Mind, Culture, and Activity

ISSN: 1074-9039 (Print) 1532-7884 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hmca20

Vygotskian-Inspired Research on the

Developmental Implications of Organic
Impairment

Dbora Dainez & Ana Luiza Bustamante Smolka

To cite this article: Dbora Dainez & Ana Luiza Bustamante Smolka (2016): Vygotskian-Inspired
Research on the Developmental Implications of Organic Impairment, Mind, Culture, and
Activity, DOI: 10.1080/10749039.2016.1181183

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10749039.2016.1181183

Published online: 24 May 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 3

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=hmca20

Download by: [George Mason University] Date: 10 June 2016, At: 14:33
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10749039.2016.1181183

Vygotskian-Inspired Research on the Developmental Implications

of Organic Impairment
Dbora Dainez and Ana Luiza Bustamante Smolka
University of Campinas

ABSTRACT
The aim is to refine recent discussion about the process of compensation
under conditions of organic impairment in order to better understand how
the concept has been addressed by cultural-historical researchers. From a
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

dialogue among contemporary authors and the examination of the case of

a student with multiple disabilities confronting the schooling process, we
draw attention to how meaning has an effect upon complex functional
systems and paves the way for new forms of human development. We
conclude that it is important to challenge the relevance of the term
compensation in its connection with the notion of human constitution.

Introduction
Much has been theorized using Lev S. Vygotskys writings in contemporary times. His ideas have
been widely recovered and expanded upon in various fields of knowledge such as education,
psychology, neuropsychology, sociology, and anthropology. This wide influence indicates the con-
tinuing weight of the explanatory principles and the theoretical-methodological foundations pro-
duced by Vygotsky in his dense and unfinished work in the 1920s and 1930s. Indeed, his original
concepts and intuitions, as well as the way he approached the questions of that time, still speak to the
complex issues that have emerged in the 21st century; they are fertile ground for investigation, new
definitions, and conceptualization.
Whereas, on one hand, Vygotskys proposals provoke, inspire, and contribute to the way human
development is understood, on the other, they are open to multiple interpretations. His theories have
been appropriated in a diversity of ways connected with the many nuances of his theoretical
writings.
In light of the current relevance of Vygotskys ideas combined with the diversity of ways in which they
are interpreted and developed, this article aims to contribute to contemporary research by presenting the
results of an investigation that focuses on a conceptual and theoretical examination of the concept of
compensation from a cultural-historical perspective. Our approach to this concept is prompted by our
concern with the question of human development in conditions of organic impairment, considered from
a perspective that is historically, socially, and culturally oriented. Thus, the aim of this article is to bring to
the fore a discussion of compensation in recent research in order to understand the varying ways that
others have dealt with this concept. We explore the different positions adopted by different authors and
analyze the meanings of the term compensation that they produce. We attempt to specify writings where
there is agreement as well as those that diverge in order to indicate a possible path to deal with the
conceptual problem of compensation in Vygotskys work.

CONTACT Dbora Dainez, ddainez@yahoo.com.br Rua La Strachman Duchovni, n.90, Condomnio Village Santa Cndida,
Casa 17, Bairro Fazenda Santa Cndida, CEP: 13087-608, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
2016 Taylor & Francis
 2 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

Vygotskys historical-cultural perspective

Vygotsky (1997a, 1997b) argued that psychological functions are social relations that become
internalized by individuals through the processes of signification, that is, the creation and use of
signs and meaning production. In this way, he pointed out the inescapable interweaving of each
individuals characteristics with the historical development of humanity. This principle is anchored
in, and at the same time is intensified by, his theories about disability.
The group of texts that composes volume of the collected works called Defectology1 is the
expression of Vygotskys persistent interest in conceptualizing the condition of organic impairments
in his theoretical-methodological project. In these texts, Vygotsky (1993) is radically opposed to
quantitative conceptions which aim to compare normal and abnormal development, focusing on
the organic deficit. Participating in debates on the issue, he used the term compensation for
changes needed to correct and repair a deficit in organic and sensorial functions.
Nonetheless, in his attempt to elaborate on the notion of compensation through a historical-cultural
perspective, Vygotsky argues for, and attempts to explain, the intrinsic articulation of the organic and
cultural affective and cognitive dimensions, which results in the integral constitution of a singular,
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

complex, and dynamic synthesisthe constitution of personality. In his discussions, he shows how the
social context tends to be organized by historically established patterns of normality. The condition
of organic injury often disturbs what is expected by the social group with regards to the ways of
accomplishing activities and the processes of constituting the person. This disturbance may impair
development by preventing effective forms of participation of the disabled person in culture; or it may,
contradictorily, provoke the transformation of social behavior, generating and guiding the creation of
new projects and cultural conditions for welcoming the disabled person, involving the production of
new tools and means that support the diversity of the development processes. Thus, it may offer a
prospective orientation for understanding the process by which persons are constituted, allowing the
researchers to see possibilities and potentialities of cultural development.
The typical and atypical processes and organic conditions are, therefore, examined and discussed
by Vygotsky in his proposals to conceive human development. As already highlighted by
Smagorinsky, Cole, and Braga (2016), Vygotsky has highlighted the centrality of the study of
nonconformities to the typical pathways of development to understanding developmental processes
in general.
The problem of disability, within this perspective, is hence a social problem which demands that
society accept responsibility for and commit to the possibilities for humanization and cultural
participation. This theoretical-methodological perspective opens up new perspectives for the educa-
tion of the disabled child (Rodina, 2006).
Despite attention to Vygotskys work in defectology, and the concept of compensation in
Vygotskys (1993) work, it is important to emphasize Vygotskys remarkable effort to redefine the
notion of compensation, based on the principle of sociogenesis, calling our attention to the integral
constitution of the individuals personality. Notably Vygotsky expressed his own discomfort regard-
ing the term compensation and the implied idea of lack and correction, carried by the term at that
time (Dainez & Smolka, 2014; see his last published text, The Problem of Mental Retardation,
Vygotsky, 1993).
Based on such considerations, we undertake a review of how the concept of compensation is
currently dealt with. Does the idea of lack and making something normalwhich reduces the
complexity of the acute need for new forms of development permeated by social and educational
processesstill persist in recent studies? Following this line of inquiry, we began to explore the ways
that others who currently share a historical-cultural perspective conceive and approach matters.

