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2 The Beginning
of Agriculture
Before You Read As you
read, take
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms notes in a graphic
organizer like this one.
The development of 1. What new tools and technolo- Neolithic Era
Record details about the
agriculture was one gies did early humans develop Neolithic Revolution
causes and effects of the
of the most important during the New Stone Age? domestication
beginning of agriculture.
turning points in human 2. How did early agriculture pastoralists
history and significantly develop and spread? megaliths
Causes Effects
changed the way in Bronze Age
3. In what ways did the develop-
which many people lived.
ment of agriculture change
Stone Age society?
What might seeds reveal about Then, as the scientists continued to study the site, they
the past? In Syria, on the banks of the had another major surprise. Beneath the first settlement
Euphrates River, researchers carefully but was an even older one, dated to about 11,500 years ago.
quickly combed a prehistoric settlement to learn its secrets. Once again, the scientists carefully sifted through the dirt
A dam would soon flood the site, and time was running and found numerous seedsbut with one major difference.
short. As the team of scientists raced to collect artifacts and These seeds were wild, yet they were still quite similar to
other remains, a picture of the past began to emerge. the cultivated seeds from the later settlement. The excited
Flint and stone tools and the remains of houses showed scientists realized that the people who had once lived there
that people had settled at the spot around 9,500 years might have learned the mysteries of farming in perhaps a
ago. Using a specialized sifter, the scientists also found single lifetime, far quicker than scientists had thought.
many seeds mixed among the dirt. An analysis of the seeds Today the settlements lie hidden beneath Lake Assad,
showed that they were cultivated, revealing that the people but their secrets are hidden no more. There, people learned
had known how to farm. The scientists were thrilled. They to farm. This development would radically change life and
had found one of the first farming settlements. move people into the fast lane on the road to civilization.
Seeds of change
The settlements the team found
were located at this site, which
is in Syria. The area now lies
beneath Lake Assad.
12 Chapter 1
The New Stone Age With the development of farming, people
began to practice domestication, the selective
With the development of more sophisticated growing or breeding of plants and animals to
tools, the Paleolithic Era gave way to a period make them more useful to humans. Each year,
that scientists call the Neolithic Era, or New people saved and planted the seeds from only
Stone Age. In some places, such as parts of the best plants, such as the hardiest. Slowly
Southwest Asia, this period began as early as over time, wild plants became domesticated.
8000 BC and lasted until about 3000 BC. In Growing and domesticating plants provided
other places, the era began much later and people with larger food supplies.
lasted much longer.
Several advances in toolmaking defined Animals Before they domesticated plants,
the New Stone Age. Whereas before people prehistoric people had already domesticated
had chipped stones to produce sharp edges or animals. As with plants, animal domestication
points, in the New Stone Age people learned required the careful selection and breeding of
to polish and grind stones to shape tools with the best animals, such as the tamest or those
sharper edges. These new methods enabled that produced the most meat, milk, or wool.
people to make more specialized tools, such as
chisels, drills, and saws. However, the most sig-
nificant advances of the Neolithic Era had to
do with food, not tools.
Contrast How did toolmak- Domestication
ing in the New Stone Age differ from toolmaking in the
As early people began farming, they
Old Stone Age?
learned to domesticate plants and animals.
For example, people selected the goats
Development of Agriculture with the shortest horns to breed. Over
time, many domesticated plants and
For tens of thousands of yearsmost of human animals bore little resemblance to
historypeople lived as nomads, surviving their wild ancestors.
by hunting and gathering food. Then, around Why might people prefer
10,000 years ago, some people learned to farm. livestock with shorter horns?
The development of agriculture is one of the
most important turning points in human his- Domesticated
tory because it radically changed how people goat skull
lived. As a result, historians refer to the shift
to farming as the Neolithic Revolution.
13
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14 Chapter 1
Eventually, agriculture spread throughout Agriculture and trade made societies more
much of the world. People made the transi- complex and prosperous, and differences in
tion to agriculture gradually, however, and social status began to emerge. Some people
often continued to hunt and gather plants as gained more wealth and influence than others.
they learned to farm. In addition, some people Other people rose to positions of authority, over-
remained hunter-gatherers, perhaps because seeing the planting and harvesting, running
their territories were not suited to farming. building projects, or planning defense. Men
performed the heavier work in farming and
Identify Cause and Effect
often held positions of authority. As a result,
How did people benefit from farming and the domesti-
men began to gain dominance and status over
cation of plants and animals?
women in many agricultural societies.
