Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:

1. Transportation Planning
2. Geometric Design
3. Pavement Design
4. Traffic Engineering
The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed an
extensive
system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome.
The roads were bordered on both sides by longitudinal drains. A typical corss section is
shown in This was a raised formation up to a 1 meter high and 15 m wide

the Government of India appointed a committee called Road development Committee with
Mr.M.R. Jayakar
One of the recommendations was the holding of periodic road conferences to discuss about
road construction and development. This paved the way for the establishment of a semi-
official technical body called Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934
This led to the introduction of a development fund called Central road fund in 1929.
Nagpur road congress 1943
A twenty year development programme for the period (1943-1963) was finalized.
roads were divided into four classes
National highways which would pass through states, and places having national
importance for strategic, administrative and other purposes.

State highways which would be the other main roads of a state.

District roads which would take traffic from the main roads to the interior of the district.
According to the importance, some are considered as major district roads and the
remaining as other district roads.

Village roads which would link the villages to the road system.
construct 2 lakh kms of road across the country within 20 years
Bombay road congress 1961
It was the second 20 year road plan (1961-1981)
The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakhs.
Rural roads were given specific attention.
They suggested that the length of the road should be increased so as to give a road density of
32kms/100 sq.km
The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then included in the plan
Lucknow road congress 1984
Some of the salient features of this plan are as given below:
This was the third 20 year road plan (1981-2001). It is also called Lucknow road plan.
It aimed at constructing a road length of 12 lakh kilometers by the year 1981 resulting in
a road density of 82kms/100 sq.km
The plan has set the target length of NH to be completed by the end of seventh, eighth
and ninth five year plan periods.
It aims at improving the transportation facilities in villages, towns etc. such that no part
of country is farther than 50 km from NH.
Some of the many elements of highway design are
a. Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and shoulders
b. Traffic barriers
c. Overpasses/bridges
d. Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscape
Summaries of the five basic stages in highway planning and development.
Planning Identification of transportation needs and program project to be built
Within financial constraints.
Project Development The transportation project is more clearly defined. Alternative
locations
and design features are developed and an alternative is selected.
Design The design team develops detailed design and specification.
Right-of-way Land needed for the project is acquired.
construction Selection of contractor, who then builds the project.

Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross sections,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various design details. These
basic
elements are common to all linear facilities

Factors affecting geometric design

Design speed: Topography: Traffic factors: Design Hourly Volume and
Capacity: Environmental and other factors:

Road classification
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
Paved roads with hard surface : If they are provided with a hard pavement course
such roads are called paved roads.(eg: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM),
Bituminous macadam (BM), concrete roads)
Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of atleast a WBM
layer they is called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this
category.

Sight Distance is a length of road surface which a particular driver can see with an
acceptable
level of clarity.
Types of sight distance
o Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
o Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is the de ned as twice SSD
o Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
Stopping sight distance is defined as the distance needed for drivers to see an object on the
roadway ahead and bring their vehicles to safe stop before colliding with the object.

The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are

1. Stability
2. Incompressibility
3. Permanency of strength
4. Minimum changes in volume and stability
5. Good drainage
6. Ease of compaction

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:

Tests on bitumen
Penetration test
Ductility test
Softening point test
Specific gravity test
Viscosity test
Flash and Fire point test
Float test
Water content test
Loss on heating test

07 Partition

BRICK
 Standard Size:
As per BIS brick of standard size 190 mm x 90 mm x 90mm is recommended.

Nominal Size:
With mortar thickness, the size of such a brick
becomes 200mmx 100 mm x 100 mm and it is
known as the nominal size of the modular brick.

On the basis of physical and mechanical properties bricks can be classified into 4
categories.

1. 1st class bricks

Water absorbtion 12-15%, minimum compressive strength 10 N/mm2

2. 2nd class bricks

Water absorbtion 16-20%, minimum compressive strength 7 N/mm2

3. 3rd class bricks

Water absorbtion 25%, minimum compressive strength 5 N/mm2 under
burnt

4. 4th class bricks

Over burnt, distorted

TESTS ON CLAY BRICK

Hardness Test
Absorption Test
Crushing Strength Test
Shape And Size
Color Test
Structure Of Brick
Presence Of Soluble Salts (Efflorescence Test)
Soundness Test

Fly Ash Bricks: Manufacturing

 1. Fly ash bricks are machine made bricks manufactured by hydraulic or vibratory
press.
2. Raw material required are fly ash a by product of thermal power station,
hydrated lime, gypsum, locally available sand/stone dust and water.
3. Ordinary Portland Cement can also be used in place of hydrated lime and
gypsum.
4. Raw materials in the required proportion are mixed in the pan mixer to have a
semi dry uniform mix.
5. Semi dry mix is placed in the moulds of hydraulic/ vibro press.
6. Moulded bricks are air dried for one/two days in a shed depending upon the
weather conditions and then water cured for 14-21 days.
7. Minimum fly ash content for Fly Ash bricks and blocks to qualify as fly ash based
products shall be 50% of total input material.

AAC (Aerated Autoclaved Concrete) Blocks

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), also known as autoclaved cellular concrete
(ACC), autoclaved lightweight concrete (ALC), autoclaved concrete, cellular concrete
etc..

AAC is produced using no aggregate larger than sand. Fly ash generated from
thermal power plants and having 50-65% silica content is used as an aggregate,
quartz sand, calcined gypsum, cement and water are used as a binding agent.