1
Defectology was the term used at the time (end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century) to refer to the field of
studies devoted to the development and education of disabled children.
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY 3

Situating the problem of compensation in contemporary times: various points of view

and multiple senses
Vygotskys concept of compensation has been taken up in many different ways. In the well-known
work of Van der Veer and Valsiner (1991), which situates Vygotskys work in the historical, social,
cultural, economic, and political contexts of his time, the concept of compensation is presented as
part of Vygotskys writings in the field of disability studies, which the authors claim is an integral
component of his ideas. They show how the analyses carried out by Vygotsky in this field can be
read as a major projectthe elaboration of a general theory of human development. According to
Van der Veer and Valsiner, the domain of research in Defectology is deeply constitutive of Vygotskys
and Lurias elaborations on cultural-historical theory.

Differing international perspectives

Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

In an attempt to clarify and refine some of Vygotskys propositions in relation to Defectology, Ges
(2002), Padilha (2001), and Carvalho (2006), in research carried out in Brazil, discussed the quality
of social relations, the role of the other, the issue of cerebral plasticity, and the interrelation of
psychological functions, placing special emphasis on the notion of compensation, highlighting its
theoretical and empirical contributions.
Other authors, such as Cunha, Ayres, and Moraes (2010) and Siems (2010), adhered to specific
statements by Vygotsky concerning his ideas on the concept of compensation. They commented on
the notions of primary and secondary impairments, emphasized the need of overcoming organic
impairment, and talked about alternative paths of development and the need to eliminate obstacles,
but in doing so they did not present a theoretical discussion of the concept.
Broadening the scope of contemporary authors (Akhutina, 2002, 2003, 2008; Akhutina & Pylaeva,
2012; Carvalho, 2006; Cunha et al., 2010; De Carlo, 2001; Eilam, 2003; Fichtner, 2010; Garca &
Beatn, 2004; Gindis, 1995; Glozman, 1999; Ges, 2002; Hazin et al., 2010; Korkman, 1999; Kozulin
& Gindis, 2007; Rivire, 1985; Siems, 2010; Van Der Veer & Valsiner, 1991; Veresov, 1999), we
notice that multiple senses appear when we analyze the use of the same termcompensation
although all the authors work within a cultural-historical theoretical approach. Taking the work of
the aforementioned authors into account, we see that compensation is interpreted variously as
correction of impairments, normalization of deviance, reflection of developmental processes, leveling
of unstable development, broadening of the natural functions by cultural instruments, alternative
cognitive paths, the appearance of mental operations mediated by signs, the quality of instructional
procedures, removal of social barriers or obstacles, social creation, social assimilation, mediation,
education, a domain of the higher psychological functions, a substitution of functions, a transforma-
tion of functions, brain plasticity, and neuropsychological rehabilitation. Furthermore, we noticed
distinct ways of naming or characterizing the phenomenon: compensation, social compensation,
social-psychological compensation, supercompensation, overcompensation, compensatory strategies,
physiological compensation, structural compensation, and functional compensation. The terms are
qualified depending on what the authors intend to highlight, revealing different interpretations and
theoretical and practical concerns and unfolding several universes of senses (Bakhtin, 2006).
We also notice several ways of comprehending the origin of the phenomenon:

Compensation can be generated from the existence of organic impairment (Cunha et al., 2010;
Fichtner, 2010; Garca & Beatn, 2004);
it can be provoked by nonadaptation of both the child and the impairment (Borges & Kittel,
2002);
it can appear as the result of rehabilitation work directed to the correction of cerebral functions
and structure (Akhutina & Pylaeva, 2012);
 4 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

the genesis of functional compensation can be explained by a high level of neuronal plasticity in
early childhood due to cerebral dynamicity and functional adaptability (Korkman, 1999);
compensation can be seen as promoted by, and as a consequence of, social interaction and
educational opportunities (Carvalho, 2006; Gindis, 1995; Ges, 2002); and
compensation occurs by the means of the sign and signification process (Veresov, 1999).

The outcomes of compensation are also treated in different ways: advancement, improvement,
development, progression, regression, intensification of impairment, or formation of further
impairments.
By considering this diversity of interpretations, we became aware of the fact that the term
compensation condenses and carries the history of many meanings and elaborations. The phenom-
enon is understood in many ways. Vygotsky (1987) himself teaches us that concepts change over
time and become transformed in the historical process. In the course of this transformation,
individuals elaborations and modes of participation in collective production might become visible.
Getting to know the nuances of each specific contribution enriches the field of study.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

The notion of compensation at issue: a dialogue with contemporary authors

In this section we bring into dialogue different authors notions of compensation, commenting on
the convergence of meaning but also making explicit some of the controversies. After the theoretical
discussion we try to make clear our position in the debates before examining a piece of empirical
data that will help us to sustain our arguments.
For the purpose of a deeper conceptual and analytical discussion, we have limited ourselves to the
studies of Garca and Beatn (2004), Fichtner (2010), Kozulin and Gindis (2007), Akhutina (2002,
2003, 2008), and Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012), taking the following arguments into account: They
approach issues in the field of disabilities from a cultural-historical perspective, making direct and
consistent reference to Vygotsky; they present an intense discussion on the concept of compensation;
they offer different conceptual foci; and they are authors from different countries and different fields
of knowledge.

