42 Chapter 1 BECOMI NG HUMAN
North African Cave Painting.
and more arid. Small lakes dried up, and so did rivers and
streams. The largest lakes did survive, but they lacked the
fish stocks that had fed expanding human populations. Apart
from the extraordinary visual record that they left, Africas
first settled agrarian and fishing communities disappeared
virtually without a trace, only to be discovered 11,000 years
later at the hands of ingenious archaeologists.
R E VO L U T I O N S I N
z
S O C I A L O R G A N I Z AT I O N
 How did agricultural revolutions foster new communal
hierarchies and interaction?
With the domestication of plants and animals came settle-
ment in agricultural villages. These villages were near fields
for accessible sowing and cultivating, and pastures for herd-
ing livestock. Villagers worked together to clear fields, plant
crops, and celebrate rituals in which they sang and danced
and sacrificed to nature and the spirit world for fertility,
rain, and successful harvests. They also produced stone
tools to work the fields and clay and stone pots or woven
baskets to collect and store the crops. As populations rose,
and lands yielded surplus food, some villagers stopped
working the fields to become specialized craftworkers, de-
voting their time to producing pottery, baskets, textiles, or
This cave painting comes from
Tassili nAjjer, highlands in the
Sahara Desert, and dates from
the second millennium BCE.
In this illustration, early men
and women covered the walls
with pictures of daily life:
children tending calves
tethered to a rope. The white
ovals to the left represent
huts.
tools, which they could trade to farmers and pastoralists
for food. Craft specialization and the buildup of surpluses
contributed to early stratification, as some people accumu-
lated more land and wealth while others led the rituals and
sacrifices.
E A R LY S E T T L E M E N T IN V I L L AG E S
The earliest dwelling places of the first settled communities
were quite simple structureslittle more than circular pits
with stones piled on top of each other to form walls, above
which was stretched a cover that rested on poles. Social
structures were equally simple; they were clanlike and based
on kinship networks. With time, however, population growth
enabled clans to expand their size. As the use of natural re-
sources intensified, specialized tasks evolved and divisions of
labor came into being. Some members of the community pro-
cured and prepared food; others built terraces and defended
the settlement. Later, walls were built and clamped together
with wooden fittings. And as construction techniques
changed, the shape of the houses altered from the traditional
circular plan to a rectangular one. The rectangular shape is
not found in nature, and it is thus a truly human mark on the
landscape. Certainly this new shape reflected new mental at-
titudes and social behaviors. In rectangular houses, walls did
more than support and protect: they also divided and sepa-
rated. Because it was easier to build interior walls leaning
against flat surfaces, privacy improved and family members
were physically parted. Human relations would never be the

 How did agricultural revolutions foster new communal hierarchies and interaction?
same as they had been in the highly egalitarian arrangements
of the mobile hunters and gatherers.
Although the food-producing changes were gradual and
widely dispersed, a few communities stand out as pioneers in
the long transition from hunting and gathering to agrarian
and pastoral life. Around Wadi en-Natuf, located about ten
miles from present-day Jerusalem, a group of people known
historically as Natufians began to dig sunken pit shelters and
to chip stone tools around 12,500 BCE. Over the course of
the next two millennia or so, these bands stayed in one place,
improving their toolmaking techniques, building circular
shelters, and developing a variety of ways to preserve and pre-
pare food. They dwelled in solidly built structures, buried
their dead, and harvested grains. Although they did not plant
seeds and did not give up hunting, their growing knowledge
of wild plants paved the way for later breakthroughs.
It was only a matter of time before the full transition to
settled agriculture and full-scale pastoralism took place. As
noted above, the agricultural revolution spread in all direc-
tions. In the highlands of eastern Anatolia, the area that
encompasses modern-day Turkey, large settlements were
arranged around monumental public buildings with impres-
sive stone carvings that attest to the complexity of social or-
ganization. In central Anatolia, at the site of atal Hyk, a
dense honeycomb of settlements was filled with rooms that
were covered with wall paintings and sculptures of wild bulls,
hunters, and pregnant women. The use of art and imagery to
provide identity and to master the powerful forces of the cos-
mos is a human characteristic continued unbroken from the
time of the early cave artists. The difference now was that
men and women made their own structures, where they gath-
ered to worship the forces of nature and the spirit world, in-
atal Hyk. Discovered in 1958 by the British archaeologist
James Mellaart, this site is notable for providing information on
the global transition from hunting and gathering to urban
dwelling. atal Hyk is located in modern Turkey and dates from
the eighth millennium BCE.