AAC Blocks: Advantages

Light Weight
1/3rd weight of clay bricks
Ideal for high rise structure

Saving in cement & steel

Dimensionally stable
Perfect finish

Perfectly aligned, smooth walls

Savings in cement plaster

Sound & Thermal Insulation
Fire Resistant
 Low Embodied Energy
AAC consumes approx. 70% less energy than clay bricks
Being lighter it saves energy in transportation.
Approx. 70 % Reduction in weight

Density of Brick masonry = 1920kg/cum

Density of AAC blocks = 650 kg/cum

AAC: Benefits
4 times higher thermal insulation than bricks

Reduction in temperature = 4-5 Degree Celsius

15-20% savings in AC load

Gypsum Panel
Gypsum board is the generic name for a family of panel products that consist of a
noncombustible core, composed primarily of gypsum, and a paper surfacing on the
face, back and long edges
All gypsum panel products contain gypsum cores; however, they can be
faced with a variety of different materials, including paper and fiberglass
mats.
Gypsum board is often called drywall, wallboard, or plasterboard.

Gypsum Panel: Advantages
Gypsum board walls and ceilings have a number of outstanding advantages:
1) Ease of installation
2) Fire resistance
3) Sound isolation
4) Durability
5) Economy
6) Versatility

Other Partition Materials

1. Hollow Concrete Blocks

2. Cement Panels
3. Wooden Panels
 4. Glass Panels

The Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) has classified the bricks on the basis of compressive
strength and is as given in the table:
S.No. Class Avg. Comp. Strength not less

than (N/mm2) (IS: 10700)

1 35 35
2 30 30
3 25 25
4 20 20
5 17.5 17.5
6 15 15
7 12.5 12.5
8 10 10.0
9 7.5 7.5
10 5 5.0
11 3.5 3.5

Foundation n Sub Surface

Foundation & surface investigation

1. 30% of the total construction cost is spent on the foundation.

2. Baring capacity of soil is defined as the maximum load per unit area which the soil
will resist safely without displacement

3. The maximum differential settlement should not exceed 25 mm in case of

foundations on sandy soil and 40 mm in case of foundations on clayey soil.

4. If D/B < 1, Shallow foundation

5. If 1 < D/B < 15, moderately deep foundation
6. If D/B > 15 deep foundation
7. Types of foundation:
a. Shallow : spread or isolatd, strip or wall, combined, strap, mat or raft
b. Deep : pile, pier
8. Pile Foundation Is Used When:
t have sufficient bearing capacity (weak) to support
the structural loads.
 -uniform structural loads is
excessive.

expensive.
9. Load transfer by pile foundation is by either friction or by end bearing
10. Underpinning is the process of strengthening the foundation of an existing
building or other structure.
11. Use of micro-piles and jet grouting are common methods in underpinning
12. cost of soil investigation is usually less than 0.5 to 1% of the project cost
13. Site investigations are generally done to obtain the information useful for
following purposes.

obable maximum & differential settlement

ct & to solve potential foundation problems.

measures.
14. The depth of investigation should be at least equal to the significant depth.
Significant depth is the depth at which the vertical stress is 20% of the load intensity.
depth is 1.5 times the width of footing.
3 times the width of strip footing .
losely spaced or raft footings at least 1.5 times the width of the entire loaded
area.
depth of investigation below tip of bearing piles is 1.5 times
the width of the pile group
Depth is 1.5 times the width of pile group measured from the
lower third point.

bedrock should be 3 m to establish it as rock.

-storey buildings.
Depth = 0.7
Where D depth of investigation (m)
C = Constant =3 for light steel & narrow concrete building
= 6 for heavy steel & wide concrete building
S = number of storeys
15. Number of bore holes : Depends upon the variation of the strata in the bore
direction.
ings one bore hole or trial pit at the centre of the
area is sufficient.
At least 5 bores holes,
one at the centre & four near the corners.. For large multi-storeyed buildings Bore
holes at all the corners & also at the important locations. The spacing between bore
holes is kept between 10 to 30 m, depending upon the variation in subsurface
conditions and loading.
spacing varies between 150m to 300m

16. Size of the pit : 1.2m x 1.2 m for soil sampling

17. Pits depths greater than 6 m bore holes are preferred.

18. Minimum clear dimension of a drift should be as 1.5m width (2m height in hand
rock

19. Shafts are Large sized vertical holes made n geological formations. May be
rectangular or circular. Min width of rectangular shaft is 2.4 m & for circular shaft,
the width is min 2.4 m.

20. Auger Boring is a technique for the bored installation of a casing pipe into the
ground.

21. Types of drilling

a. Augar boring
b. Wash boring
c. Rotary drilling
d. Percussion drilling

22. Types of penetration test

a. Standard penetration test
b. Dynamic cone penetration test
Slabs & Beam
Slabs and Beams
1.Slab supported directly by columns are called flat slab.

2.Slab supported on two sides and bending takes place predominantly in one direction
only is called One Way Slab.

3.Slab supported on all four sides and bending take place in two directions are said to be
Two Way Slab.

4.The slabs having ratio of longer length to its shorter length (Ly/Lx) greater than 2 is called
one way slab otherwise as two way slab.

5.In one way slab main reinforcement is parallel to shorter direction and the reinforcement
parallel to longer direction is called distribution steel.

6 . In two way slab main reinforcement is provided along both direction

7. The load on slab comprises of Dead load, floor finish and live load. The loads are
calculated per unit area

8. The reinforcement in either direction in slab shall not be less than

0.15% of the total cross sectional area for Fe-250 steel

0.12% of the total cross-sectional area for Fe-415 & Fe-500 steel.