Starting from the condition of impairment

Garca and Beatn (2004) are Cuban authors who translated Vygotskys work directly from its
original Russian. They discussed the Special Education System in Cuba and, in particular, the work
developed in a Psychological Orientation Center based on Vygotskys theoretical-methodological
framework. The analysis of how children with disabilities should be educated is the theme of scientific
interest for the authors. Thus, their studies connect the fields of psychology and pedagogy. Special
Psychology is presented as a branch of psychology that includes a focus on the identification of a
childs developmental needs.
Another line of thinking related to the first is concerned with the basis of the procedures
employed when working with people with specific developmental needs in order to promote
compensation, which grounds their practice in what they call a Special Pedagogy. The idea of
compensation is, then, related to a Special Psychology that subsumes a Special Pedagogy; in both
cases the term special denotes a differentiated peculiarity in the development of people with
disabilities that require a specialized educational practice.
Among the principles of Special Psychology that guide intervention work is the principle of the
deficit correction and compensation. As stated by the authors, this is the foundational principle,
because its use allows for the organization of the teaching process for all types of children with
special educational needs (Garca & Beatn, 2004, p. 72). Compensation is defined by the authors as
a complex mechanism that serves as the basis for the restoration of altered functions in the
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY 5

organism (Garca & Beatn, 2004, p. 76) and occurs by means of the assimilation of social
experience, and not via the laws of biological adaptation (p. 76).
In this sense, Garca and Beatn (2004) advocated for educational work that aims to correct and
compensate for the deficit, seeking the development of the functions and senses which were
impaired or lost in order to succeed in restructuring what has been impaired and fill the resulting
gap. In the case of a blind person, for instance, the authors advocate education that supplements the
lack of vision by means of the senses that remain intact (tactile, auditory, gustatory). For deaf people,
auditory functioning is replaced using the visual, tactile, and gustatory senses. In other words, these
authors claim that the compensatory development of an individual can be obtained by sensory
substitution through education.
Their work shows commitment to the cultural-historical perspective in assuming compensation
and makes important contributions for pedagogical intervention. However, in their uses of the
concept of compensation, one aspect becomes problematic: their emphasis on sensory mechanisms.
Although Garca and Beatn (2004) defended the idea that social assimilation boosts or propels
the process of compensation, the authors largely considered compensation at the level of sensorial
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

impairment. This approach is precisely the one criticized by Vygotsky (1993), because it takes, as its
starting point, the lackthe locus of impairmentrather than investing in the healthy core of
development, that is, in collective action oriented prospectively toward the transformation of
potentialities and capabilities of the higher psychological processes. As he put the matter,

Certain pedagogues are mistaken when they assume that the essence of education for the blind consists in the
development of their remaining, intact sensory organs (analyzers) for hearing, touch, and so forth. He who
assumes that the ill effects of blindness can be compensated for by training the visual and auditory senses is
mistaken and holds a totally outdated point of view which disregards the sphere of social pedagogy. (Vygotsky,
1993, p. 84)

Here we see a clear example of how psychologists who look to Vygotsky may nevertheless take a
path that directly contradicts the way in which we interpret him. This difference highlights a key
issue in thinking about the concept of disability: Should one act in such a way as to emphasize the
lack and to correct it, or should one seek to conceive new possibilities of orienting to the whole
question of disability and to creating new forms of action in the construction of new developmental
paths? As Daniels (2006) noted, when inquiring about categorization processes that are socially
produced in respect to the person with disabilities, behavior is very often modified to meet the
demands of existing social structures instead of questioning these existing structures in order to
produce new life conditions.

Starting from the need for societal change

Fichtner (2010), a German author, began precisely from the idea that reorganizing social processes is
the goal of the desired developmental process. Writing from a distinct position at the intersection of
psychology and anthropology, Fichtner took as the starting point of his analysis the presupposition
that the production of deficiency is linked to the parameters (including aesthetic ones) established by
a society.
If, as seen before, Garca and Beatn (2004) started from the lack caused by the organic
impairment that guides corrective educational work, Fichtner (2010) attempted to overcome the
idea of lack as the basis for the work with individuals with developmental needs. Thus, he criticized
the expression deficient child because it brings with it intricate social reactions that lead to low
self-esteem on the part of the child regarding her capabilities, making it impossible to compensate
for the difficulties. According to Fichtner, educators should transcend the idea of organic lack by
thinking about the social needs of the child and the mental capacity the child already possesses in
order to develop the special and creative processes of appropriation.
 6 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

For Fichtner (2010), both the difficulty and the mental capacity to overcome such difficulty reside
in the individual sphere. It is up to the child whether to construct the creative processes of
compensation. The blind child, Fichtner wrote, reacts against her blindness ; a child with a
mental disability tries to compensate for it very frequently by means of overcompensations related to
her limited intellectual capacities (p. 70). Implicitly, the argument Fichtner defended in relation to
both compensation and overcompensation is in agreement with the idea proposed by Adler (1967;
an important interlocutor for Vygotsky in his conceptual elaboration of compensation) that the
injured organ or function creates a psychological superstructure that may be over- or
undercompensation.
Fichtner (2010), however, did not delve further into the difference between compensation and
overcompensation. Exploring possible interpretations of his conceptual position, we could say that
both terms appear randomly in his work. The line of reasoning that Fichtner took for compensation/
overcompensationapparently supported by the argument of the social construction of deficiency
outlined by Vygotsky (1993)is indeed closer to Adlers proposal. In line with the criticism
Vygotsky made of Adler, Fichtner privileged the individuals efforts and highlighted the positive
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

aspects of personality that emerge from the very impairment. However, Fichtner did not consider
Vygotskys criticism of Adlers ideas through his arguments about the relevant role of the social
environment, or the social means and modes of considering and giving meaning to the organic
impairment. Although defending the social production of deficiency, Fichtner contradictorily dis-
cussed the process of compensation/overcompensation as if it were subjective, controlled by, and
centered on individual forces.

The intertwining of biology and culture

If we have reacted to Garca and Beatns (2004) and Fichtners (2010) positions concerning the
concept of compensation in terms of whether they privileged the sensorial and the subjective
spheres, in the following paragraphs we call attention to other studies that approach compensation
focusing on neuropsychological functioning intertwined with culture. We start by commenting on
the work of the Russian-Israeli psychologist Kozulin and the Russian-American psychologist Gindis
whose works on Vygotskys ideas are also well known in the West (Kozulin & Gindis, 2007).
Kozulin and Gindis work at the intersection of Vygotskys approach and the ideas of the Jewish-
Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein in order to highlight the differences between these two
perspectives. Vygotsky places the emphasis on the appropriation of cultural/symbolic instruments
as a criterion for cultural development. Feuerstein, however, privileged the quality of mediations by
members of the family/community, which happen in experiences of mediated learning. Kozulin and
Gindis (2007) pointed out that both aspects must be integrated in one theoretical matrix. This is
exactly the effort they made when outlining their theory of disontogenesis or theory of distorted
development, which presupposes remedial pedagogy.
They argued that developmental disabilities do not reside in the sensory, neurological, and
subjective levels but in the social implications of those neural, subjective factors. In their attempt
to distinguish the source of disability, the authors propose that the principles of internalization of
cultural activities and symbolic instruments according to Vygotskys perspective apply to the
development of any individual. It is through this perspective that they work with the concept of
compensation. Their main argument is that a delay in natural development can be compensated by
the acquisition and mediation of cultural instruments, mediated by enculturated others, allowing for
the amplification of the natural abilities. Compensation is, thus, related to the quality of social
mediations created in the childworld relation, which enable the development of higher psycholo-
gical functions and the acquisition of desirable forms of cultural behavior.
An example of this situation was observed by Kozulin and Gindis (2007), who described the case
of a child who was born with mild hemiplegia on the right side of the body. According to their
analysis, the primary neurological impairment can, under certain social conditions, evolve to impede
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY 7