R E VO LU T IO N S IN S O CIA L O RGA N IZ AT ION 43
teracting with each other according to rituals that defined
their place in society.
After 5500 BCE, people began to move into the river val-
ley in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq) along the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers, and small villages began to appear. They
began to work together to build simple irrigation systems to
water their fields. Perhaps because of the increased demands
for community work to maintain the irrigation systems, the
communities in southern Mesopotamia became stratified,
with some people having more power than others. We can
see from the burial sites and the large number of public build-
ings uncovered by archaeologists that for the first time, com-
munities had people who were born into a higher status
rather than acquiring high status through the merits of their
work. A class of people who had access to more luxury goods,
and who lived in bigger and better houses, now became part
of the social organization.
The agricultural revolution created farmers and herders
where once there had been only hunters and gatherers. Agri-
culture required settled communities and because it provided
surplus food, populations could easily increase. As popula-
tions grew, they eventually began to concentrate in ever larger
centers, where they formed the first towns. Settled agricul-
tural societies could finally produce enough sustenance to
feed large numbers of people who did not themselves have
to produce food and could move from the countryside to
urban settings. The next chapter will explore early urbaniza-
tion in more detail. What is important for us to emphasize
here is that changes dependent on agriculture enabled larger
numbers of people to live together in denser concentrations.
Rapid population expansion also followed in the wake of agri-
culture and herding. By 1000 BCE, the worlds population had
reached 50 million, and the household, with its dominant
male, had replaced the small, relatively egalitarian band as
the primary social unit.
M E N, WO M E N, A N D T H E
G R OW T H O F D RU D G E RY
Over the 4- to 5-million-year-long history of humans and
their hominid ancestors, one of the fundamental divisions
manifest in the fossil remains of early hominids and humans
is that between males and females. The existence of this di-
vision naturally raises questions about what relationships be-
tween the two sexes were like in prehistoric times. Certainly,
for millions of years, basic differences in biology affected dif-
ferences in the roles played by men and women. The fact that
females gave birth to offspring and that males did not was
the driving force that determined female and male actions
and behaviors and attitudes toward each other, at least up to
the appearance of Homo erectus. Thus, it is a mistake to think
of male-female interactions as gender (social and cultural)
relations when, in reality, they are biologically based sexual
Primary Source
MOTHERIN G A N D MI L KI N G
One of the dividing lines among all animals, humans included, involves child rearing and the di-
vision of labor between mothers and fathers. In this text, the renowned primatologist Sarah Blaffer
Hrdy argues that breast-feeding among mammals was a major factor shaping womens fortunes.
Is sex destiny? When this question is posed, its a safe
bet that the underlying agenda has to do with what women
should be doing. Should they be home caring for their chil-
dren or off pursuing other interests? A comparative look
at other creatures that (like humans) breed cooperatively
and share responsibilities for rearing young with other
group members reveals that sex per se is not the issue. Lac-
tation is.
Caretakers of both sexes, wet-nurses, even daycare
none of these are uniquely human, nor particularly new.
They are standard features of many cooperatively breeding
species. As we saw, cooperative breeding is exquisitely well
developed in insects such as honeybees and wasps. Shared
provisioning is also common among birds such as acorn
woodpeckers, bee-eaters, dunnocks, and scrub jays. Al-
though cooperative breeding is uncommon among mam-
mals generally, it is richly developed in species such as
wolves, wild dogs, dwarf mongooses, elephants, tamarins,
marmosets, and humans. In all these animals, individuals
other than the mother (allomothers) help her provision
or otherwise care for her young. Typically, allomothers will
include the mothers mate (often but not necessarily the
genetic progenitor). Individuals other than either parent
(alloparents) also help. These helpers are most often re-
cruited from kin who are not yet ready to reproduce them-
selves, or from subordinates who do not currentlyor may
never havebetter options. In the human case, the most
important alloparents are often older, post-reproductive
relatives who have already reproduced.
