4.

1: Characteristics of Wastewater

In the interest of sustainability as well as fundamental economic efficiency, we

must view wastewater as a raw material to be conserved. The contents of wastewater
are often viewed as pollutants. The abundance of: Nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen)
- recovered for crop growth. Organic compounds - source of energy.

Physical Characteristics of Domestic WastewaterFresh, aerobic, domestic wastewater

- odor of kerosene or freshly turned earth, gray in color. Aged, septic sewage -
rotten-egg odor of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans, black in color.

Temperatures: higher than water supply1 m3 wastewater = 1106 grams500 g solids

- 250 g dissolved (inorganic [Ca, Na], organic)- 250 g insoluble

x 125 g settleable
x 125 g suspended

Chemical Characteristics of Domestic WastewaterNumber of chemical compounds found

in wastewater is almost limitless.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) - quantity of dissolved oxygen utilized by a mixed

population of microorganisms to biologically degrade the organic matter in the
wastewater under aerobic condition.

Organic matter + O2 CO2 + H2O + New cells

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - the quantity of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize
the organic compound in sample, converted to carbon dioxide and water.

Organic+O2 CO2 +H2O

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) - measure total organic and ammonia nitrogen. It
gives a measure of the availability of nitrogen for building cells and the
potential nitrogenous oxygen demand.

Total Phosphorus total orthophosphates, polyphosphates and organic phosphate

Characteristics of Industrial WastewaterIndustrial processes generate a wide

variety of wastewater pollutants. The characteristics and levels of pollutants vary
significantly from industry to industry.Three categories of pollutant: conventional
polllutants, nonconventional pollutants, and priority pollutants.Industrial
wastewaters can pose serious hazard to municipal collection and treatment systems.
They can damage sewers, interfere with the operation of wastewater treatment plants
(WWTP), pass through the WWTP untreated, concentrate in the sludge, rendering it a
hazardous waste.Pretreatment or publicly owned treatment works (POTW) for
industrial wastewater are required for pollutants that:1) create a fire or
explosion hazard,
2) cause corrosive structural damage,
3) obstruction flow in the WWTP (viscous pollutants),
4) oxygen demanding pollutant,
5) heat in amounts that will inhibit biological activity,
5) petroleum oil, nonbiodegradable cutting oil, or products of mineral oil,
6) pollutants with high amount of toxic gases, vapors, or fumes,7) Any trucked or
hauled pollutants

4.2: Wastewater Treatment Standards

Malaysia:Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009

USEPA:Secondary treatment before discharging wastewater into natural water bodies.
BOD5, SS, pH

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit system. Before a

permit is granted, the administering agency will model the response of the
receiving body to the proposed discharge to determine if the receiving body is
adversely affected.

Additional conditions may be imposed to cater for local condition (surface waters
that are very sensitive to nutrients, bacterial effluent limits for recreational
usage, temperature limit for cooling water)

In addition to concentration limits, mass discharge limits are also established

corresponding to the Total maximum daily load (TMDL) of the receiving bodies. TMDL
- maximum amount of a pollutant that a water body can receive and still meet water
quality standards.

4.3: Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems

Pretreatment - provide protection to the WWTP equipment that follows

Primary treatment - remove pollutants that settle or float. Typically it remove

about 60% of SS and 35% of BOD. Soluble pollutants are not removed.

Secondary treatment - remove soluble BOD5 and SS. Biological processes. Design to
speed up natural processes to break down degradable organic in relatively short
time. Remove 85% BOD5 and SS.

Tertiary treatment remove nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, pathogenic bacteria

and viruses.

Advanced Treatment - produce very clean water. For indirect and direct potable
reuse, recharge groundwater.

Sludge Treatment sludge handling and disposal.

4.4: Unit Operations of Pretreatment

Bar Racks4.4: Unit Operations of Pretreatmentremove large objects that would damage
or foul pumps, valves, and other mechanical equipment. Clean mechanically. Opening:
25-50 mm

Grit Chambersremove grit (inert dense material, such as sand, broken glass, silt,
and pebbles).x abrade pumps, mechanical devices, causing undue wear.x settle in
corners and bends, reducing flow capacity and clogging pipes and channels.

