Summary for Chapter 8:

Control algorithm - is the algorithm used by the control processor to derive the actuator signal.

Final control element refers to the device used to adjust the manipulated variable.

Setpoint - an input variable which sets the desired value of the controlled variable.

Offset - the steady-state deviation when the setpoint is fixed.

On-off controllers simple, inexpensive feedback controllers that are commonly used as the
thermostats in home heating systems and domestic refrigerators. They are also used in noncritical
industrial applications such as some level control loops and heating systems.

Proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller) is a control loop feedback

mechanism widely used in industrial control systems and a variety of other applications requiring
continuously modulated control. A PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the
difference between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable and applies a correction based
on proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and D respectively) which give their name
to the controller.
Proportional control - the controller output is proportional to the error signal, which is the difference
between the setpoint and the process variable. In other words, the output of a proportional controller is
the multiplication product of the error signal and the proportional gain.

Manual reset - when offset was particularly undesirable, a plant operator might reset the set point to
position the controlled variable where it was wanted. The offset remained, however, and it was variable.
It could be manually eliminated by operator adjustment of the output bias.

Integral control - The integral in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and
gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then
multiplied by the integral gain (Ki) and added to the controller output.

Reset Windup - a phenomenon in which an inherent disadvantage of integral control action.

Derivative control - The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the
error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the
contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.

Derivative filter reduces the sensitivity of the control calculations to high-frequency noise in the
measurement.

Proportional Band - In practice, the controller output is limited, either by its own limitations or by the
limitations of the corresponding actuator. Let umax and umin denote the minimum and maximum
output of the controller. The proportional band of the controller is then defined as: insert equation. In
the ideal case, a controller can have an unlimited output. The proportional band (PB) is then defined as:
insert equation. This definition of proportional band is often used instead of the controller gain. The
value is expressed in percent (%).
Direct Acting - Suppose a process with a controller output CV and a process output PV is in steady state
and kept to a certain setpoint SP. If the controller output decreases as the measured variable increases
the controller is said to be direct acting.

Reverse Acting - If the controller output increases as the measured variable increases, then it is
called reverse acting.

Proportional Integral Control - control combines the advantages of integral control

(zero steady-state error) with those of proportional control (increasing the speed
of the transient response).

Analog-to-digital converter the continuous signal from the measurement device is sapled and
converted periodically to a signal.

Derivative kick a phenomenon where when the set point changes derivative on error results in an
undesirable control.

Gain - the ratio of the change in output due to proportional control action to the change in input.

Summary Chapter 9:

Transducers devices that convert physical or chemical information in one form into an alternative
physical form.

Transmitter devices that convert the sensor output to a form compatible with the controller input and
to drive the transmission lines connecting the two.

Sensors - measures a process variable: flow rate, temperature, pressure, level, pH, density, composition,
etc. Much of the time, the measurement is inferred from a second variable: flow and level are often
computed from pressure measurements, composition from temperature measurements.

Actuator - the device that enables a process variable to be manipulated.

Control valves devices used to utilize some type of mechanical driver to move the valve plug into and
out of its seat, thus opening or closing the area for fluid flow.

Valve body contains an orifice that allows for the flow of liquids or gases.

Trim modulates the flow rate.

Seat consists of protective material inserted around the orifice to provide a tight shutoff and to
increase the life of the valve when corrosive or solid materials pass through it.

Valve Positioners - a type of mechanical or digital feedback controller that senses the actual stem
position, compares it to the desired position, and adjusts the air pressure to the valve accordingly.

Valve characteristics this is where specification of the valve sizes is dependent.

Rangeability the rangeabilityof a control valve is defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum input
signal level.
Thermowells - are tubular fittings used to protect temperature sensors installed in industrial processes.
A thermowell consists of a tube closed at one end and mounted in the process stream.

Calibration - is the process of configuring an instrument to provide a result for a sample within an
acceptable range. Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain instrument
accuracy.

Smart sensors these devices corporate a microcomputer as part of the sensor or transmitter, which
can greatly reduce the need for inservice calibration and checkout.

Hysteresis characterized by an outpit result that depends on the direction of change of the instrument
input, usually results from nonideal magnetic or electrical components.

Drift characterized by a slowly changing instrument output when the input is constant; it often results
from faulty or temperature-sensittive electrical components,p particularly operational amplifiers.

Dead Band - the range through which an input can be varied without initiating response. Dead Band is
usually expressed in percent of span.

Dynamic error - error which is caused by dynamic influences acting on the system such as vibration, roll,
pitch or linear acceleration.