Religion began to become more formalized
Agriculture Changes Society in agricultural societies as well. Some societies
began to construct structures for religious pur-
Reading
Skills
Agriculture dramatically changed Stone Age poses. For example, in Europe some Neolithic Predicting How
societies. For one, the world population grew do you predict
societies built monuments out of megaliths, or that agriculture
significantly because agriculture provided huge stones, for burial or spiritual purposes. changed Stone
a larger and more reliable food supply. For Some Neolithic people began to worship gods Age societies?
another, peoples ways of life changed. Some and goddesses associated with animals or the
people began to live as nomadic pastoralists, elementsair, water, fire, and earth. For exam-
people who ranged over wide areas and kept ple, one European tribe worshipped bulls, while
herds of livestock on which they depended for another honored a thunder god. Other people One of the most
food and other items. Other people gave up the may have worshipped their ancestors. famous examples
nomadic lifestyle and formed settlements. By A more settled agricultural life had some of megaliths
living in settlements, people could farm and can be seen at
negative effects as well. For example, warfare Stonehenge near
pool their labor and resources. increased as societies began to fight over land Salisbury, England.
and resources. As people became more depen-
Early Farming Societies In early farming dant on farming, they were more affected
settlements, people often lived close together in
by crop failure as a result of bad weather or
houses made of mud bricks or other materials.
other causes. In addition, disease increased. In
On the land around their settlements, people
settlements where people lived close together,
grew crops and raised livestock. As popula-
disease spread more rapidly. Furthermore,
tions grew, some settlements developed into
increased contact between people and animals
villages and towns. By about 6000 BC, villages
caused some animal diseases to cross over to
and towns of up to several hundred people had
humans. These diseases included the flu, mea-
arisen in parts of the world.
sles, and smallpox.
With the growth of agricultural societies,
peoples everyday activities changed. Instead New Technologies As their ways of life
of hunting and gathering food, many people began to change, people developed new tools
worked in the fields and tended livestock. Men, and methods to make life easier. Early farmers
women, and children probably divided up the used hand tools such as hoes and sharpened
tasks involved in these activities. At the same sticks to prepare the soil for planting. Farmers
time, with more food available, some people scattered their seeds by hand and may have
could spend more time doing activities other used animals to trample and loosen hard soil
than food production. For example, some peo- to work in the seeds. Then about 6000 BC, peo-
ple became skilled at making crafts or tools. ple began to use animals such as cattle to pull
As agriculture enabled people to produce plows. With the plow, farmers could till larger
extra food and products, trade increased. Set- areas to produce more crops.
tlements traded with one another to obtain raw To prepare foods such as grains, Neolithic
materials and products that they lacked. For people developed new tools such as pestles and
example, in Southwest Asia a popular trade grindstones. In addition, people learned to use
good was obsidian, a dark volcanic glass used clay to make pottery. Early pottery was used
to make tools, jewelry, and mirrors. for cooking and to store grains, oils, and water.
Farming Village
The village of atal Hyk is among the oldest farming sites.
Around 8,000 years ago the village was home to some 5,000
to 6,000 people, who lived in more than 1,000 houses. The
houses were built so closely together that there were few if
any streets. The people of atal Hyk farmed, hunted, and
fished; traded with people in distant lands; and built shrines.
16 Chapter 1
The domestication of animals made it pos- Nicknamed tzi the Iceman, the Neolithic
sible for Neolithic people to use wool from goats man and his belongings were well preserved.
and sheep to create yarn. Some early farming tzis outfit was made of three types of ani-
societies learned to spin yarn and weave it into mal skins stitched together. In addition, he
cloth to make garments and blankets. wore leather shoes padded with grass, a woven
Eventually, people learned to use metal, grass cape, a fur hat, and a sort of backpack.
first copper and then bronze, a mix of copper Among his belongings were a deerskin quiver
and tin. Bronze is harder than copper and pro- with arrows, a flint dagger, and an ax with a
duces stronger objects. As people began to make copper blade. Heavy wear on tzis front teeth
items from bronze, the Stone Age gave way to a suggest his diet included coarse grains.
time period that scientists call the Bronze Age. Scientists do not think that tzi lived in
This transition occurred as early as 3000 BC in the cold, mountainous location where he was
some areas, but much later in others. found. Moreover, an arrowhead in his shoulder
suggests he was murdered. Perhaps tzi had
atal Hyk Archaeologists have found the gone into the mountains to try to escape an ACADEMIC
remains of several Neolithic settlements and enemy but then grew too weak to continue. VOCABULARY
villages. One that has provided a wealth of domestic relating
information is atal Hyk (cha-tal hoo-yuk). SummarizeHow did the to everyday life or
This Neolithic village was located in present- development of agriculture affect Neolithic societies? the home
day Turkey and was home to some 5,000 to
6,000 people around 6000 BC. The village cov-
ered more than 30 acres, making it the largest Section 2 Assessment
go.hrw.com
Online Quiz
Neolithic site that archaeologists have found. Keyword: SHL BEG HP
The people of atal Hyk grew crops such Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
as barley, peas, and wheat in the fields around 1. a. Recall What characteristics define the Neolithic Era?
their village. In addition, they raised sheep b. ExplainHow did tools in the Neolithic Era differ from those in
and goats, hunted wild cattle, and fished in a the Paleolithic Era?
nearby river. Based on artifacts found at atal 2. a. Describe What is involved in plant and animal domestication?