The diameter of bar generally used in slabs are: 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm.

9. The reinforcement in either direction in slab shall not be less than

0.15% of the total cross sectional area for Fe-250 steel

0.12% of the total cross-sectional area for Fe-415 & Fe-500 steel.

The diameter of bar generally used in slabs are: 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm.

10. The maximum diameter of bar in slab, shall not exceed D/8, where D is the total
thickness of slab
11. Concrete is strong in compression and very weak in tension

12. The anchorage value of bend of bar is taken as 4 times the diameter of bar for every
450 bend subjected to maximum of 16 times the diameter of bar.

13. Minimum cover in beams must be 25 mm or shall not be less than the larger diameter
of bar for all steel reinforcement including links

14. Minimum lap length should be equal to development length

15. Steel reinforcement is used to take up tensile stresses in reinforced concrete beams

16. HYSD bars have ribs on the surface and this increases the bond strength at least by 40%

17. Anchorage in steel bars is normally provided in the form of bends and hooks

18. Bars are lapped over each other for increasing the length of bars.

Miscellaneous Building Materials

Glass, plastics, bitumen, asbestos, paints, distemper and varnishes are some of the
miscellaneous materials used in building constructions.

1. GLASS
Silica is the main constituent of glass. But it is to be added with sodium potassium carbonate
to bring down melting point. To make it durable lime or lead oxide is also added. Manganese
oxide is added to nullify the adverse effects of unwanted iron present in the impure silica.
The raw materials are ground and sieved. They are mixed in specific proportion and melted in
furnace. Then glass items are manufactured by blowing, flat drawing, rolling and pressing.

Important Properties of Glass

1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent.
2. It can take excellent polish.
3. It is an excellent electrical insulator.
4. It is strong and brittle.
5. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
6. It is not affected by atmosphere.
7. It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
8. It is available in various beautiful colours.
9. With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or
stronger than steel.
10. Glass panes can be cleaned easily.
Types of Glass
The glass may be broadly classified as:
1. Soda-lime glass
2. Potash lime glass
3. Potash lead glass 4. Common glass and
5. Special glasses:
(a) Fibre glass (b) Foam glass(c) Bullet proof glass (d) Structural glass(e) Glass black
(f) Wired glass(g) Ultraviolet ray glass (h) Perforated glass.

2. PLASTICS

Plastic is an organic material prepared out of resin. It may or may not contain fillers,
plasticisers and solvents. Plastic may be defined as a natural or synthetic organic material
which are having the property of being plastic at some stage of their manufacture when they
can be moulded to required size and shape.

Types of Plastics
Primarily there are two types of plastics:
1. Thermosetting and
2. Thermoplastic.

Thermosetting Plastics: It needs momentary heated condition and great pressure during
shaping. When heated cross linkage is established between the molecules and chemical
reaction
takes place. During this stage shape can be changed with pressure. This change is not
reversible.
The scrap of such plastic is not reusable. Bakelite is an example of such plastic.

2. Thermoplastic: In this variety, the linkage between the molecules is very loose. They can
be
softened by heating repeatedly. This property helps for reuse of waste plastic. These plastic
need time to cool down and harden. These plastics are to be kept in moulds till cooling takes
place completely. Bitumen, cellulose and shellac are the examples of this variety of plastics.

3. BITUMEN

Ashalt, bitumen and tar are referred as bituminous materials, which are essentially
hydrocarbon materials.
The asphalt is a mixture of inert mineral matter lime alumina, lime, silica etc. and a
hydrocarbon
known as asphaltic bitumen. In some places like Trinidad and Bermudez, asphalt is available
in nature at a depth of 3 to 60 metres. It is known as natural asphalt. Common variety used
all over the world is residual asphalt, which is obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum oil. Bitumen is the binding material which is present in asphalt. It is a
hydrocarbon. It is obtained by partial distillation of crude oil. It contains 87 per cent carbon,
11 per cent hydrogen and 2 per cent oxygen.
4. ASBESTOS
Asbestos is a general name for several varieties of fibrous minerals which are available in
nature. But presently, most of the commercial asbestos produced is chriotile
[Mg6SiO11(OH)6.H2O].

Properties of Asbestos
1. It is flexible, soft and non-porous.
2. It is fire proof and acid proof material.
3. It is a good insulator of heat and electricity.
4. When it is mixed with cement and water, it retains shape firmly.
5. Its colour is brown or grey.
6. It can be cut into pieces or can be drilled.
7. It possesses high tensile strength in the direction of its fibres.
8. Its specific gravity is 3.10.

5. PAINTS
Paints are applied on the surfaces of timber, metals and plastered surfaces as a protective
layer and at the same time to get pleasant appearance. Paints are applied in liquid form and
after sometime the volatile constituent evaporates and hardened coating acts as a protective
layer.

Constituents of Paint
The essential constituents of paints are:
1. Base 2. A vehicle 3. A pigment
4. A drier and 5. A thinner.

6 DISTEMPERS
Distempers are the cheaper variety of paints in which chalk is used as base and water is used
as a carrier.
The emulsifying agent which is commonly used is glue or casein. Distempers are available in
powder form or in the form of paste. They are to be mixed with hot water before use.
The surface to be distempered should be thoroughly rubbed and cleaned. The cracks, if any
should be filled by lime putty. The surface should be kept dry for about two months before
applying distemper. Thus a primary coat is applied and is allowed to dry. Distemper is
usually applied in two coats.