EqualizationA technique to improve effectiveness of secondary and tertiary

treatment. WW constantly change in amount and strength this make efficient
process operation difficult and oversized of process.

Purpose of flow equalization is to dampen these variations so that the wastewater

can be treated at a nearly constant flow rate.

Achieved by constructing large basins that collect and store the wastewater flow
and pumped them at a constant rate to the treatment plant.

Adequate aeration and mixing must be provided to prevent odors and solids
deposition.
4.5: Primary Treatment

Light organic suspended solids can be removed by gravity in primary sedimentation

tank (Type II flocculant settling).

50-60% removal of SS30-35% removal of BOD5

Rectangular tank:L = 30-100 m ,W = 3 -24 m ,L:W ratios = 3:1 - 5:1Side water depths
- 3 to 5 m (typically 4 m) Average overflow rates = 30 to 50 m3/m2 d Hydraulic
detention time = 1.5 - 2.5 hours weir loading rates < 250 m3/d.m

4.6: Unit Processes of Secondary Treatment

Purpose: remove soluble BOD, further removal of suspended solids.Conventional

aerobic secondary biologic treatment needs:x availability of many microorganisms,x
good contact between organisms and organic material,x availability of oxygen,x
maintenance of favorable environmental conditions (temperature, time, etc.)

organic material + O2 + NH3 + PO43- -> new cells + CO2 + H2O

Example of systems: activated sludge, trickling filters, oxidation ponds (or

lagoons), rotating biological contactor (RBC)

Large numbers and mixed cultures of microorganisms found in waste treatment

systems, it is convenient to measure biomass rather than numbers of organisms.

Activated Sludge

Biological wastewater treatment technique in which mixed liquor (mixture of

wastewater and biological sludge (microorganisms)) is agitated and aerated. (to
provide contact, suspension and air)
Suspended growth process - microorganisms are suspended in the liquid wastewater.

Detention time = 6-8 hrsAir requirement = 8 m3 air/ m3 of wastewatermean cell

residence time, c / solids retention time (SRT) / sludge age = average amount of
time that microorganisms are kept in the system = 5 10 days

Terms
Biomass/Microorganism is measured as TSS and term VSS (Volatile Suspended Solids)

Mixed liquor = MLSS + wastewater (water and soluble material)

MLSS = MLVSS (microorganism) + Inert suspended solids or fixed suspended solids

(FSS) + non-organic solids (e.g. clay particles)

Typical breakdown of raw wastewater:Influent total suspended solids (TSS) 220

mg/LInfluent VSS 200 mg/L
x Non-biodegradable nbVSS 90 mg/L
x biodegradable VSS 110 mg/L

Influent FSS 20 mg/L

Typical values for aeration tank mixed liquor:

MLSS 2500 mg/L (1500-4000 mg/L)
MLVSS 2000 mg/LMLVSS to MLSS ratio = 0.6 - 0.8

2 mass balances are required to define the design of the reactor: one for biomass
and one for food (soluble BOD5).Under steady-state conditions, the mass balance for
biomass:Biomass in influent + Net biomass growth = Biomass in effluent + Biomass
wasted

Under steady-state conditions, the mass balance for food (soluble BOD5): Food in
influent - Food consumed = Food in effluent + Food in WAS

Two parts of this equation have physical significance in the design of a completely
mixed activated sludge system.

x hydraulic detention time: the average time that the particles of water in an
inflow to a basin are retained in the basin before outflow

x mean cell-residence time: is the average time that cells of organisms (not water)
are retained in the basin.

Note that the concentration of soluble BOD5 leaving the system (S) is affected only
by the mean cell-residence time, and not by the amount of BOD5 entering the
aeration tank or by the hydraulic detention time, to .

