SMOKE DETECTORS

An Americium-241 source from a smoke detector

Some smoke detectors also use radioactive elements as part of their detection
mechanism, usually americium-241, which use the ionizing radiation of the alpha
particles to cause and then measure changes in the ionization of the air immediately
around the detector. A change due to smoke in the air will cause the alarm to sound.
AGRICULTURE

In agriculture, radioactive materials are used to improve food crops, preserve food, and
control insect pests. They are also used to measure soil moisture content, erosion rates,
salinity, and the efficiency of fertiliser uptake in the soil. Sterilisation is one of the most
beneficial uses of radiation.

i.) Plant nutrition studies

Fertilizers are very expensive and their efficient use is of great importance to reduce the
production cost of agricultural crops. It is essential that a maximum amount of fertilizer
used during cultivation finds its way into the plant and that the minimum is lost.
Radioisotopes are very useful in estimating the amount of phosphorus and nitrogen
available in the soil. This estimation helps in determining the amount of phosphate and
nitrogen fertilizers that should be applied to soil. Fertilizers labelled with radioactive
isotopes such as phosphorus-32 and nitrogen-15 have been used to study the uptake,
retention and utilization of fertilizers. Excessive use of fertilizers effects biodiversity and
damages the environment. These isotopes provide a means to determine about amount
of fertilizer taken and lost to the environment by the plant (Harderson, 1990). Nitrogen-15
also helps in assessment of nitrogen fixed by plants from the atmosphere under field
conditions. IAEA develops and transfers techniques that use radioactive isotopes for
measuring the nutrient uptake from various fertilizer sources with an aim to achieve
higher and more stable grain yields by optimizing the uptake of nutrients from applied
fertilizers (Zapata and Hera, 1995). Only small amount of fertilizer applied to the soil is
taken up by the crop. The rest either remains in the soil or is lost through several
processes. FAO and IAEA have jointly conducted several research programmes for the
efficient use of radioactive isotopes for fertilizer management practices in important
agricultural crops like wheat, rice and maize (Hera, 1995).

Study of soil characteristics is extremely valuable in devising effective methods of

farming. Radioactive isotopes can be used as tags to monitor uptake and use of
essential nutrients by plants from soil (IAEA, 1996). This technique allows scientists to
measure the exact nutrient and water requirements of crop in particular conditions. A
major factor in successful crop production is the presence of an adequate water supply.
Nuclear moisture density gauges can monitor and determine the moisture content of soil
so indicates the exact irrigation needs of a particular area. Nuclear science and
technology have greatly facilitated such investigations and are now being widely used in
soil plant nutrition research to make the most efficient use of limited water sources.
Ionizing radiation is also used to sterilize the soil and there is a good deal of current
interest in the use of radiation for the eradication of microorganisms in the soil which
causes diseases and are harmful to plant life.

ii.) Crop improvement

Plant breeding requires genetic variation of useful traits for crop improvement. Different
types of radiation can be used to induce mutations to develop desired mutants line that
are resistant to disease, are of higher quality, allow earlier ripening, and produce a higher
yield. An initial attempt to induce mutations in plants was demonstrated by American
Scientist L.J. Stadler in 1930 using X-rays. Later on, gamma and neutron radiation were
employed as ionizing radiations. This technique of utilizing radiation energy for inducing
mutation in plants has been widely used to obtain desired or improved characters in
number of plant varieties. It offers the possibility of inducing desired characters that either
cannot be found in nature or have been lost during evolution. A proper selection of
mutant varieties can lead to improved quality and productivity.

During last two decades, radiation-induced mutations have increasingly contributed to the
improvement of crop plant varieties and it has become an established part of plant
breeding methods. Radiation induced mutation experiments are showing promising
results for improvement of cultivated crop varieties in many countries. Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC) has developed number of high yielding varieties of tur, green
gram, black gram, groundnut, jute and rice by using radiation energy for inducing
mutation (Sood et al., 2010). Crop varieties developed by using induced mutations have
been found valuable by many national authorities so they have been released and
approved for commercial production. Most of the groundnut and black gram grown in
India are from mutant varieties developed at BARC. There are many similar successful
mutants in use in other countries, for example, high yielding mutant barleys which can
utilize higher doses of fertilizer for increased grain production. Improved pearl millet line
showing resistance to downy mildew disease was developed using irradiation treatment
in India and is now grown over an area of several million hectares.