Properties of Distemper
1. They are generally light in colour.
2. The coatings are generally thick.
3. They give reflective coating.
4. They are less durable than oil paints but are cheaper.

7 VARNISHES
Varnish is the solution of resins or resinous substances like amber, copal, shellac, gum resin
etc. in solvents like oil, turpentile, alcohol etc. Depending upon the solvents used varnishes
are classified as, oil varnishes, turpentile varnishes, spirit varnishes and water varnishes.
 The desirable characteristics of an ideal varnish are
1. It should give glossy surface.
2. Should be durable.
3. It should dry rapidly after application.
4. It should not develop cracks after drying.
It is commonly used on wooden surfaces.

8 SOLID AND HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS

Solid and hollow concrete blocks are manufactured in factories to meet the requirements of
building blocks in cities and towns. These blocks may be called as artificial stones, since they
replace the stones in the masonry construction. They are manufactured with lean mixes of
cement, sand and aggregates of sizes less than 12 mm. Instead of sharp edged aggregates,
round aggregates are professed in the manufacture of these blocks.

9 ROOFING AND FLOORING TILES

These are also clay products like brick but are thin. Depending upon their use, building tiles
may be further classified as
1. Roofing tiles
2. Flooring tiles and wall tiles.

1. Roofing Tiles: Roofing tiles are used to cover sloping roofs. They are supported on
wooden
reapers. Sometimes light gauge steel or steed rods are also used as reapers. After supporting
on reapers these tiles should be strong enough to take load of a man safely. The tiles should
he leak proof. Normally these tiles are having curved surface having ribbed sections, so that
with thin section they are sufficiently strong to resist the load. However many times flat tiles
are used under curved/ribbed tiles. These tiles are not subjected to load directly. They serve
in reducing adverse thermal effects. Mangalore, Allahabad tiles, and corrugated tiles are
popularly used roofing tiles

The desirable properties of the roofing tiles are:

1. they should not absorb moisture more than 20 per cent by weight.
2. they should give pleasing look.
3. they should be capable of taking load of a man safely, after they are supported on reapers.
4. they should be durable.
5. they should be uniform in shape and size.
6. warpage should not exceed 2% along the edges and 1.5% along the diagonal.

2. Flooring Tiles and Wall Tiles: These tiles are manufactured by burning pressed green
tiles
twice. First they are burnt at 700C. Then they are dipped in the glaze solution and again
burnt at
1250C to fuse them with glaze. The thickness of these tiles vary from 15 to 20 mm. These
tiles are flat and they have pleasing appearance. There are two types:
(a) Glazed Tiles: These tiles are used as finish surfaces for floors and walls in kitchen and
bathrooms.
These tiles are glazed and are provided with attractive colours and designs.

(b) Mosaic Tiles: These are precast concrete tiles with marble chips on the top surface. After
fixing these tiles polishing is done.
The desirable properties of flooring and roofing tiles are:
1. Tolerance for length = 5 mm.
2. Tolerance for thickness = 2 mm.
3. Should be uniform in shape and colour.
4. They should be sound, hard and durable.
5. They should have very low percentage of water absorption.
6. They should give a clear ringing sound when struck with each other.
7. They should show good resistance to abrassion.

CHAPTER 4 Materials

1. Classification of metals used for building works are ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals.
2. A ferrous material is the one in which iron is a main constituent.
3. All ferrous materials contain about 0.5 to 3% silica, less than 2% manganese, 0.15% sulphur and 0.6%
phosphorous.

1. Cast ironcarbon content 1.7% to 4.5%

2. Wrought ironcarbon content 0.05% to 0.15%

3. Steelcarbon content 0.25% to 0.25%.

Cast Iron: Important properties of cast iron are:

(a) Compression strength is 700 N/mm2 and tensile strength is 150 N/mm2

(b) It is brittle and does not absorb shocks

(c) Its specific gravity is 7.5.

(d) Its structure is coarse, crystalline and fibrous.

(e) It cannot be magnetised.

(f) It does not rust-easily.

(g) It has low melting point of about 1200C.

Uses of Cast Iron:

(a) 1. It is used for making rain water and sanitary pipes, sanitary fittings and manhole covers.
2. It is used for making railings and spiral stair cases.

3. Fire gratings, cover for pumps and motors and brackets are made with cast irons.

Wrought Iron: It is almost pure iron. It contains less than 0.15% carbon.

Properties of Wrought Iron:

1. Its ultimate compressive strength is 200 N/mm2and ultimate tensile strength is 375 N/mm2.

2. It is ductile and brittle.

3. Its unit weight is 77 kN/m3.

4. It melts at about 1500C. It becomes so soft at 900C that two pieces can be joined by

hammering.

5. It can absorb shocks very well.

6. It forms temporary magnets but it cannot be magnetised permanently.

7. It rusts more easily.

Uses of Wrought Iron:

1. It is used for making nails nuts and botts, wires and chains.

2. It is used for making roofing sheets, grills, fences, window gaurds etc.

Types of steel:

(a) Mild steel: It contains a maximum of 0.25% carbon, 0.055% of sulphur and 0.55% of

phosphorus.

(b) High carbon steel: The carbon containts in this steel is 0.7% to 1.5%.and

(c) High tensile steel: It contains 0.8% carbon and 0.6% manganese. The strength of this steel is quite
high.