Among mammals, the trend toward having young who
require costly long-term care began modestly enough. It
probably began with an egg-laying brooding reptile that
started to secrete something milklike. Such egg-layers
gradually developed glands especially equipped for milk
production. Only among mammals did one sex come to
specialize in manufacturing custom-made baby formula,
to provide something critical for infant survival that the
other sex could not. This peculiarity has had many ramifi-
cations, especially as infants became dependent for longer
periods in the primate line.
The ante was upped substantially when primate moth-
ers, instead of bearing litters, began focusing care on one
j
baby at a time. These singletons were born mature enough
to cling to their mothers fur, to be carried by her right
from birth and for months thereafter. Whether or not this
intimate and prolonged association is the mothers destiny,
sex is not the issue. Lactation is.
What Is Lactation About?
Other forms of caretakingfathers brooding eggs, bring-
ing food, protecting babiesare not nearly so sex-specific.
Even gestation is a function that in rare cases (for exam-
ple, the sea horse) a male takes on. But not lactation.
Whywith the sole exception of one rare fruit batdoes
lactation appear to be exclusively female? How did these
curious secretions get started?
At first glance, a mother sea horse might seem to have
a sweet deal. She sallies up to her mate, injects her eggs
into his belly pouch, and then, carefree, propels herself
off to feed and make more eggs. Meanwhile, back at the
males pouch, the sea-mares last batch is fertilized, toted,
and kept safe in the ballooning brood chamber of the now
extremely pregnant male. At birth, as many as 1,500 fully
formed but still minuscule and defenseless sea-foals are
sprayed out into the open ocean. The sea around them
teems with predators and competitors, many bigger than
they are. Forced to fend for themselves immediately after
birth, almost all starve.
Viviparity means keeping infants safe inside some
sealed chamber within the parents body till they can be
born alive, as opposed to protected in an egg fill hatching.
But by itself, viviparity offers tiny, still helpless creatures
only the slimmest toehold on posterity. Why not linger in
the womb longer, and grow bigger before venturing into
the world?
 How does human child rearing affect mothers differently
from fathers? Why is the difference more marked among
humans than other species?
Source: From Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Mother Nature: Maternal Instincts and
How They Shape the Human Species (New York: Ballantine Books, 2000),
pp. 12123.

relations. One can speak of the emergence of gendered re-
lations and roles only with the appearance of modern humans
(Homo sapiens) and perhaps Neanderthals. Only when hu-
mans began to think imaginatively and in complex symbolic
ways and when they gave voice to these perceptions in a spo-
ken language, perhaps no sooner than 150,000 years ago, did
such true gender categories as man and woman crystallize.
As these cultural aspects of human life took shape, the dis-
tinction between men and women, rather than between Over thousands of generations, African hominids evolved
males and females, began to be made, and culture joined from other primates into Homo erectus hominids, who then
biology in governing human interactions.
Gender roles became more pronounced and fixed in the
stages leading up to and during the food-producing revolu-
tion. As human communities became larger, more stratified,
and more powerful following the transition to an agricultur-
ally based way of life, the rough gender egalitarianism of
hunting and gathering societies eroded. An enhanced human
power over the environment did not confer equal power on
all. In one view, women were the net losers of the agricul-
tural revolution. Womens knowledge of wild plants had con-
tributed decisively to early settled agriculture, but women did
not necessarily benefit from the transition to which their ex-
pertise contributed. Indeed, a well-known student of primate
behavior, Sarah Hrdy, has called the settled agricultural trans-
formation a Great Leap Sideways, because advances for
some people meant losses for others.
Advances in agrarian tools, notably the plow, made heavy
work much more onerous for some people than for others,
especially undermining the status women had held as farm-
ers. Men, who had been more involved in hunting and gath-
ering, took charge of yoking animals to plows, leaving to
women the backbreaking and repetitive tasks of planting,
weeding, harvesting, and grinding the grain into flour. Thus,
although agricultural innovations augmented productivity,
they also increased the drudgery of work, especially for
women. The unequal effects on men and women are visible,
for instance, in fossils found in Abu Hureyra, Syria, where
the bones found by archaeologists displayed the evidence of
a harsh working life. Damage to the vertebrae, osteoarthritis
in the toes, and curved and arched femurs suggest that the
work of bending over and kneeling in the fields especially took
its toll on female agriculturalists. These maladies do not usu-
ally appear among the bone remains of hunters and gatherers.