iii.) Food processing and preservation

Demand for instant food which is wholesome and which has a long shelf life is growing in
both the developed and the developing countries. 25-30% of the worlds food produce
are lost due to spoilage by microbes and pest and these losses are more in developing
countries. This loss of food can be avoided by employing efficient food preservation
methods. Radiation can be used to destroy microbes in food and control insect and
parasite infestation in harvested food to prevent various kinds of wastage and spoilage.
Extension of shelf life of certain foods of a few days by irradiation is enough to save them
from spoiling. Irradiation of food has potential to produce safe foods with long shelf life.
Certain seeds and canned food can be stored for longer periods by gently exposing them
to radiations. Food irradiation is energy-conserving when compared with conventional
methods of preserving food to obtain a similar shelf-life (Wilkinson and Gould, 1996). It
can alleviate the world's food shortage by reducing post-harvest losses. Food irradiation
can replace or drastically reduce the use of food additives and fumigants which are
hazardous for consumers as well as workers in food processing industries. Irradiation
does not heat the food material so food keeps its freshness in its physical state. The
agents which cause spoilage (microbes, insects, etc.) are eliminated by irradiation from
packaged food and packaging materials are impermeable to bacteria and insects so
recontamination does not take place. Irradiation of food kills insects and parasites,
inactivate bacterial spores and moulds, prevent reproduction of microbes and insects,
inhibit the sprouting of root crops, delays ripening of fruits and improve technological
properties of food. FDA has approved irradiation as a method to inhibit sprouting and to
delay ripening in many fresh fruits and vegetables. Several steps were taken by the FAO
and IAEA division in close cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO) to
promote international acceptance of irradiated food (WHO, 1988). The Joint
FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committees on the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food (1980)
have evaluated the safety of irradiated foods for human consumption and concluded that
the irradiation of any food up to an average dose of 10 kGy causes no toxicological
hazard. Irradiation of food is controversial in many parts of the world (Diehl, 1993).
World-wide introduction of food irradiation is necessary to enhance confidence among
trading nations that foods irradiated in one country and offered for sale in another, have
been subjected to commonly acceptable standards of wholesomeness, hygienic practice,
and irradiation treatment control. Efforts and support from international organizations,
governments, and the food industry will be needed for the introduction of food irradiation
on a truly commercial scale (Diehl, 1990). Some organizations and industries do not
recognize this cheap and efficient food preservation method. In the last 30 years of
testing of irradiated foods, no harmful effects to animals or humans have been found so
now attitude of relevant organizations is changing and some irradiated foods are being
released for general consumption. Many countries have accorded clearance for gamma
irradiation of food items. The National Monitoring Agency (NMA) of Government of India
has cleared radiation processing of onions, spices and frozen sea foods. In India two
demonstration plants one at Vashi, Navi Mumbai and another at Lasalgaon, Nashik are
providing irradiation service for processing of spices, onions and fruits (Sood et al., 2010).
ARCHEOLOGY

In archaeology radioisotope carbon-14 is used to study and estimate the age of ancient
artifacts. This method is named as the radiocarbon dating.

Radiocarbon dating can be used to estimate the age of organic materials, such as wood
and leather, up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years.

After human remains found in a Leicester car park were confirmed to be those of
King Richard III, we take a look at how physics is used in archaeology.

Dating
Not the saucy kind of dating: Richard was reportedly not shaped for sportive tricks, nor
made to court an amorous looking glass. The ages of things of interest to archaeologists
including royal bones can be estimated from the proportion of carbon-14 they contain.
The radioactive isotope of carbon exists naturally in the atmosphere, and is absorbed by
plants at a predictable rate. While an organism remains alive, the ratio of carbon-14 to
regular carbon-12 within it will stay roughly constant.

After it dies, the carbon-14 will undergo radioactive decay, and, without any way of
replacing it, the proportion of it will decrease. Measuring the ratio of the two isotopes, and
knowing carbon-14s half-life, allows archaeologists to estimate the date on which a living
organism died.

The technique is subject to errors, however. Initial work on the body now known to be
that of Richard III gave a date of death of between 1412 and 1460 much earlier than
the date of the battle in which he died, which took place in 1485.

But the remains were also examined using mass spectrometry, revealing their chemical
composition. The high levels of protein found suggested that the person buried under the
car park had eaten a large amount of seafood around the time of his death and
because fish absorb carbon-14 at a different rate to land-animals, the date of death was
revised to be sometime between 1450 and 1540.

Another form of spectrometry has been used since the 1970s to improve the accuracy of
radiocarbon dating even further. Accelerator mass spectrometry, a technique taken from
nuclear physics, accelerates ions to high speed before analysing their mass and can
count individual carbon-14 atoms. This enables very small items, or tiny parts of valuable
objects, to be dated and its how the Turin Shroud was proven to be from the 13th
century rather than contemporaneous with Jesus.