Properties of Copper

1. It is having reddish brown colour.

2. Its structure is crystalline.

3. It is highly ductile and malleable.

4. It resists corrossion.

5. It can be welded easily at red heat condition.

6. Dents on the copper can be hammered out.

7. It has high electric and thermal conductivity.

8. Its melting point is at 1083C.

Uses of Copper

1. It is used as electric wire and cable.

2. It is used as lighting conductor.

3. For water proofing the construction joints copper plates are used.

4. Copper tubes are used for hot and cold water supply, gas and sanitation connections.

5. It forms a major constituent of brass and bronze.

Important Properties of Glass

1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent.

2. It can take excellent polish.

3. It is an excellent electrical insulator.

4. It is strong and brittle.

5. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.

6. It is not affected by atmosphere.

7. It has excellent resistance to chemicals.

8. It is available in various beautiful colours.

9. With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or stronger than
steel.

10. Glass panes can be cleaned easily.

Types of Glass

The glass may be broadly classified as:

1. Soda-lime glass

2. Potash lime glass

 BBS

Module -5 : Column Buckling Theories

Generally a column is member which carries load from beam and slab.
 In other words columns are defined as the members that carries load mainly in
compression.
Columns carry bending moment as well, about one or both axes of the cross section.

Column is the 2ndmost structural member of a building.

Having only 11% load column has to carry the 100% weight of a building.

Tendency of reducing column dimension is not a good practice

Tendency of reducing column number is not a good practice

Importance of Column Alignment

Column alignment is important to know, as moment of inertia changes in different direction,
thus changing the value of stress.
This has been further explained in slides ahead.

Slender column:
A column is said to be slender if its cross-sectional dimensions are small compared
with its length.

Failure Modes
Short Columns Fail by Crushing

Intermediate Columns Crush and buckle

Long Columns Fail by buckling

End Support Conditions

is a constant based on the end conditions
is the actual length
is the effective length =

Module:1
Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials
together. The word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium,
used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock
with burnt lime as binder.
Major Ingredient: C3S,C2S ,C3A ,C4AF
% Content in cement:
Lime (CaO): 60-65%
Silica (SiO2): 17-25%
Alumina (Al2O3): 3-8%
Calsium Sulphate (CaSo4): 0.1-0.5%
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3): 0.5-6%
There are three different types of ordinary Portland cement, classified on the basis of
strength achieved in 28 days. i) 33 Grade ii) 43 Grade iii) 53 Grade
Aggregate:
Granular material of mineral composition such as sand, gravel, shale, slag or crushed stone.
Coarse Aggregate:
Predominantly retained on the 4.75mm sieve
Fine Aggregate:
Completely passing through the 9.5mm (3/8 ) sieve

Classfcaton Of Aggregates
According to Source:
Natural aggregate: Native deposits with no change in their natural state other than
washing, crushing & grading. (sand, gravel, crush stone)
Artificial aggregates: They are obtained either as a by-product or by a special
manufacturing process such as heating. (blast furnace slag, expanded perlite)
According to Petrological Characteristics:
Igneous rocks: are formed by solidification of molten lava. (granite)
Sedimentary rocks: are obtained by deposition of weathered & transported preexisting
rocks or solutions. (limestone)
Metamorphic rocks: are formed under high heat & pressure alteration of either igneous &
sedimentary rocks (marble).
According to Unit Weight:
Heavy weight agg.: Hematite, Magnetite Specific Gravity, Gs > 2.8
Normal weight agg.:Gravel, sand, crushed stone 2.8 < Gs < 2.4
Light weight agg.:Expanded perlite, burned clay Gs < 2.4

Partcle Shape
Rounded: Completely water worn & fully shaped by attrition. (River Gravel)
Irregular: Partly shaped by attrition so it contains some rounded edges. (Land Gravel)
Angular: Has sharp corners, show little evidence of wear. (Crushed Stone)
Flaky: Thickness is relatively small with respect to two other dimensions. (Laminated Rocks)
Elongated: Have lengths considerably larger than two other dimensions

Surface Texture
This affects the bond to the cement paste & also influences the water demand of the mix.
S ooth: Bo d /w e e t paste & agg is weak.
 Rough: Bo d /w e e t paste & agg. is stro g.
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Stress is the ratio of applied force F to cross section area -defined as "force per
area".

The stress distribution may or may not be uniform, depending on the nature of the
loading condition

Tensile or Compressive Stress -Normal Stress:

Tensile or compressive stress normal to the plane is usually denoted "normal stress"
or "direct stress" and can be expressed as
= /

Shear Stress: Stress parallel to the plane is usually denoted "shear stress" and can be
expressed as
= /

Strain defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress" and can be expressed as

= / =/

Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an object.

=( )/
Elastic Constants:

= = /

= = /

3.= = /

4.= = /
Stress Strain Curve

Yield Point
At yield point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line relationship
and Law no longer applies as the strain increases faster than the stress.
From this point on the material will not return to its original, unstressed condition
when the load is removed, material react plastically to any further increase in load or
stress.
In brittle materials, little or no plastic deformation occurs and the material fractures
near the end of the linear-elastic portion of the curve.

Proportional limit
Proportional Limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to
strain.
It is obtained by observing the deviation from the straight-line portion of the stress-
strain curve.
Elastic limit
Elastic Limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any
measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete release of load.

Yield strength
Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic
deformation.

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

The ultimate tensile strength UTS or, more simply, the tensile strength, is the
maximum stress level reached in a tension test.