The stratification of men and women during this era also
affected power relations within households and communi-
ties. The senior male figure became the dominant figure in
these householdsand even beyond, in the new political and
cultural hierarchies, where societies favored males over fe-
males in leadership positions. The agricultural revolution
marked a greater division among men, and particularly be-
tween men and women. Where the agricultural transforma-
tion was most widespread, and where population densities
especially began to grow in Afro-Eurasia, the social and po-
litical differences created inequalities within society, espe-
CO N CLU S IO N 45
cially along gender lines, and patriarchy, or the rule of sen-
ior males within households, began to spread around the
globe.
zC ONCLUSION
wandered very far from their native habitats to fill other
landmasses. They did so in successive waves, each re-
sponding to worldwide alternations of glaciation and melt-
ing. These predecessors of humans had some common
features with modern humans. They stood erect, made stone
tools, lived in extended families, and, to a certain extent,
communicated with each other (by means other than lan-
guage). An ability to adapt to environmental change was
what increasingly separated humans from other animal
species. Homo sapiens, who had larger brains than other ho-
minids and are what we know as modern humans, also
emerged in Africa and trickled out of the worlds largest
landmass about 100,000 years ago. Since Homo sapiens had
greater adaptive skills, when a cooling cycle returned they
were better prepared to face the elements, and eventually
they eclipsed their genetic cousins. One critical variable was
their ability to use language, to engage in abstract, repre-
sentational thought, and to convey the lessons of experience
to their descendants and neighbors. Thus it was that mod-
ern humans stored and shared knowledge, thereby enhanc-
ing their adaptive abilities.
While modern men and women share a recent African
heritage, people adapted over hundreds of generations to the
specific environments that they encountered as they began
to fill the earths corners. Some settled near lakes and took to
fishing, while others hunted large mammals in northern
steppes. But everywhere, the dependence on nature yielded
broadly similar social and cultural structures. It took another
warming cycle for people from Africa to the Americas slowly
to put down their hunting weapons and begin to domesticate
animals and plants.
The changeover to settled agriculture was not uniform
across the world. There were some basic commonalities:
reliance on wood, stone, and natural fibers to make tools,
shelter, and materials for cultural expressions, as well as in-
creasing social hierarchies, especially a status differential be-
tween men and women. But with time, the social geography
of the worlds regions began to vary as communities became
more settled. The process of divergence between the worlds
parts gathered speed as humans learned to modify nature to
fit their needs. The varieties of animals that could be do-
mesticated, as well as differences in climatic conditions and
topography, all shaped the early ways in which people drifted
apart in spite of their recent common origins.
 46 Chapter 1 BECOMI NG HUMAN
Still, there was one important commonality: the scale and
complexity of settlements and communities across the world
had a limit. The vast majority of people in the age before the
agricultural revolution continued a life of foraging for food
supplies. Villages grewbut they did not become cities. More-
over, although fishing and farming enabled settled communi-
ties to spring up, pastoral communities that followed moving
herds of animals or migrating schools of fish also spread. These
peoples moved across mountains or deserts to find fresh pas-
tures for their animals or seek waters where fish were spawn-
ing. Around the world, the remains of rudimentary pottery,
stone tools, and rustic adobe and stone villages give us pic-
tures of worlds that were almost exclusively rural, largely hor-
izontal in social structure, and still very much dependent on
the natural flow of fresh water and fertility of soils. As we will
see in the next chapter, another round of technical advances
would be necessary before humans in some areas could further
change their relationship to nature and in so doing create the
foundations for the worlds first highly complex societies.
S T U DY Q U E S T I O N S
A W W N O R T O N . C O M / S T U DY S PAC E
1. Explain how evolutionary biologists and archaeologists in
recent decades have transformed our understanding of human
origins. What tools and discoveries led them to their
conclusions?
2. Describe the evolutionary process through which Homo
sapiens emerged. Was it a linear progression?
3. Analyze the advantages that art and language gave Homo
sapiens over other species. How did art and language
contribute to the domestication of plants and animals and the
spread of agriculture?