The use of superconductivity has also been introduced to date lead. At temperatures of
below 7.2 K, lead becomes a superconductor, but its magnetisation changes depending
on how corroded its become. Because lead corrodes at a predictable rate, its age can be
estimated.

What lies beneath

Physics can be used to see through the ground to buried archaeological sites just like
Richards rivals wouldve wished they couldve seen through his plots.

The obvious example is using metal detectors to find objects such as coins buried
beneath the soil, though theyre of more use to treasure-hunters than scientists.

Other electromagnetism-based methods are more useful. One involves measuring the
electrical resistivity of the surface at various points and producing a map. Higher-than-
average readings might suggest the presence of a buildings foundation stone, whereas
lower-than-average resistivity is associated with organic deposits.

Magnetometers are also used to map a sites magnetic features. A magnetic survey of
the now largely buried Roman town of Viroconium Cornovinium, near present-day
Shrewsbury, revealed buildings and a network of roads.

Ground-penetrating radar can also be used to build an image of whatevers beneath the
ground objects and geological layers reflect the radio-wave signal, and depth can be
determined by the time-delay involved. However its severely limited in soils with high
conductivity, such as clay.

The face of a tyrant?

Once artefacts have been found in an archaeological site they can be examined to find
out more about their composition. Some of this is carried out using x-rays, which can spot
features that are difficult to see in visible wavelengths. Theyve previously been used to
find hidden seams in fabrics and even contraband concealed within.

Related techniques were used to try to work out what Richard III might actually have
looked like.

After his overthrow, Tudor propaganda exaggerated the deposed kings deformities, and
Shakespeares character laments that he was deformed, unfinished, sent before my time
into this breathing world scarce half made up. Now we have a better idea of whether that
was accurate.

The researchers used CT scans of his skull to create a digital model, and knowing how
skeleton shapes tend to map to facial features allows his face to be reconstructed. A
model was produced using 3D printing, and completed using prosthetic eyes and teeth,
and a wig.

The result is not the face of tyrant: Richard apparently looked oddly like a Disney-Pixar
character.
INDUSTRY

i.)Thickness control

In industries involving the production of materials with a specific thickness i.e. paper,
plastic films, aluminium foil, steel etc beta radiations are used to measure and control the
thickness. Strontium 90 is an example of a radioisotope used for this type of application.
It is important to know the properties of the radioisotope when selecting its use. Although
there are other radioisotopes which emit beta radiation their properties may not be best
suited for use in a manufacturing environment. Strontium 90 has a half life of about 29
years; this means the radioactive source for the thickness controller does not need
regular replacement. This is beneficial in a manufacturing environment as it means the
processing line does not need to be interrupted regularly to replace the source. It also
means that the user does not have to constantly worry about disposing of a radioactive
material. An additional property of Strontium 90 is that the beta particles resulting from its
decay are moderate in energy and this reduces the risk of exposure to any workers in its
proximity.

ii.)Conservation of wood

Viviers townhall in Ardeche, recently took over an ancient bishops palace, a beautiful
building from the early eighteenth century. Beautiful inlaid parquet with geometric
decoration, 86 m2, needed restoration. Wood was attacked by fungi (merule or dry rot
fungus) and the thickness of the layer of mosaic wood was reduced, in some areas, to a
few millimeters. In 1998, the wood panels were removed one by one to be sterilized,
impregnated and consolidated by gamma irradiation in Arc Nucleart laboratory in
Grenoble, before being reassembled in 1999. The rooms of the former episcopal palace
welcome now cultural events.
The thickness of the layer of mosaic wood on the surface of ancient wooden floors is
sometimes reduced to a few millimeters. This beautiful floor of the Stendhal museum in
Grenoble has been consolidated by the Nuclart method. Its elements have been removed
one by one, to be impregnated with a resin and then hardened by gamma rays irradiation.

Remains of a fortified settlement dating back around 1000 A.D. have been found on the
shores of Lake Paladru in Isre. Charavines site, searched for twenty-five years has
delivered a considerable amount of furniture : more than 2000 pieces, exceptionally well
preserved following the rise of the lake level that inundated the site. How to preserve so
much humble objects of everyday life, valuable for what they reveal? The treatments
were adapted to the nature of objects, metal, leather or wood. The waterlogged woods go
into dust when they are dried. They were therefore impregnated with a resin that has
replaced water, and then underwent gamma irradiation that had polymerized the resin.
The best part is probably a wonderful saddle pommel carved in wood that has been well
preserved.