Hyk, such as shells, villagers traded with b. SummarizeHow did the development of agriculture benefit
people as far away as the Red Sea. prehistoric peoples lives?
The houses in atal Hyk were built close c. ElaborateHow did geography contribute to the development and
together, and the village had few if any streets. spread of agriculture?
Because of the closeness of the buildings, peo- 3. a. Identify Who is tzi the Iceman, and why is he significant?
ple entered their homes through openings in b. ContrastHow did life for early hunter-gatherers differ from that
the roofs. Most homes had one main room in for people in early agricultural societies?
which a family lived, and one or two side rooms c. Develop What have scientists learned about Neolithic farming
societies by studying atal Hyk?
for storage. In the main room, areas were set
aside for sleeping and for domestic tasks, such Critical Thinking
as cooking and making crafts. In some homes, 4. Identify Supporting Details Create a graphic organizer like the one
areas were also set aside for religious shrines. below. On the left side, describe the key facts related to the development
These shrines often contained small female of agriculture, including both plant and animal domestication. On the
statues, large sculpted bulls heads, and one or right side of the graphic organizer, note the ways in which the develop-
two bodies buried beneath the floor. In addi- ment of agriculture affected Neolithic societies.
tion, families covered the interior walls of their
homes with colorful, vibrant paintings.
Peter Stearns
Peter N. Stearns is Professor of History and Provost at George Mason
University. Founder and longtime editor of the Journal of Social
History, Stearns is also author and editor of numerous books, including
the Encyclopedia of World History and the six-volume Encyclopedia
of European Social History from 1350 to 2000. Professor Stearns
received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and has taught for
over 40 years. He is a member of the American Historical Society
and the Social Science History Association, among other profes-
sional organizations. His current research topics include the
history of gender, body image, and emotion. His most recent
book is Childhood in World History.
Sam Wineburg
Sam Wineburg is Professor of Education and Professor of History (by
courtesy) at Stanford University, where he directs the only Ph.D. program
in History Education in the nation. Educated at Brown and Berkeley, he
spent several years teaching history at the middle and high school levels
before completing a doctorate in Psychological Studies in Education
at Stanford. His book Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts:
Charting the Future of Teaching the Past won the Frederic W. Ness
Award from the Association of American Colleges and Universities.
His work on teacher community won the 2002 Exemplary Research
on Teaching and Teacher Education Award from the American
Educational Research Association. He was a member of the blue-
ribbon commission of the National Research Council that wrote
the widely circulated report, How People Learn: Brain, Mind,
Experience, and School. He is also the Senior Consulting Author
on Holts American Anthem.
COntents iii
Consultants
Program Consultant Academic Consultants
Kylene Beers, Ed.D. Elizabeth Shanks Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Ph.D.
Senior Reading Researcher Alexander, Ph.D. Professor of History and
School Development Program Professor of Rabbinic Judaism and Religious Studies
Yale University Talmudic Literature Department of History
New Haven, Connecticut Department of Religious Studies Washington University in
University of Virginia St. Louis
Senior Consulting Author Charlottesville, Virginia St. Louis, Missouri
Steve Goldberg Elizabeth A. Clark, Ph.D. Christopher L. Salter, Ph.D.
NCSS Board of Directors John Carlisle Kilgo Professor Professor of Geography and Chair Emeritus
Social Studies Department Chair of Religion Department of Geography
New Rochelle High School Department of Religion University of Missouri-
New Rochelle, New York Duke University Columbia
Durham, North Carolina Columbia, Missouri
Program Advisers
Academic Reviewers
Christian Appy, Ph.D. Geoff Koziol, Ph.D. Paolo Squatriti, Ph.D.
Department of History Department of History Department of History
University of Massachusetts, Amherst University of California University of Michigan
Amherst, Massachusetts Berkeley, California Ann Arbor, Michigan
Jonathan Beecher, Ph.D. Robert J. Meier, Ph.D. Marc Van De Mieroop, Ph.D.
Department of History Department of Anthropology Department of History
University of California, Santa Cruz Indiana University Columbia University
Santa Cruz, California Bloomington, Indiana New York, New York
iv CONTENTS
COntents
COVER IMAGES:
Top: Mexico City, 1998
Background: Rosetta Stone
Helmet: Anglo-Saxon helmet, early seventh century,
Sutton Hoo, England
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ii CONTENTS