Example of: A: High strength Steel B: Cast Iron C: Mild Steel D: Concrete

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram

Beam Design Requirements
SAND

Sand is a natural product

1. It
contains salt and hence structure will remain damp. The mortar is affected by
efflorenscence and blisters appear.
2. It
contains shells and other organic matter, which decompose after some time,
reducing the life of the mortar.
The properties of good sand are:
1. It should be chemically inert.
2. It should be free from organic or vegetable matter.
3. It should be free from salt.
4. It should contain sharp, angular and coarse grains.
5. It should be well graded.
6. It should be hard.

2.2 CEMENT MORTAR

Table 2.1. Cement to sand proportions for various works
S. No. Works Cement:
Sand
1 Masonry works 1:6 to 1:8
 2 Plastering masonry 1:3 to 1:4
3 Plastering concrete 1:3
4 Pointing 1:2 to 1:3
Curing: The process to ensure sufficient moisture for hydration after laying
mortar/concrete is called curing. Curing is ensured by spraying water. Curing normally starts
624 hours after mortar is usedCuring is recommended for 28 days.
Properties of Cement Mortar: The following are the important properties of cement
mortar:
1. When water is added to the dry mixture of cement and sand, hydration of cement
starts and itbinds sand particles also the surrounding surfaces of masonry and
concrete.
2. A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
3. Well proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
4. Leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand and hence the plastered
surface isporous.
5. The strength of mortar depends upon the proportion of cement and sand.
Strengths obtainedwith various proportion of cement and sand is shown in Table
2.2.
35
MORTARS
Table 2.2
S. No. Cement: Sand Compressive
Strength

1 1:3 10 N/mm2

2 1:4 7.5 N/mm2

3 1:5 5.0 N/mm2
4 1:6 3.0 N/mm2
5 1:8 0.7 N/mm2
Uses of Cement Mortar
Mortar is used
1. to bind masonry units like stone, bricks, cement blocks.
2. to plaster slab and walls make them impervious.
3. to give neat finishing to walls and concrete works.
4. for pointing masonry joints.
5. for preparing building blocks.
6. as a filler material in ferro cement works.
 7. to fill joints and cracks in walls.
8. as a filler material in stone masonry.

Fat lime and hydraulic limes are used for making lime mortar. If 3
fat lime is used sand mixed is normally 2 to 3 times its volume.
If hydraulic lime is used sand mixed is only 2 times the volume
of lime. Lime is prepared by pounding, if quantity required is CHAPTER
small or by grinding

Clay lumps are collected and are wetted with water and allowed to mature for 1 or 2 days. It
is kneeded well until it attains required consistancy. Sometimes fibrous materials like
gobber is added in the mix. It prevents cracks in the plaster. If plaster is to be used for outer
walls, it is sprayed or painted with bitumen.
It is cheap mortar. Its durability is less. It is normally used for the construction of
temporary sheds and cheap houses in rural areas.
The following are some of the special mortars:
1. Cement clay mortar
2. Gauged mortar
3. Decorative mortar.

The following tests are conducted on the prepared mortars to ensure their quality:
1. Crushing Test
2. Tensile Strength Test
3. Adhesive Test.

Major ingredients of concrete are:

1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.
Table 3.1. Proportion of cement, sand and coarse aggregates in concrete
S.
Proportion Nature of Work
No.
For machine foundation, footings for steel columns and
1 1:1:2
concreting under water.
Water tanks, shells and folded plates, for other water
2 1:1 :3 retaining structures.
 3 1:2:4 Commonly used for reinforced concrete works like beams,
slabs, tunnel lining, bridges
4 1:3:6 Piers, abutments, concrete walls, sill of windows, floors.
5 1:4:8 Mass concretes like dam, foundation course for walls, for
making concrete blocks.

Water/cement ratio
Properties of Concrete
Concrete has completely different properties when it is the plastic stage and when
hardened. Concrete in the plastic stage is also known as green concrete. The properties of
green concrete include:
1. Workability
2. Segregation
3. Bleeding
4. Harshness.
The properties of hardened concrete are:
1. Strength
2. Resistance to wear
3. Dimensional changes
4. Durability
5. Impermeability.

Properties of Green Concrete

1. Workability: This is in Vee-Bee consistometer.
The suggested values of workability for different works are as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2. Suggested values of workability
Application Slump Compaction Time
in
Factor Vee-
Bee
1. Concreting of shallow sections with 0.75 0.80 10
vibrations 20
2. Concreting of light reinforced sections 0.80 0.85 5 10
with vibrators
 3. Concreting of lightly reinforced sections 25 75 0.85 0.92 2 5
without vibrations and heavily reinforced mm
sections with vibrations
4. Concreting of heavily reinforced sections 75 125 More than
without vibration mm 0.92
2. Segregation: Separation of coarse particles from the green concrete is called
segregation. This may happen due to lack of sufficient quantity of finer particles in concrete
or due to throwing of the concrete from greater heights at the time of placing the concrete.
Because of the segregation, the cohesiveness of the concrete is lost and honey combing
results. Ultimately it results in the loss of strength of hardened concrete. Hence utmost care
is to be taken to avoid segregation.
3. Bleeding: This refers to the appearance of the water along with cement
particles on the surface of the freshly laid concrete. This happens when there is excessive
quantity of water in the mix or due to excessive compaction. Bleeding causes the formation
of pores and renders the concrete weak. Bleeding can be avoided by suitably controlling the
quantity of water in the concrete and by using finer grading of aggregates.
4. Harshness: Harshness is the resistance offered by concrete to its surface
finish. Harshness is due to presence of lesser quantity of fine aggregates, lesser cement
mortar and due to use of poorely graded aggregates. It may result due to insufficient
quantity of water also. With harsh concrete it is difficult to get a smooth surface finish and
concrete becomes porous.