X is a function of the theta_c, to , and (So-S)

Some fraction of SS that do not settle in the secondary settling tank contributes
to the BOD5 load to the receiving body. To achieve a desired effluent quality both
the soluble and insoluble fractions of BOD5 must be considered.

S = Total BOD5 allowed - BOD5 in suspended solids

Another commonly used parameter in the activated sludge process is the food to
microorganism ratio (F/M)

F/M ratio is controlled by wasting of microbial mass.

High wasting -> reduce MLVSS -> high F/M ratio -> organisms saturated with food ->
poor efficiency of treatment

Low rate of wasting -> low F/M ratio -> organisms that are starved -> more complete
degradation of the waste -> less sludge to handle

Operational consideration: low F/M -> long \theta_c -> larger and more costly
aeration tank -> higher requirement for oxygen -> higher power costs. Problems with
poor sludge settleabiity in the final clarifier.

F/M values typically range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/mg.d for the various modifications of
the activated sludge process.

Sludge ReturnA mass balance around the settling tank is the basis for selecting a
return sludge rate.

Assuming that the amount of sludge in the secondary settling tank remains constant
(steady-state conditions) and that the effluent suspended solids (Xe) are
negligible, the mass balance is

Accumulation = Inflow - Outflow

Sludge ProductionThe activated sludge process removes substrate, which exerts an

oxygen demand by converting the food into new cell material and degrading this cell
material while generating energy. This cell material ultimately becomes sludge that
must be disposed of. Sludge production = 0.40 to 0.60 kg MLVSS/kg BOD5 removed
Oxygen DemandIf all of the BOD5 is converted to end products, the total oxygen
demand can be computed by converting BOD5 to BODL (ultimate BOD). Because a portion
of waste is converted to new cells that are wasted, the BODL of the wasted cells
must be subtracted from the total oxygen demand. An approximation of the oxygen
demand of the wasted cells may be made by assuming cell oxidation can be described
by the following reaction:

C5H7NO2 + 502 5C02 + 2H2O + NH3 + energy (cells)

The ratio of gram molecular weights is 5(32) / 113 = 1.42Thus the oxygen demand of
waste activated sludge may be estimated as 1.42Px.

Secondary Clarifier Design Considerations.Type III settling high solids loading

and fluffy nature of activated sludge biological floc.

Circular (or square) center-fed basins:vo =1630m/dSolids loading rates = 100-150

kg MLSS/d.m2
Weir loading rate
< 250 m3/d.m (Q < 3,800 m3/d)
< 330 m3/d.m (Q > 3,800 m3/d)

Trickling Filter

The trickling filter consists of a bed of coarse material (stones, slats, or

plastic materials) (media - to provide large surface area for growth of
microorganism), over which wastewater is applied. Microorganisms form a film on the
media - attached growth process.

Rock filter:x 1-3 m depth, 60m diameterx 25-100mm diameter rock (40-60 m2/m3 for
75mm rock )x limited void space (causing flooding), restricts circulation and
amount of air
x Odours and filter flies problems

Modules of corrugated plastic sheets filter:x Large surface area (90m2/m3)x

Increase void ratios for increased air flowx Lighter enabling taller filters (12m)
without structural problems, reducing space requirements

Trickling filters are classified according to:

Hydraulic load = m3 wastewater/day.m bulk filter surface area

= depth of wastewater applied/time (mm/s or m/d)

Organic loading = kg BOD5/day.m of bulk filter volume

An important element in trickling filter design is the provision for return of a

portion of the effluent to flow through the filter (recirculation). Recirculation
ratio, r = ratio of the returned flow to the incoming flow

1. To increase contact efficiency by bringing the waste into contact more than once
with active biological material.2. To dampen variations in loadings over a 24-hour
period. The strength of the recirculated flow lags behind that of the incoming
wastewater flow. Thus, dilutes strong influent and supplements weak influent.3. To
raise the DO of the influent.4. To improve distribution over the surface, thus
reducing the tendency to clog and also reduce filter flies.5. To prevent the
biological slimes from drying out and dying during nighttime periods when flows may
be too low to keep the filter wet continuously.

