 [Electronic version].
56
Y-12 National Security Complex,Microwave and Process Technologies [Electronic version].
57
Industrial Heating, Advancements in Microwave Heating January 2005 [Electronic version].
58
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Steel Program, Novel Direct Steelmaking by combining microwave, electric arc, and
exothermal heating technologies, June 2002.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/steel/pdfs/noveldirect_steelmaking.pdf.
59
Edward B. Ripley and Jason A. Oberhaus, Melting and Heat Treating Metals Using
Microwave heating, BWXT Y-12 National Security Complex Oak Ridge, Tenn.
www.industrialheating.com.

44
60
Plasma Beam Systems, Benefits of Plasma Aluminum Melting Furnace, retrieved from
http://www.bayzi.com/one.benefits.html
61
Ibid.
62
http://www.imp.cnrs.fr/foursol/1000_en.shtml.
63
Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Industrial Heat-Recovery Strategies. May 1997.
64
Ibid.
65
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Energy Matters newsletter, Increased Efficiency through Waste Heat Recovery from
Process Heating Systems, Fall 2001, Retrieved from
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/emfall2001.pdf.
66
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/aluminum/pdfs/process_heating.pdf
67
Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Industrial Heat-Recovery Strategies, May 1997.
68
Retrieved from http://www.gulfcoastchp.org/chp/Markets/TechThermal.aspx
69
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Energy Matters newsletter, Increased Efficiency through Waste Heat Recovery from
Process Heating Systems, Fall 2001, Retrieved from
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/emfall2001.pdf.
70
Thermtronix, E-News (August 2005) Is Your Melt Room Organized for Maximum Efficiency?
Retrieved from
http://www.imakenews.com/thermtronixenews/e_article000407831.cfm?x=b5qtbBc,b3LlTy99.
71
Dosing Furnace Replacing Ladle Furnaces in Die Casting, Striko UK, 2002, Retrieved from
http://www.manufacturingtalk.com/news/sik/sik103.html.
72
Richard C. Chandler, Options for Optimizing Recoveries and Energy Consumption Light-
Gauge Scrap Recycling, Metaullics Systems, Co. L.P. p. 7.
73
Dustry Ousley, Precast Auto Ladles for Aluminum Die Casters NADCA.
74
Unifrax technical literature.
75
Pyrotek Improving Performance, Furnace Operations, [electronic version]
76
Developed by Metaullics Systems
77
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, High-Efficiency, High-Capacity, Low NOx Aluminum Melting Using Oxygen-
Enhanced Combustion.
78
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Low-Dross Combustion System.
79
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial Technology
Program, Reduction of Oxidative Melt Loss,
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/aluminum/pdfs/meltlossreduction.pdf.
80
Developed by Voest Alpine Industries (VAI)

45
81
Developed by MDH
82
Developed by JP Engineering (merged company of formerly NKK and Kawasaki)
83
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Refractories for Industrial processing: Energy Reduction
Opportunities, December 2004.
84
Ibid.
85
Ibid.
86
American Foundry Society, AFS Trend and Figures,
www.afsinc.org/Trends/FactsandFigures.htm.
87
Survey results Reveal Razor-Thin Cost Picture, Modern Casting V93 N7, P30-33, July 2003.
88
Winter, Ryan, Die Casting Engineer, Melting and Handling of Zinc Alloys, North American
Die Casting Association, March 2003, p. 46.
89
J.F. Schifo, Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use In Metalcasting Operations, Keramida
Environmental, Inc. May 2005, p. 4.

46