Chronology 15 mya*
Global climate cooling; apes move down from trees and become bipedal, 1015 mya
Orrorin tugenensis appears, 6 mya
Australopithecus africanus hominid species appears, 3 mya
*millions of years ago
4. List the nine regions where agricultural production first
emerged. What common factors existed in all of these places
that allowed for the domestication of plants and animals?
5. Explain the conditions that allowed agriculture to emerge first
in Southwest Asia.
6. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of agricultural
production versus nomadic foraging. How were agricultural or
pastoral communities different from those of hunters and
gatherers?
F U RT H E R R E A D I N G S
Arsuaga, Juan Luis, The Neanderthals Necklace: In Search of the
First Thinkers, translated by Anthony Klatt (2002). A stimulat-
ing overview of prehistory that focuses on the Neanderthals and
compares them with Homo sapiens.
Barker, Graeme, Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why Did For-
agers Become Farmers (2006). The most recent, truly global, and
up-to-date study of this momentous event in world history.
Bellwood, Peter, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies
(2005). A state-of-the-art global history of the origins of agri-
culture including recent archaeological, linguistic, and micro-
biological data.
Bogucki, Peter, The Origins of Human Society (1999). An authori-
tative overview of prehistory.
Cauvin, Jacques, The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agricul-
ture, translated by Trevor Watkins from the original French pub-
lished in 1994 (2000). An important work on the agricultural
revolution of Southwest Asia and the evolution of symbolic
thinking at this time.
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca, Genes, Peoples, and Languages, trans-
lated by Mark Selestad from the original French published in
1996 (2000). An experts introduction to the use of gene re-
10 mya 5 mya 1 mya
Homo habilus appears, 2.5 mya
Homo erectus appears, 12.5 mya
Beginnings of Ice Age across the Northern Hemisphere
Homo erectus migration across Afro-Eurasia

search for revealing new information about the evolution of
human beings in the distant past.
Childe, V. Gordon, What Happened in History (1964). A classic work
by one of the pioneers in studying the early history and evolu-
tion of human beings. Though superseded in many respects, it
is still an important place to start ones reading and a work of
great power and emotion.
Clark, J. Desmond, and Steven A. Brandt (eds.), From Hunters to
Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in
Africa (1984). Excellent essays on the agricultural revolution.
Coon, Carleton Stevens, The Story of Man; from the First Human to
Primitive Culture and Beyond, 2nd ed. (1962). An important
early work on the evolution of humans, emphasizing the dis-
tinctiveness of races around the world.
Cunliffe, Barry (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe
(1994). The definitive work on early European history.
Ehrenberg, Margaret, Women in Prehistory (1989). What was the
role of women in hunting and gathering societies, and how
greatly were women affected by the agricultural revolution? The
author offers a number of stimulating generalizations.
Ehret, Christopher, The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800
(2002). Although this is a general history of Africa, the author,
a linguist and an expert on early African history, offers new in-
formation and new overviews of African peoples in very ancient
times.
Fagan, Brian, People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehis-
tory (1989). An authoritative overview of early history, widely
used in classrooms.
Fage, J. D., and Roland Oliver (eds.), The Cambridge History of
Africa, 8 vols. (19751984). A pioneering work of synthesis by
two of the first and foremost scholars of the history of the
African continent. Volume 1 deals with African prehistory.
Frison, George C., Survival by Hunting: Prehistoric Human Preda-
tors and Animal Prey (2004). An archaeologist applies his knowl-
edge of animal habitats, behavior, and hunting strategies to an
200,000 ya** 150,000 ya 100,000 ya
Climate and environmental shift in Africa
Human migration from Afro-Eurasia to Americas begins, 18,000 ya
Neanderthal evident in Europe, 200,000 ya
Homo sapiens emerges in Africa and migrates
to other regions, 120,00050,000 ya
Agricultural settlements using Southwest Asian domesticants emerges, 6000 5000 BCE
**years ago
F U RT H E R R E A D IN GS 47
examination of prehistoric hunting practices in the North Amer-
ican Great Plains and Rocky Mountains.