Minimum wetting rate = 25 to 60 m/d.

Oxidation Pond

Waste stabilization pond - pond or lagoon used to treat organic waste by biological
and physical processes.

1. Anaerobic ponds: Deep ponds, receive high organic loadings such that anaerobic
conditions prevail throughout the entire pond depth. Removal of SS.2. Facultative
ponds: 1 to 2.5 m deep, anaerobic lower zone, facultative middle zone, and aerobic
upper zone (photosynthesis and surface reaeration). Use both algae and bacteria to
remove BOD5.3. Maturation or tertiary ponds: Shallow ponds, used for polishing
effluents from other biological processes. Removal of pathogens through use of
natural sunlight.
4. Aerobic ponds: Shallow ponds, less than 1 m in depth, where dissolved oxygen is
maintained throughout the entire depth, mainly by the action of photosynthesis.
(Removal of BOD5)5. Aerated lagoons: Ponds oxygenated through the action of surface
or diffused air aeration.

Waste stabilization pond consist of 1, (2, 4 or 5), 3.Aerated lagoons design

requirements: Hydraulic retention time = 2-6 days MLSS = 200-400 mg/LDepth = 2-4 m

Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs)Consists of a series of closely spaced discs

(3 to 3.5 m in diameter) mounted on a horizontal shaft and rotated, while about
one-half of their surface area is immersed in wastewater.

Surface area of the disc is covered with a layer of biological slime.As the discs
rotate, they carry a film of wastewater into the air, absorbing oxygen to the
wastewater reservoir.As the attached microbes pass through the reservoir, they
absorb organics for breakdown.

Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge (IFAS)

Includes any activated sludge system that incorporates a fixed-film media in a

suspended growth reactor.

Purpose is to increase the biomass in the reactor (reduce the basin size or
increase the capacity of an existing basin in a retrofit application).

Media rope, sponge, plastic carriers, honeycomb polyester fabric etc. Media that
are fixed in a frame are preferred as they are less susceptible to hydraulic
problems that result from free-floating media.

Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR)

Uses small, plastic elements (on the order of 7 to 22 mm effective diameter) to

support the growth of biofilm in the rector.

The media (typically polyethylene) geometry provide a high surface area (250515
m2/m3).Density = near that of water (~ 0.96 g/cm3).The reactors are filled from 1/3
to 2/3 of their empty volume with media. < 15 % of the water is displaced.
A screen across the outlet is used to prevent the media from leaving the aeration
tank.

4.7: Disinfection

The last treatment step in a secondary plant.Chlorine gas or some other form of
chlorine commonly used for wastewater disinfection follow by a holding time of 5
minutes to allow the chlorine to react with the pathogens.

Disinfection requirement: 200 fecal coliforms per 100 mL of wastewater or

disinfection only during the summer season when people may come into contact with
contaminated water.

Concern:x use of chlorine causes the formation of carcinogenic organic compounds.x

disinfection process was more effective in killing the predators to cysts and
viruses than it was in killing the pathogens. Therefore the pathogens survived
longer in the natural environment because there were fewer predators.
x chlorine is toxic to fish.

4.8: Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Filtration

The secondary clarifiers are not perfectly efficient at settling out the
microorganisms from the biological treatment processes. These organisms contribute
both to the suspended solids and to the BOD5.

Granular FiltrationRemove residual suspended solids and unsettled microorganisms.

Conventional sand filters with larger filter grain sizes at the top of the filter.
This allows larger particles of biological floc to be trapped at the surface
without plugging the filter.Multimedia filters - low-density coal for the large
grain sizes, medium-density sand for intermediate sizes, and high-density garnet
for the smallest size filter grains.

Membrane FiltrationMicrofiltration (MF) 75-90% BOD5 removal, 95-98% TSS removal.