the development of higher psychological functions (e.g., language), as it can constitute obstacles to
the social relations and practices of a child (due to the physical disability the child does not have the
chance to play certain games, or practice sports; she is prevented from writing with her right hand in
a school that accepts writing only with the right hand). By analyzing this situation, the authors
pointed out the divergence between this childs natural and social courses of development, and they
stated that it is this disparity that prevents her from mastering certain social abilities that are
mandatory in her social environment. In such cases the creation of compensatory strategies through
social mediation and cultural instruments is necessary to amplify organic capacities and provide
possibilities for the individual to acquire new social devices to deal with the obstacles encountered in
social life.
In this sense, the thought-provoking idea that the authors bring to our attention and discuss is
that the loss or weakness of a natural function can be surmounted by the development of higher
psychological functions, which in turn are produced by means of social mediation and the appro-
priation of cultural instruments as Vygotsky argued.
Based on this proposal, Kozulin and Gindis (2007) showed the importance of creating remedial
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

programs that rely on the acquisition of, and mediation by, cultural instruments. They cited
Akhutinas research group in Russia and their program of correction/rehabilitation as support for
their own approach, indicating the close alignment.
Articles written by researchers in Akhutinas group constitute the fourth position on which we
focused in our study. The main objective of their studies is to combine Vygotskys and Lurias ideas,
developing them by means of what she called a contemporary neuropsychology. She and her
colleagues proposed methods to overcome learning difficulties both in clinical and school contexts.
There are three basic tenets present in Akhutinas work (2002, 2003, 2008) and in Akhutina and
Pylaevas (2012) work: the social genesis of higher psychological functions, its systemic structure, and
its dynamic location.
When Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012) discussed Vygotskys studies, they highlighted the fact that he
directs his investigations toward both the genetic line of development of higher psychological
functions and to the disintegration of these very functions. The authors directed our attention to
Vygotskys (1997a) conclusion on the two lines of investigation in his lecture On Psychological
Systems, where the discussion is oriented toward the idea of interfunctional relations. This notion
holds that, in the process of the historical development of behavior, not only the functions
themselves change; there are also modifications in the relationships between the functions, which
produce changes in their functioning and organization, causing the emergence of new psychological
systems and new complexes. There is not, therefore, one sole relation between the functions, because
in each stage of development and each moment of disintegration a particular relationship of the
parts that constitute the existing functional system can be observed.
Akhutina (2003) argues that it was the study of psychological systems, with the discovery of
transformation in their structure, organization, functioning and placement of functions in
phylogenesis, ontogenesis, and microgenesis that directed Vygotsky even further into the field
of defectology and medicine. In designing research methods to help children with learning
disabilities, the main principle stated by Vygotsky and assumed by Akhutina as a guide to
designing methods to help children with learning difficulties is that the objectification of a
disturbed function, that is, bringing it outside and changing it into external activity, is one of the
basic roads in the compensation of disorders (Vygotsky, as cited in Akhutina, 2003, p. 173). For
Vygotsky (1986), and accordingly for Akhutina and her colleagues, external activity means
saying shared social activity.
It is hence by means of the individuals external activity that the correction of the internal activity
must be developed. To do so, the authors put forward proposals related to psychotechnic mediations
and the methods for evaluation/diagnosis and neurological rehabilitation/correction, based on their
adaptations of Lurias tests.
 8 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

According to Akhutina (2003) and Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012), one of the main advances in
contemporary neuropsychology is the neuropsychology of normality or the neuropsychology of
individual differences, which carries an important basis for the application of neuropsychological
methods at school. Starting with the premise that corrective teaching conducts [leads to] develop-
ment, the authors proposed the following: Normality is characterized by uneven development of
higher psychological functions, supported by the generic program of the species intertwined with the
individual program as well as social environment factors. It is worth mentioning that, according to
these authors, it is necessary to evaluate and make the neuropsychological correction not only for
children who have a pathology but also in the case of so-called normal children, if they present any
form of learning difficulty at school. This approach arises because compensation occurs in any child
who faces some learning difficulty, as they can be in different rhythms and at different levels of
development. Therefore, compensation is not only seen in the case of children with severe organic
impairments.
Normality, in this view, differs from abnormality owing to the possibilities of compensation of
functional disabilities. The authors observed that in the case of difficulties being compensated for,
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

test scores improve; in the case of difficulties that are not compensated for, test scores decline.
Akhutina (2003) and Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012) then addressed the task of the neuropsychol-
ogist in a regular school: to discover the needs and possibilities of the child, to create programs and
interact with the teacher in order to assure a type of teaching that leads to development, to work on
the diagnosis of possible malfunctioning so as to help the child to find his or her own path of
development, and even to practice psychotherapy and solve conflicts. They recommended that the
neuropsychologist organize his or her work by analyzing the state of higher psychological functions,
their weak and strong components, their systemic consequences, and the possible compensatory
rearrangements.
The authors call attention to the superior flexibility of the childs brain to adapt to the
environmenta higher degree of neuronal proliferation and formation of neuronal networks
when compared to the adult brain, and the dynamic relationship between the organic impairment
and the functional changes. Consequently, it is necessary to have adequate conditions in the
social environment to ensure a favorable process of self-organization of the brain systems. For the
authors, these general characteristics of ontogenesis, related to a greater activation of all func-
tions, contribute to a variety of psychotechnical activities adapted to the work of correction and
development. In effect, this method presupposes that weak connections can be compensated for
with the strong support of strong connections during an organized interaction, especially between
the adult and the child.
Assuming and working with the notion of functional systems, Akhutina (2002, 2003, 2008) and
Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012) bring special contributions to the debates because they highlight
Vygotskys emphasis on affect and emotion as the locus of activity that integrates the mental sphere.
Hence, it is not only the cognitive sphere that deserves attention in the case of a mental/intellectual
disability. Indeed, the authors proposal is that the stronger sphere must be mobilized to compensate
the deficient sphere. The affective sphere can, therefore, be the locus of strength to correct the
intellectual fragility thus promoting development.