Gebauer, Anne Birgitte, and T. Douglas Price (eds.), Transition to
Agriculture in Prehistory (1992). Excellent essays on the agri-
cultural revolution, especially those written by the two editors.
Johnson, Donald, Lenora Johnson, and Blake Edgar, Ancestors: In
Search of Human Origins (1999). A good overview of human
evolution, with insightful essays on Homo erectus and Homo
sapiens.
Jones, Steve, Robert Martin, and David Pilbeam (eds.), The Cam-
bridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution (1992). A superb guide
to a wide range of subjects, crammed with up-to-date informa-
tion on the most controversial and obscure topics of human evo-
lution and early history.
Ki-Zerbo, J. (ed.), Methodology and African Prehistory, vol. 1 of the
UNESCO General History of Africa (1981). A general history of
Africa, written for the most part by scholars of African descent.
Klein, Richard G., and Blake Edger, The Dawn of Human Culture
(2002). A fine and reliable guide to the tangled history of human
evolution.
Leakey, Richard, The Origin of Humankind (1994). A readable and
exciting account of human evolution, written by the son of the
pioneering archaeologists Louis and Mary Leakey, a scholar of
equal stature to his parents.
Lewin, Roger, The Origin of Modern Humans (1993). Yet another
good overview of human evolution, with useful chapters on early
art and the use of symbols.
Loewe, Michael, and Edward Shaughnessy (eds.), The Cambridge
History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221
B.C. (1999). A good review of the archaeology of ancient China.
Mellaart, James, atal Hyk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia (1967).
A detailed description of one of the first towns associated with
the agricultural revolution in Southwest Asia.
Mithen, Steven, The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins
of Art and Science (1996). A stimulating discussion of the impact
50,000 ya 1 CE
Cave art develops in Europe, 30,000 ya
Ice age, 16,00010,000 BCE
Beginnings of agricultural revolution in Southwest Asia, 9000 BCE
Millet cultivation in Yellow River valley develops, 6500 BCE
Rice cultivation in Yangzi River valley develops, 5500 BCE
Domestication of plants and animals begins, 67002000 BCE
Pastoralism begins in Inner Asia, 3000 BCE
Maize cultivation emerges in central Mexico, 2000 BCE
 48 Chapter 1 BECOMI NG HUMAN
of biological and cultural evolution on the cognitive structure
of the human mind.
Olson, Steve, Mapping Human History: Genes, Race, and Our Com-
mon Origins (2003). Using the findings of genetics and attack-
ing the racial thinking of an earlier generation of archaeologists,
the author writes powerfully about the unity of all human
beings.
Price, T. Douglas (ed.), Europes First Farmers (2000). A discussion
of the agricultural revolution in Europe.
Price, T. Douglas, and Anne Birgitte Gebauer (eds.), Last Hunters-
First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to
Agriculture (1996). An exciting collection of essays by some of
the leading scholars in the field studying the transition from
hunting and gathering to settled agriculture.
Scarre, Chris (ed.), The Human Past: World Prehistory and the De-
velopment of Human Societies (2005). An encyclopedia and an
overview rolled up into one mammoth volume, written by lead-
ing figures in the field of early human history.
Shaw, Thurstan, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah, and Alex Okpoko
(eds.), The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals, and Towns
(1993). Up-to-date research on the earliest history of human
beings in Africa.
Smith, Bruce D., The Emergence of Agriculture (1995). How early
humans domesticated wild animals and plants.
Stringer, Christopher, and Robin McKie, African Exodus: The Ori-
gins of Modern Humanity (1996). Detailed data on why Africa
was the source of human origins and why Homo sapiens is a re-
cent wanderer out of the African continent.
Tattersall, Ian, The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We
Know about Human Evolution (1995). A passionately written
book about early archaeological discoveries and the centrality
of Africa in human evolution.
Van Oosterzee, Penny, Dragon Bones: The Story of Peking Man
(2000). Describes how the late-nineteenth-century unearthing
of sites in China containing fossils of animals used for medici-
nal purposes led to the discovery of the fossils of the Peking Man.
Weiss, Mark L., and Alan E. Mann, Human Biology and Behavior:
An Anthropological Perspective (1996). The authors stress the
contribution that biological research has made and continues
to make to unravel the mystery of human evolution.
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