Carbon AdsorptionSoluble organic materials that are resistant to biological

breakdown (refractory organics) will persist in secondary effluent.Refractory
organics are detected as soluble COD. (30-60 mg/L)
The most practical available method for removing refractory organics is by
adsorbing them on activated carbon.Organic materials accumulate at the interface
because of physical binding of the molecules to the solid surface.Carbon is
activated by heating in the absence of oxygen. This results in the formation of
many pores within each carbon particle.After the adsorption capacity of the carbon
has been exhausted, it can be restored by heating it in a furnace at a temperature
sufficiently high to drive off the adsorbed organics. Keeping oxygen at very low
levels in the furnace prevents carbon from burning. The organic matter is passed
through an afterburner to prevent air pollution.

Chemical Phosphorus Removal

Phosphorus is typically found as mono-hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-) in wastewater.The

removal of phosphorus by chemical precipitation is accomplished byUsing ferric
chloride: FeC13 + HPO42- <-> FePO4(s) + H+ + 3C1-Using alum: Al2(S04)3 + 2HPO42- <-
> 2AlPO4(s) + 2H+ + 3SO42- Using lime: 5Ca(OH)2 + 3HPO42- <-> Ca5(PO4)3OH(s) + 3H2O
+ 6OH-

FeC13 and alum reduce pH while lime increase it.

The precipitation of phosphorus requires a reaction basin and a settling tank to
remove the precipitate. When FeC13 and alum are used, the chemicals may be added
directly to the aeration tank in the activated sludge system (serves as a reaction
basin). The precipitate is then removed in the secondary clarifier. This is not
possible with lime because the high pH required to form the precipitate is
detrimental to the activated sludge organisms.

Biological Phosphorus Removal

In biological phosphorus removal (BPR or Bio-P), or enhanced biological phosphorous

removal (EBPR), the phosphorus in the wastewater is incorporated into cell mass in
excess of levels needed for cell synthesis and maintenance. This is accomplished by
moving the biomass from an anaerobic to an aerobic environment. The phosphorus
contained in the biomass is removed from the process as biological sludge.

Nitrogen Control

Nitrogen in any soluble form (NH3, NH , NO , NO , but not N2 gas) is a nutrient

and may need to be removed from wastewater to help control algal growth in the
receiving body. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia exerts an oxygen demand and can be
toxic to fish.

Nitrification/Denitrification. Natural nitrification can be forced to occur in the

activated-sludge system by maintaining a cell detention time ( c) of 15 days in
moderate climates.

NH4+ + 2O2 <-> NO3- + H2O + 2H+

If nitrogen is of concern, this step must be followed by anoxic denitrification:2

NO3- + Organic matter -> N2 + CO2 + H20

Nitrogen Control

Ammonia Stripping. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia can be removed chemically by

raising the pH to convert the ammonium ion into ammonia, which can then be stripped
from the water by passing large quantities of air through the water.

NH4+ + OH- <-> NH3 + H2O

The hydroxide is usually supplied by adding lime. The lime also reacts with CO2 in
the air and water to form a calcium carbonate scale which must be removed
periodically.

Low temperatures cause problems with icing and reduced stripping ability. The
reduced stripping ability is caused by the increased solubility of ammonia in cold
water.

4.9: Land Treatment for Sustainability

An alternative to tertiary treatment processes for producing an extremely high-

quality effluent.x Application of effluents, usually following secondary treatment,
on the land by one of the several available conventional irrigation methodsx It
uses wastewater (the nutrients and moisture it contains), as a resource for crop
growth (valuable in semiarid areas)x Treatment provided by natural processes
(physical, chemical, and biological ) as the effluent moves through the natural
filter provided by soil and plants.
x Part of the wastewater is lost by evapotranspiration, while the remainder returns
to the hydrologic cycle through overland flow or the groundwater system. Most of
the groundwater eventually turns, directly or indirectly, to the surface water
system.
(Example: Berlin, Melbourne, and Paris, have used sewage farms for waste
treatment and disposal. Approximately 1,500 communities in the United States reuse
municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent in surface irrigation)

Method of Land Application

Slow Rate: No surface discharge of nutrients.

Overland Flow: Applied over the upper Reaches of sloped terraces and allowed to
flow across the vegetated surface to runoff collection ditches.