Our own view

We find that the emphasis and arguments produced in the works of Kozulin and Gindis (2007),
Akhutina (2002, 2003, 2008), and Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012) are closest to our understanding of
Vygotskys theses and proposals. Both perspectives discuss and assume the redimensioning of
organic conditions by the cultural sphere even though Akhutina (2002, 2003, 2008) and Akhutina
and Pylaeva (2012) focused on organization and functioning of mental processes and Kozulin and
Gindis (2007) highlighted the matter of cultural instruments and mediation by the other. These are,
it appears, two ways of viewing the same process.
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY 9

At least two aspects become salient from reading the works of Kozulin and Gindis (2007),
Akhutina (2002, 2003, 2008), and Akhutina and Pylaeva (2012). The first one is related to the
amplification of the organic conditions by cultural instruments. The second one concerns interven-
tions geared to understanding the existing complex functional system, identifying and correcting the
defect by focusing on the stronger domain.
To examine and illustrate the issues that arise when developing an approach that combines the
two views, we present the case of the 46-year-old Brazilian visual artist Ana Amlia Tavares
Barbosa,2 whose parents are retired university professors. In 2002, on the day of her masters
dissertation defense, she suffered a stroke, or cerebrovascular accident, in the brain stem, which
resulted in a case of locked-in syndrome.3 To cope with the new situation that Ana Amlia was
experiencing, new social conditions were created: Her eyes and the drawings that she had created
became means for communicating based on a process of interpretation/signification carried out with
her family, and with the support of cards with letters written on them and a computer program.
Over time Ana Amlia was able to communicate with others and to continue her doctorate studies
with the help of assistants; she started to teach art to children with disabilities. Not only was she able
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

to develop new possibilities but could accomplish other forms of action and of living.
By examining this case, we can notice how the amplification of the impaired organism by cultural
instruments (drawings, cards with letters, a computer program, catheter) and mediation by others
(family members, colleagues, professionals) allowed the accomplishment of a transformed mode of
social participation. Human beings produce the conditions for their own existence and are themselves
produced in these conditions, which imply the creation of technical and semiotic instrumentsin this
case, the creation of cards, prostheses, and computer programs, as well as the production of language
and inclusion of the symbolic dimension in human interaction.
We proceed, hence, to our discussion, calling attention to how the social, cultural, and historical
conditions, as well as the signifying conditionsproduction and use of technical-semiotic instru-
ments, production of signs and meaningsaffect complex functional systems, allowing for new
interfunctional relations, and paving the way for new forms of human development. Reiterating
Vygotskys approach, the natural, organic, biological dimension, becomes transformed, re-
dimensioned, constituted by the historically produced relations and conditions of human social
forms of living (Smolka, 2004, p. 45).
Consequently, what we challenge in relation to contemporary discussions of compensation are
those approaches that reduce compensation to the idea of correction of the organic impairment and
limit it to the individual sphere. These two aspects can lead to the prevalence of what is considered
normal, correct, and perfect, often impeding the possibilities of new forms of humanization and the
creation of new ways of feeling, perceiving, and experiencing the world and of projecting other forms
of social organizations and support.
In this connection, recall the book The Island of the Colorblind by Oliver Sacks (2010), in which
the condition of congenital achromatopsia, that is, color blindness and extreme sensitivity to light,
was not considered to be a deficiency in a social environment that had cultural knowledge of this
way of perceiving the world and of the needs and strong characteristics of this situationan
environment that was organized in such a way that colorblind people had the chance to create
new ways of companionship, to develop other capacities, perspectives, strategies, and reactions to life
(e.g., night fishing, weaving/knitting inside a dark cabin, using opaque tones with no chromatic
contrasts).

2
Collucci, C. (2012, May 9). Mulher paralisada h dez anos por derrame defende tese de doutorado [Woman paralyzed for ten years
for stroke defends doctoral thesis]. Jornal Folha de So Paulo. Retrieved from http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/equilibrioesaude/
2012/05/1087681-mulher-paralisada-ha-dez-anos-por-derrame-defende-tese-de-doutorado.shtml
3
Locked-in syndrome is a rare neurological disorder that involves complete paralysis of the body muscles, except for the muscles
that control some of the vertical movements of the eyes and lids. The symptoms are quadriplegia, dysphagia (difficulty with
chewing and swallowing), anarthria (inability to articulate sounds), with preservation of consciousness.
 10 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

From our point of view on developmental and educational psychology, the discussion about
compensation in contemporary times, guided by the correction of the organic impairment and
following a line of action close to the traditional view of rehabilitation, runs the risk of disregarding
the drama inherent to the process of human development constituted in social relations. In the
dynamics of the conceptual elaboration of compensation, Vygotsky (1993) emphasizes the need to
understand the complexity of an individuals constitution taking into consideration his concrete
conditions of life.

The concept of compensation: implications for empirical study and educational practice
This theoretical and conceptual reflection on compensation is of special importance at a moment in
which inclusive education is universally proposed and proclaimed. Therefore, we report here on the
partial results of an investigation conducted in a Brazilian public school, using the case of a student
with multiple disabilities participating in a regular schooling process. We participated in classroom
interactions once or twice a week during the school year, and data were collected through field
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

records and video-recording.