Properties of Hardened Concrete

1. Strength: The characteristic strength of concrete is defined as the compressive
strength of 150 mm size cubes after 28 days of curing below which not more than 5 per cent
of the test results are expected to fail. The unit of stress used is N/mm 2. IS 456 grades the
concrete based on its characteristic strength as shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Grades of concrete
Grade M10 M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40

Characteristic 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
strength in M
N/mm2
Till year 2000, M15 concrete was permitted to be used for reinforced concrete works.
But IS 4562000 specifies minimum grade of M20 to be used for reinforced concrete works.

Strength of concrete depends upon the amount of cement content, quality and
grading of aggregates, water cement ratio, compaction and curing. Strength of concrete is
gained in the initial stages. In 7 days the strength gained is as much as 60 to 65 per cent of
28 days strength. It is customary to assume the 28 days strength as the full strength of
concrete. However concrete gains strength after 28 days also. The characteristic strength
may be increased by the as factor given in Table 3.4.
 Table 3.4. Effect of age factor on strength of concrete
Minimum age of member when 1 3 6 12
design load is expected. month months months months
Age factor 1.0 1.10 1.15 1.20
The tensile strength may be estimated from the formula ft = 0.7 fck N/mm2, where fck
is the characteristic compressive stress. The modulus of elasticity may be estimated from
the formula:
E = 50 fck N/mm2.
Tests on Concrete
The following are some of the important tests conducted on concrete:
1. Slump test.
2. Compaction factor test.
3. Crushing strength test.
1. Slump Test: This test is conducted to determine the workability of concrete.
It needs a slump cone for test (Fig. 3.3). Slump cone is a vessel in the shape of a frustum of a
cone with diameter at bottom 200 mm and 50 mm at top and 300 mm high. This cone is
kept over a impervious platform and is filled with concrete in four layers. Each layer is
tamped with a 16 mm pointed rod for 25 times. After filling completely the cone is gently
pulled up. The decrease in the height of the concrete is called slump. Higher the slump,
more workable is the concrete. The desired values of slumps for various works have been
shown in Table 3.2.

Fig. 3.3. Slump test

2. Compaction Factor Test: This is another test to identify the workability of

concrete. This test is conducted in the laboratory. The test equipment consists of two
hoppers and a cylinder fixed to a stand, the dimensions and the distances between the
three vessels being standardized. Vessel A and B are having hinged bottoms whereas
cylinder C is having fixed bottom. [Ref. Fig. 3.4]
Top vessel A is filled with the concrete to be tested. As soon as it is filled, the hinged
door is opened. Concrete is collected in vessel B. Then the hinged door of B is opened to
collect concrete in cylinder C. The concrete in cylinder C is weighted. Let it be W1.
 Now cylinder is again filled with the sample of concrete in 50 mm layers, which is
compacted by ramming and vibrating. Then the weight of compacted concrete is
determined. Let this weight be W2.The ratio W1/W2 is termed as compaction factor. The
specified values of compaction factor for different works are already listed in Table 3.2.

Fig. 3.4. Compaction factor test

3. Crushing Strength Test: Metallic moulds of size 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm are
used for casting concrete cubes. Before filling mould, it is properly oiled on its inner
surfaces, so that cubes can be easily separated. Fresh cube is filled with concrete to be
tested in 3 layers and kept in the room. After 24 hours, cube is removed from the mould and
kept under water for curing. After 28 days of curing cubes are tested in the compression
testing machine. In this test cubes are placed over the smooth surface which is in contact
with side plates of mould. The crushing load is noted and crushing strength is found as load
divided by surface area (150 150 mm2).
Code specify the desirable strength of concrete for 3 days and 7 days for quick
assessment of strength of concrete.
Desirable Properties of Concrete
Appropriate quality and quantity of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water
should be used so that the green concrete has the following properties:
(a) Desired workability
(b) No seggregation in transporting and placing

(c) No bleeding and (d) No harshness.

Hardened concrete should have

(a) required characteristic strength
(b) minimum dimensional changes

(c) good durability

 (d) impermeable

(e) good resistance to wear and tear.

Uses of Concrete
1. As bed concrete below column footings, wall footings, on wall at supports to beams
2. As sill concrete
3. Over the parapet walls as coping concrete
4. For flagging the area around buildings
5. For pavements
6. For making building blocks.
However major use of concrete is as a major ingradient of reinforced and prestressed
concrete. Many structural elements like footings, columns, beams, chejjas, lintels, roofs are
made with R.C.C. Cement concrete is used for making storage structures like water tanks,
bins, silos, bunkers etc. Bridges, dams, retaining walls are R.C.C. structures in which concrete
is the major ingradient.

Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in resisting tension. Hence
reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected.
acts as a structural member and can resist tensile as well as compressive stresses very well.
Properties of R.C.C./Requirement of Good R.C.C.
1. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear
forces.
2. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
3. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrossion is
prevented.
4. The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
5. It is a good fire resistant material.
6. When it is fresh, it can be moulded to any desired shape and size
3.3 REINFORCED BRICK CONCRETE (RBC)
It is the combination of reinforcement, brick and concrete. It is well known fact that
concrete is very weak in tension. Hence in the slabs, lintels and beams the concrete in the
portion below the neutral axis do not participate in resisting the load. It acts as a filler
material only. Hence to achieve economy the concrete in tensile zone may be replaced by
bricks or tiles. Dense cement mortar is used to embed the reinforcement. The
reinforcement may be steel bars, expanded mesh etc.
 3.4 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

PSC is commonly used in the construction of bridges, large column free slabs and
roofs. PSC sleepers and electric piles are commonly used.
The material used in PSC is high tensile steel and high strength steel. The tensioning of
wires may be by pretensioning or by post tensioning. Pretensioning consists in stretching
the wires before concreting and then releasing the wires. In case of post tensioning, the
ducts are made in concrete elements. After concrete of hardens, prestressing wires are
passed through ducts. After stretching wires, they are anchored to concrete elements by
special anchors.

3.5 FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)

Plain concrete possesses deficiencies like low tensile strength, limited ductility and low
resistance to cracking. The cracks develop even before loading. After loading micro cracks
widen and propagate, exposing concrete to atmospheric actions. If closely spaced and
uniformly dispered fibres are provided while mixing concrete, cracks are arrested and static
and dynamic properties are improved. The length to lateral dimension of fibres range from
30 to 150. The diameter of fibres vary from 0.25 to 0.75 mm.
Fibre reinforced concrete is having better tensile strength, ductility and resistance to
cracking.

Uses of FRC
1. For wearing coat of air fields, roads and refractory linings.
2. Formanufacturing precast products like pipes, stairs, wall panels, manhole covers
and boats.
3. Glassfibre reinforced concrete is used for manufacturing doors and window
frames, parkbenches, bus shelters etc.
4. Carbon FRC is suitable for structures like cladding and shells.
5. Asbestos FRC sheets are commonly used as roofing materials.

Cellular Concrete
It is a light weight concrete produced by introducing large voids in the concrete or mortar.
Its density varies from 3 kN/m3 to 8 kN/m3 whereas plain concrete density is 24 kN/m3. It is
also known as aerated, foamed or gas concrete.
Properties of cellular concrete: It has the following properties:
1. It has low weight.
2. It has good fire resistance.
3. It has good thermal insulation property.
 4. Thermal expansion is negligible.
5. Freezing and thawing problems are absent.
6. Sound absorption is good.
7. It has less tendency to spall.Uses of Cellular Concrete

1. It is used for the construction of partition walls.

2. It is used for partitions for heat insulation purposes.
3. It is used for the construction of hollow filled floors.

3.7 FERRO-CEMENT

Properties of Ferro-cement
1. Its strength per unit mass is high.
2. It has the capacity to resist shock laod.
3. It can be given attractive finish like that of teak and rose wood.
4. Ferro cement elements can be constructed without using form work.
5. It is impervious.Uses of Ferro-cement

It can be used for making:

1. Partition walls
2. Window frames, chejjas and drops
3. Shelf of cupboards
4. Door and window shutters
5. Domestic water tanks
6. Precast roof elements
7. Reapers and raffers required for supporting roof tiles.
8. Pipes
9. Silos
10. Furnitures11. Manhole covers
12. Boats.

BBS
CODES AND SPECIFICATION -
IS: 2502-1963 IS: 456
IS: 1893-2000 International standard
ISO: 4066-1977
SP: 34
1. Bar bending schedule is a list of reinforcement bars, a given RCC work item, and is presented in a tabular form (bars
diameter, shape of bending, length of each bent and straight portions, angles of bending, total length of each bar, and
number of each type of bar) for easy visual reference in preparing an estimate of quantities.
2. Bars >36mm shall not bundled.
3. Welding is not permitted at bends.

BBS FOR SLAB:

HOOKS & BENDS

Length of one hook = (4d ) +

[(4d+ d )] where, (4d+ d ) refers to
the curved portion = 9d.
TYPICAL BBS CALCULATION
Consider a beam of clear length of 4m, 300mm wide by 450mm depth. It consists of 2-12 diameter bars at top, and 2-16
diameter and 1 12 diameter bars at the bottom. Diameter of stirrup is 8mm spaced at 180mm center to center. Clear
cover to reinforcement provided is 40mm. Prepare bar bending schedule for the given beam. Clear cover = 40 mm
SOLUTION
Now we will calculate the length of reinforcement based on shapes of reinforcement required for reinforced concrete beam
in above example.
We will start with bottom reinforcement, B1.
Bar shape of B1 is as shown below:

Length of B1 = clear distance between walls + 2 x width of walls 2 x bar cover + 2 x bend length
Bend length is calculated as 6 x diameter of bar for reinforcement conforming to IS: 2502-1963
Length of B1 = 4000 + 2 x 230 2 x 40 + 2 x100 = 4580mm
Length of bar B2 is calculated based on shape of this bar. This bar bends up near the support as shown below:

Length of bar B2: A + B + C = 4000 + 2 x 230 2 x 40 + 0.414xH

H = 450 2 x 40 2 x 12 2 x 12/2 = 334mm
B2 = 4000 + 2 x 230 2 x 40 + 0.414334 = 4518.3 = 4520mm
Length of Bar T1 = 4000 + 2 x 230 -2 x 40 = 4380mm
Shear stirrups

Stirrups are spaced at 180mm center to center. Stirrups are provided between walls or
support for a beam. No. of stirrups required for given beam = 4000/180 + 1 = 24
Length a = 450 2 x40 8 = 362mm
Length b = 300 2 x 40 8 = 212mm
Therefore length of 1 stirrup S1 = 2 x (212 + 362 + 90) = 1328 mm