Rapid Infiltration: Applied to the soil at higher rates by spreading in basins or

by sprinkling. Treatment occurs as the water passes through the soil matrix.

4.10: Sludge Treatment

In the process of purifying the wastewater, another problem is created, sludge.

Satisfactory treatment and disposal of the sludge can be the single most complex
and costly operation in a municipal wastewater treatment system.

Sludge - materials settled from the raw wastewater and solids generated in the
wastewater treatment processes. 97% water.

Quantities of sludge: From primary treatment 0.25 - 0.35% by volume of wastewater

treated Activated sludge process increase it to 1.2 - 2%. Use of chemicals for
phosphorus removal add another 1%.

Treatment objective: achieve stabilize sludge with a 20% dry solid content. The
separated water is returned to the wastewater plant for processing

The basic processes for sludge treatment are as follows:1. Thickening: Separating
as much water as possible by gravity or flotation.2. Stabilization: Converting the
organic solids to more refractory (inert) forms so that they can be handled or used
as soil conditioners without causing a nuisance or health hazard. These biochemical
oxidation processes are called digestion.3. Conditioning: Treating the sludge with
chemicals or heat so that the water can be readily separated.4. Dewatering:
Separating water by subjecting the sludge to vacuum, pressure, or drying.5.
Reduction: Converting the solids to a stable form by wet oxidation or incineration.

Sources and Characteristics of Various Sludges

Grit. Sand, broken glass, nuts, bolts, and other dense material that is collected
in the grit chamber is not true sludge in the sense that it is not fluid. Direct
disposal to landfill.

Primary or Raw Sludge. Sludge from primary clarifiers contains 3-8% solids (70%
organic matter).

Secondary Sludge. Consists of microorganisms and inert materials wasted from

secondary treatment processes. Solids are about 90% organic matter. Wasted
activated sludge - 0.5-2 %solids, while trickling filter sludge 2-5 % solids. In
some cases, it contain large quantities of chemical precipitates if the aeration
tank is used as the reaction basin for the addition of chemicals to remove
phosphorus. Chemical sludge combined with biological sludge is more difficult to
treat.

Tertiary Sludges. Depend on the nature of the process. Eg. phosphorus removal
results in a chemical sludge that is difficult to handle and treat. Nitrogen
removal by denitrification results in a biological sludge with properties very
similar to those of waste activated sludge.

Solids Computations

Volume-Mass Relationships. Most WWTP sludges are primarily water, the volume of the
sludge is primarily a function of the water content. Thus, if we know the percent
solids and the specific gravity of the solids we can estimate the volume of the
sludge. The solid matter in wastewater sludge composed of fixed (mineral) solids
and volatile (organic) solids.

ThickeningGoal: remove as much water as possible before final dewatering or

digestion of the sludge.Accomplished in 2 ways: solids are floated to the top of
the liquid (flotation) or settle to the bottom (gravity thickening).Flotation. Air
is injected into sludge under pressure (275 550 kPa). The sludge then flows into
an open tank where, at atmospheric pressure, much of the air comes out of solution
as minute bubbles. The bubbles attach to sludge solids particles and float them to
the surface.Effective for activated sludge.

Gravity ThickeningSimple and inexpensive process used for primary sludge.Type III
and IV sedimentation predominate . Circular clarifiers with pickets rake sludge to
break up the sludge to release water.

StabilizationGoal: break down organic solids biochemically so that they are more
stable (less odorous and less putrescible), more dewaterable, and to reduce the
mass of sludge.If the sludge is to be dewatered and burned, stabilization is not
used.There are two basic stabilization processes: anaerobic digestion and aerobic
digestion.Aerobic Digestion. A continuation of the activated sludge process. Once
the external source of organic material is exhausted, the microorganisms enter into
endogenous respiration, where cellular material is oxidized to satisfy the energy
of maintenance (that is energy for life-support requirements). If this condition is
continued over an extended period of time, the total quantity of biomass will be
considerably reduced. Furthermore, that portion remaining will exist at such a low
energy state that it can be considered biologically stable and suitable for
disposal in the environment.