The methodology and particular procedures were mainly anchored in Vygotsky`s (1997a) assump-
tions and proposals, as he emphasizes the dynamic explanation of facts, a qualitative analysis of
processes, and the investigation of development in movement and changing processes, with special
attention to the possibility of transformation and emergence of new psychological functions. We also
rely upon basic principles of ethnographic research, assuming the importance of thick description
(Geertz, 2008), as well as school ethnography and methodological contributions of studies on class-
room interactions (Erickson, 2010; Erickson & Gutierrez, 2002; Ezpeleta & Rockwell, 1986).
Another important methodological inspiration comes from the works of Carlo Ginzburg (2006)
that soundly and consistently shows how the analysis of a singular case may open up many neglected
and nonobvious facts, allowing for generalizing conclusions. Ginzburgs perspective is in accordance
with Vygotskys position when the latter points to methodological procedures in different areas of
study, arguing for the importance of what is often disregarded or considered irrelevant:
The zoologist reconstructs a whole skeleton from an insignificant fragment of bone of some excavated animal
and even a picture of its life. An ancient coin, which has no value as a coin, frequently reveals to the
archeologist a complex historical problem. The historian, deciphering hieroglyphics scratched into a stone,
penetrates into the depths of vanished ages. The doctor diagnoses illness from insignificant symptoms. Only
recently has psychology overcome its fear of a vital evaluation of phenomena and begun to learn from
insignificant triflesthat rejected material of the world of phenomena, if we use the expression of S. Freud,
who called attention to the psychology of everyday lifeto see psychological documents that are frequently
important. (Vygotsky, 1997b, p. 14)

Taking into account the case of the student who does not fit into regular school patterns, who
does not manifest basic organic conditions for coping with, or even surviving, certain social and
institutional conditions, we offer this case at the limit to discuss some latent possibilities of
education and human development that are not immediately visible in typical cases.
During the year 2010 we followed the case of an 11-year-old boy named Andre, who has multiple
disabilities as a result of Angelman syndrome.4 Andre was enrolled in the 5th year of public
elementary school in the State of So Paulo, Brazil. He does not speak and makes very few move-
ments with his superior and inferior limbs. He uses a wheelchair with chest support/harness and an
attached table.
4
According to ICD-10, the International Classification of Diseases, this pathology is defined as a neurogenetic disorder. In 1997 the
cause was related to genetic alterations that prevent the production of the UBE3A, the inherited maternal allele, a gene within
chromosome 15, which codifies and directs certain proteins that have a function in the neurons. Lack of activity from the UBE3A
in the neurons compromises its function and neuronal plasticity (Maris & Trott, 2011). The main characteristics of the syndrome
are severe intellectual deficiency, inability to speak, uncoordinated movements (spasms), ataxic walk or inability to walk, sleep
disorders, seizures, frequent decontextualized smiling, and laughter.
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY 11

The data reflect the perplexity and the disarray owing to a lack of knowledge of what to doby
the school, the teacher, and the researcherwhen they were confronted by the complexity of such a
case (Dainez, 2014). The discomfort that arises from Andres presence in the classroom is seen in the
following ways: Most of the time he would be sleeping or drowsy; when awake he showed sporadic
attention, staring at a fixed point on the wall for a considerable time; he would follow the movement
of objects with his eyes when stimulated. The question of what to do with this fifth grader was
intensified by the uncertainty as to whether Andre could understand or learn at all.
From the time he entered school in 2006, this boys school life had been marked by a report
written by health and education specialists from the specialized institution he had been attending.
This report stated that it is impossible to carry out any rehabilitation work involving language since
Andre has severe organic impediments which prevent him from comprehending and giving a
response. Consequently, motor-sensory work was indicated. In light of the specialists recommen-
dations and the precarious school conditions for receiving this child, stimulation activities prevailed
and started to become stabilized as pedagogical practices.
The fifth-grade teacher, while continuing the stimulation practices, raised many questions about
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

the work she was developing with the pupil. As she got closer to the student, she made assumptions
in relation to possible ways of interacting with the boy. She was provoked by his gaze, interpreting it,
and considering it to be a possible response channel.

He has this lost gaze , but its interesting to note that when you say his name, he then looks at you. (Field
Diary Entry, March 20, 2010).

Contradictorily, through the stimulation work in tension with the doubts she had, the teacher
noticed that Andre, more than just reacting to one stimulus, responded to another one. So the
teacher started to act in a more incisive and guided manner, paying close attention to
Andres minute body movements and investing in the work of interpretation and signification of
his actions.
After returning from a 15-day leave due to health problems, the teacher talked to the researcher
and said,

This week, on the day I returned, Andre was very happy. He would look at me and smile all the time; he would
even giggle. He didnt sleep at all throughout the class. During the whole class he kept stirring, moving his arms
and shouting to call my attention. I would look at him and talk to him and he wouldnt take his eyes off of me.
He was glad because I was back. It was his moment to express himself, to show me he had missed me. (Field
Diary Entry, April 30, 2010)

It is relevant to lay out the main symptoms that define the Angelman syndrome: disconnected
movements (spasms) and frequent and decontextualized laughter. Hence, the informal name of this
condition: happy puppet syndrome. Such particularities are presented, in the medical diagnosis
description, as mechanical/reflex movements to any kind of stimuli.
In accordance with the cultural-historical perspective, which assumes that human development is
dependent upon social conditions, it is in the work of person over person that the possibilities of
signification are produced, thus reshaping the organism and giving it a new status. What is conceived
as reflex from the perspective of a lesioned organism becomes a gesture in the relationship, a
relationship affected by the purposeful intervention of the teacher who began working with and
believing in the possibilities of this student with severe impairment. What was formerly conceived of
as stimuli of an arbitrary nature becomes the place of interpretation and of signaling the other.
Reflexes and stimuli become signs; they acquire meaning and sense. The decontextualized laughter is
contextualized by the teachers interaction and transforms into a smile that shows happiness and
expresses that Andre missed his teacher. The body spasms/uncoordinated movements become
directed with/toward the teacher. It is the very symptoms of the syndrome that are reinterpreted
and impregnated with meanings that make a difference in summoning Andre to take part in the
lesson.
 12 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

Throughout the year the teachers mediating attempts to involve Andre in a given activity with
the class develop. The systematic observations of this teachers ways of signifying the students
movements indicate an increase in Andres spasms in response to the teacher. What becomes evident
is that the encouragement of the teacher and the belief in the possibility of a response changed
Andres participation in the history of relationships. Indicators of Andres developmental possibi-
lities become visible throughout time: the orientation of his gaze; the frequent attempts to control
and sustain his motor, postural movements, mainly of the trunk and head, positioning his body
toward the other; attention orientation; the perception of an action directed toward him.
We think that the analysis of this case leads to a radical questioning of the schooling process; it
makes us wonder about the relationship between educational conditions and human development,
and makes us ponder the very concept of compensation. What can be said about the concept of
compensation when one takes a case like this into account?
Comprehending the concept of compensation based on the dramatic (Vygotsky, 1986) dimen-
sion of human psychological functioning constituted in social relations makes us turn our
attention from the lesioned organism and the individual to the different modes of participation
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

of the child with disability in the social and educational practices, to the diverse possibilities of
interpreting and giving meaning to the impairment, that is, to broadening the scope of possibi-
lities in the process of humanization. What becomes explicit is the heterogeneity of development,
the variety of means that can be offered, instead of a standardization of the process and the
homogenization of disabilities. As a result, we emphasize urgency in the redefinition of public
policies in education. We emphasize the need for investment in the potential of the intersubjec-
tive relations and the need to create social and educational conditions that involve access to every
possible means or instruments.

Final remarks
Working with the concept of compensation by engaging in dialogue with contemporary authors who
base their work on the cultural-historical perspective has allowed us to get to know various
theoretical and practical developments in relation to people with disabilities.
Made explicit in this debate were the limits of theorization about the concept of compensation,
which can orient reasoning that is specifically applied to deficiency, thus reducing the concept of
development and the notion of the person/personality to the individual alone, who must compensate
for the lack and be normalized/fixed. Conceived in these terms, the idea of compensation reduces the
complexity of human development in adverse organic conditions. These difficulties become more
and more explicit in Vygotskys works, as he redimensions the very notion of human development
through the studies in the field of defectology.
We thus challenge the term and the idea of compensation. It is possible to say that the term
condenses a stream of meanings that dislocate or obliterate all of Vygotskys argumentative work
(Vygotsky, 1993). The meaning that prevails, then, is one of correction that presupposes a positivist
conception of development. Thereby, the dimension of drama and contradiction, inherent to the
process of human development constituted in social relations, is lost.
The idea of compensation can, consequently, become innocuous when faced with the hetero-
geneity of practices and the diverse modes of participation and social constitution of an individual.
However, when faced with the dynamics and tensions of the social relations that constitute and affect
mental functioning, and the movement of (trans)formation inscribed in the way Vygotsky
approaches development, the concept becomes rich and suggestive.
If we agree that social relations are not always cooperative, peaceful, and harmonious but are infused
with tensions and multiple elaborations, with heterogeneous occurrences (Smolka, Ges, & Pino, 1995),
we can argue for the relevance of engaging in a discussion about the pertinence of the term/idea of
compensation as fundamental to understanding what constitutes being human. Instead of thinking of
 MIND, CULTURE, AND ACTIVITY 13

(social) compensation of an organic impairment, in the field of educational psychology it would be more
fruitful to discuss the constitution of the individual in contradictory life relations and conditions.
Conceiving of cerebral functioning as interwoven with the concrete social conditions of life opens
the perspective of assuming human incompleteness, as well as the possibility of psychological
reorganization and the production of new paths of development, of educational resources and
services, of signs and meanings, and of novelty which does not simply compensate lack or loss,
but might constitute other (new?) practices and ways of participating in them, other (new?) modes of
living and mental functioning.

Funding
This research was supported by FAPESP/Brazil, So Paulo Research Foundation, Number of Process 2010/08782-0.

References
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

Adler, A. (1967). A cincia da natureza humana (6th ed.) [Understanding human nature]. So Paulo, Brazil:
Campanha Editora Nacional.
Akhutina, T. V. (2002). Diagnstico y correccon de la escritura. Revista Espaola de Neuropsicologa, 2, 236261.
Akhutina, T. V. (2003). L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria: Foundations of Neuropsychology. Journal of Russian and East
European Psychology, 41, 159190. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405410304159
Akhutina, T. V. (2008). Neuropsicologa de la edad escolar: una aproximacin histrico-cultura. Acta Neurolgica
Colombiana, 24, 1730.
Akhutina, T. V., & Pylaeva, N. M. (2012). Overcoming learning disabilities: A Vygotskian-Lurian neuropsychological
approach. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Bakhtin, M. (2006). Marxismo e filosofia da linguagem [Marxism and the philosophy of language] (12th ed.). So
Paulo, SP: Hucitec.
Borges, D.S., & Kittel, R. (2002). Constituindo-se sujeito: uma histria de compensao social. [Constituting the
subject: a history of social compensation]. Ponto de Vista, 3/4, 4758.
Carvalho, M. F. (2006). Conhecimento e Vida na Escola: Convivendo com as Diferenas [Knowledge and life school:
Living with differences]. Campinas, Brazil: Autores Associados; UNIJU.
Cunha, N. V. S., Ayres, N., & Moraes, B. (2010). A teoria da compensao em Adler e em Vygotsky [The compensa-
tion theory Adler and Vygotsky]. Revista Eletrnica Arma da Crtica, 2, 6171.
Dainez, D. (2014). Constituio humana, deficincia e educao: problematizando o conceito de compensao na
perspectiva histrico-cultural [Human constitution, disability and education: Inquiring about the concept of
compensation in historical-cultural perspective]. Campinas, Brazil: Tese de Doutorado, Faculdade de Educao,
Universidade Estadual de Campinas.
Dainez, D., & Smolka, A. L. B. (2014). O conceito de compensao no dilogo de Vigotski com Adler: desenvolvi-
mento humano, educao e deficincia [The concept of compensation in the dialogue of Vygotsky with Adler:
Human development, education and disability]. Educao e Pesquisa, 40(4). doi:10.1590/S1517-97022014071545
Daniels, H. (2006). The dangers of corruption in special needs education. British Journal of Special Education, 33, 49.
doi:10.1111/bjsp.2006.33.issue-1
De Carlo, M. M. R. (2001). Se essa casa fosse nossa: Instituies e processos de imaginao na educao especial [If this
house was our: Institutions and imagination processes in special education]. So Paulo, Brazil: Plexus.
Eilam, G. (2003). The philosophical foundations of Aleksandr R. Lurias neuropsychology. Science in Context, 16,
551577. doi:10.1017/S0269889703000966
Erickson, F. (2010). Reflections on practice, teaching/learning, video, and theorizing. Theories of Learning and Studies
of Instructional Practice, 385402. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7582-9
Erickson, F., & Gutierrez, K. (2002). Comment: Culture, rigor, and science in educational research. Educational
Researcher, 31, 2124. doi:10.3102/0013189X031008021
Ezpeleta, J., & Rockwell, E. (1986). Pesquisa participante. So Paulo, Brazil: Corteza: Autores Associados.
Fichtner, B. (2010). Introduo na abordagem histrico-cultural de Vygotsky e seus colaboradores [Introduction into the
historical-cultural approach of Vygotsky and his collaborators]. Retrieved from http://www3.fe.usp.br/secoes/inst/
novo/agendaeventos/docente/PDF_SWF/226Reader%20Vyootskij.pdf
Garca, M. T., & Beatn, G. A. (2004). Necessidades educativas especiais: Desde o enfoque histrico-cultural [Special
educational needs: Historical-cultural approach]. So Paulo, SP: Linear B.
Geertz, C. (2008). A interpretao das culturas [The interpretation of cultures]. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: LTC.
Gindis, B. (1995). The social/cultural implication of disability: Vygotskys paradigm for special education. Educational
Psychologist, 30, 7781. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3002_4
 14 D. DAINEZ AND A. L. B. SMOLKA