Anaerobic digestion is a process in which microorganisms break down biodegradable

material in the absence of oxygen. It can be used to process a wide range of
organic material, from food waste and grass to waste paper and animal waste.

The process produces biogas primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
that can be converted into electrical and thermal energy.

The anaerobic breakdown of organic matter is a three-stage process. During the

transformation of the organic matter, intermediate compounds known as metabolites
are formed.

When the process of digestion is complete, a liquid sludge remains. Any organic
material that has not been completely broken down will be separated into solids and
liquids. The liquid can either undergo aerobic treatment or be recirculated through
the digestion process. The solids can be used as fertilizer or disposed of by a
company specializing in solid waste disposal.

Sludge Conditioning

Goal: facilitate the separation of liquid from solids.

Chemical Conditioning. Addition of coagulants such as FeCl3, lime or organic

polymers, ash from incinerated sludge etc. Chemical coagulants act to clump the
solids together so that they are more easily separated from the water.

Heat Treatment. Heat the sludge at high temperatures (175 to 230C) and pressures
(1,000 to 2,000 kPa). Under these conditions, much like those of a pressure cooker,
water that is bound up in the solids is released, improving the dewatering
characteristics of the sludge.

Heat treatment produce a sludge that dewaters better than chemically conditioned
sludge.

Disadvantages - relatively complex operation and maintenance and the creation of

highly polluted cooking liquors that when recycled to the treatment plant impose a
significant added treatment burden.
Sludge DewateringSand Drying Beds. Similar to water treatment sludge-drying beds.

Continuous Belt Filter Presses (CBFP)ReductionIncineration. For sludge that are not
suitable as soil conditioner, or if a site is not available for landfill.
Incineration completely evaporates the moisture in the sludge and combusts the
organic solids to a sterile ash. To minimize the amount of fuel used, the sludge
must be dewatered as completely as possible before incineration. The exhaust gas
from an incinerator must be treated carefully to avoid air pollution.

6.11: Alternative Sludge Disposal Techniques

Ultimate disposition of biosolids or residue (ash from incineration) falls into

four general categories: land application, landfilling, dedicated land disposal,
and utilization.

Landfilling. Disposal of biosolids, grit, screenings, ash and other solids.

Dewatering and stabilization are required before landfilling. If methane recovery
is practiced at the landfill site, the addition of biosolids will increase gas
production.

Dedicated Land Disposal. Application of heavy sludge loadings to some finite land
area that has limited public access and has been set aside or dedicated for all
time to the disposal of wastewater sludge. No crops may be grown. Typically
receive liquid sludges. Common sites includes abandon surface mine. The biosolids
improve the recovery of the land by providing organic matter and nutrients for
plant growth.

Utilization. Composting and co-firing with municipal solid waste. Landfill

material. Recovery of lime and the use of the sludge to form activated carbon.

Land Application of Biosolids. Spreading of biosolids on or just below the soil

surface for agricultural purposes. The organic matter improves soil structure, soil
aggregation, water holding capacity, water infiltration, and soil aeration. In
addition, macronutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and
micronutrients (such as iron, manganese, copper, and zinc) aid plant growth. These
serve as a partial replacement for chemical fertilizers.

To qualify for application to agricultural and nonagricultural land, the biosolids

must, at a minimum, meet the pollutant ceiling concentrations, class B requirements
for pathogens, and vector attraction requirements. For biosolids processed for
application to lawns and gardens, class A criteria and one of the vector-attraction
reduction requirements must be met.

Pathogen densitiesClass A fecal coliform < 1,000 most probable number (MPN) per
gram of total solids, or Salmonella bacteria be < 3 MPN per 4 grams of total
solids. May be land-disposed immediately.
Class B - 2 million fecal coliforms per gram of sludge or treatment in a process to
significantly reduce pathogens (PSRP).Time restrictions are placed on harvesting
crops, grazing of animals and public access of sites.