Ginzburg, C. (2006). O queijo e os vermes: o cotidiano e as ideias de um moleiro perseguido pela inquisio [The cheese
and the worms: The cosmos of a sixteenth-century miller]. So Paulo, Brazil: Companhia das Letras.
Glozman, J. M. (1999). Russian neuropsychology after Luria. Neuropsychology Review, 9, 3344. doi:10.1023/
A:1025690920712
Ges, M. C. R. D. (2002). Relaes entre desenvolvimento humano, deficincia e educao: contribuies da
abordagem histrio-cultural [Relations between human development, disability and education: Contributions of
historical-cultural approach]. In M. K. Oliveira, D. T. R. Souza, & T. C. Rego (Orgs.), Psicologia, educao e as
temticas da vida contempornea (pp. 95114). So Paulo, Brazil: Moderna.
Hazin, I., Leito, S., Garcia, D., Lemos, C., & Gomes, E. (2010). Contribuies da Neuropsicologia de Alexsandr
Romanovich Luria para o debate contemporneo sobre relaes mente-crebro [Contributions of Alexander
Romanovich Luria neuropsychology to the contemporary debate on the mind-brain relations]. Mnemosine, 6,
88110.
Korkman, M. (1999). Applying Lurias diagnostic principles in the neuropsychological assessment of children.
Neuropsychology Review, 9, 89105. doi:10.1023/A:1025659808004
Kozulin, A., & Gindis, B. (2007). Sociocultural theory and education of children with special needs - from defectology
to remedial pedagogy. In H. Daniels, M. Cole, & J. Wetsch (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky (
pp. 332362). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Maris, A. F., & Trott, A. (2011). A patognese gentica e molecular da sndrome de Angelman [The genetic and
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 14:33 10 June 2016

molecular pathogenesis of the Angelman syndrome]. Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria, 60, 321330.
Padilha, A. M. L. (2001). Prticas Pedaggicas na Educao Especial: A capacidade de significar o mundo e a insero
cultural do deficiente mental [Pedagogical practices in special education: The ability to mean the world and the
cultural integration of the mentally impaired]. Campinas, Brazil: Autores Associados.
Rivire, A. (1985). La psicologa de Vygotski [The psychology of Vygotsky] (2nd ed.). Madrid, Spain: Visor.
Rodina, K. A. (2006). Vygotskys social constructionist view on disability: A methodology for inclusive education. Paper
presented at the 11th annual conference of the European Learning Styles Information Network, June, Oslo, Norway.
Retrieved from http://lchc.ucsd.edu/mca/Paper/VygotskyDisabilityEJSNE2007.pdf
Sacks, O. (2010). A ilha dos daltnicos [The island of the colorblind]. So Paulo, Brazil: Companhia das Letras.
Siems, M. E. R. (2010). Identidade docente em questo: educao especial em tempos de educao inclusiva [Teacher
identity in question: Special education in inclusive education times]. So Carlos, Brazil: Pedro & Joo Editores.
Smagorinsky, P., Cole, M., & Braga, L. W. (2016). On the complementarity of cultural historical psychology and
contemporary disability studies. In I. Esmonde & A. Booker (Eds.), Power and privilege in the learning sciences:
Critical and sociocultural theories. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/20274554/On_the_Complementarity_
of_Cultural_Historical_Psychology_and_Contemporary_Disability_Studies
Smolka, A. L. B. (2004). Sobre significao e sentido: uma contribuio proposta de rede de significaes [About
meaning and sense: Contribution to the proposed network of meanings]. In M. C. Rossetti-Ferreira et al. (Eds.),
Rede de significaes e o estudo do desenvolvimento humano (pp. 3549). Porto-Alegre, Brazil: Artmed.
Smolka, A. L. B., Ges, M. C. R., & Pino, A. (1995). The constitution of the subject: A persistent question. In J.
Wertsch, P. Del Ro, & A. Alvarez (Eds.), Sociocultural studies of mind (pp. 165184). New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky: A quest for synthesis. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Veresov, N. (1999). Undiscovered Vygotsky: Studies on the pre-history of cultural-historical psychology. Frankfurt,
Germany: Lang.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Concrete human psychology (pp. 5164). Moscow, Russia: Moscow University.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky (Vol. 1): Problems of general psychology (including Thinking
and Speech). New York, NY: Plenum.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1993). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky (Vol. 2): The fundamentals of defectology (abnormal
psychology and learning disabilities). New York, NY: Plenum.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1997a). The collected works of L. Vygotsky (Vol. 3): Problems of the theory and history of psychology
(including the Crisis in Psychology). New York, NY: Plenum.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1997b). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky (Vol. 4): The history of the development of higher mental
functions. New York, NY: Springer. Retrieved from https://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/1931/
research-method.htm