The process of consolidation by irradiation is particularly suitable for highly degraded

objects, where the use of traditional techniques would be little or not effective. The
consolidated wood can be worked like a hardwood. An old middle-age virgin can now
support the restoration work that was forbidden before banned because of its fragility.
Furniture highly affected as statues of stone and plasters are saved.

Disinfection requires less intense gamma radiation that hardening by polymerization.

When the mummy of Ramses II was received at the Muse de lHomme, a French
museum, to be treated, it was infested with larvae and fungi. Sixty species of fungi were
counted. The glorious pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty, winner of the Hittites, made the
journey to the Commissariat l'Energie Atomique in Saclay, which had an irradiator
capable of getting the pharaoh rid of his pests. On May 8, 1977, the mummy was given a
dose of 18,000 Grays (Gy) in two sessions of 6 hours, without having to leave his
sarcophagus. Back in Cairo, restorers gave him, the final touch, putting back order in the
pharaoh's hair and in the royal linen drape.
iii.)Measurement of density

A nuclear density gauge is a tool used in civil construction and the petroleum industry, as
well as for mining and archaeology purposes. It consists of a radiation source that emits
a cloud of particles and a sensor that counts the received particles that are either
reflected by the test material or pass through it. By calculating the percentage of particles
that return to the sensor, the gauge can be calibrated to measure the density and inner
structure of the test material.

iv.)Measurement of effectiveness of motor oils

Radionuclides have been used in a variety of ways in oil exploration for many years.
They provide the only convenient means of locating and evaluating underground flow
patterns. Radioactive material measurement can help determine the best location for an
oil well and is important in reducing the costs of oil exploration.

When testing motor oils and lubricants, oil companies use radioactive tracers to measure
friction wear in a petrol engine without dismantling the engine, or even stopping it. This
method of measuring wear and tear is much quicker than other methods and more can
be learned in a few hours than used to be possible by running an engine for a month!
MEDICINE

X-Rays are one of the most common uses of radiation in medecine, providing valuable
information to doctors and other medical professionals on patient injuries or maladies

Some Hospitals use radiation in a wide range of ways. X-Ray, CT, and PET machines
use X-ray (X-ray and CT) and Gamma radiation (PET) to produce detailed images of the
human body, which provide valuable diagnostic information for doctors and their
patients. Radionuclides are also used to directly treat illnesses, such as radioactive
iodine, which is taken up almost exclusively by the thyroid, to treat cancer or
hyperthyroidism. Radioactive tracers and dyes are also used to be able to accurately
map a specific area or system, such as in a cardiac stress test, which may use a
radioactive isotope like Technetium-99 to identify areas of the heart and surrounding
arteries with diminished blood flow.

i.)CT Scanning
CT/ CAT (Computerized Axial Tomography) scans have the same fundamentals of x-rays,
but they produce 3-D images using tomography. Using digitial geometric processing, the
CT scan creates a 3-D image compiling a large number of 2-D x-rays. These 2-D images
are thin cross sections of the body taken from a single axis of rotation. A CT scanner
consists of a table where the patient lies on, an x-ray device which rotates at high speed
around the patient taking hundreds of cross sections of the body, and a computer with
appropriate software to compile and render the 3-D image. The table in Figure 1 moves
through the tube, allowing the machine to take hundreds of pictures from head to toe.

Just like with x-ray, contrast agents are typically added to the body before imaging occurs
so that different tissues are more defined. Due to the fact that many more images are
being taken in order to form a complete three dimensional image, the radiation dose is
much higher. While a chest x-ray is around .1 mSv or radiation, a chest CAT scan
subjects the patient to about 8 mSv of radiation; over twice the amount that the body
would absorb from its environment in a year. For this reason, it is uncommon and unsafe
to have multiple CAT scans taken unless completely necessary.

Ironically, while X-Rays are used for medicine, they do pose health risks upon patients,
especially CT Scans. Stated by the International Agenct for Research on Cancer, X-Ray
radiation is considered a carcinogen (cancer causing). Measured in Sievert(s) (Sv) or
Gray(s) (Gy), are the units of how much radiation energy is desposited within the body.
For example a chest X-Ray has a mSv of 0.1. In contrast, the average American will
absorb 3 mSv of background radiation in a year. Despite the X-Ray of a chest posing a
small amount or radiation in contrast with our annual intake of background radiation,
there exist risks involved with radiation, especially of reproductive organs and the brain.
ii.) PET/SPECT Scanning

PET/ SPECT (Positron Emission Tomograpy/ Single Photon Emission Computerized

Tomography) uses radioactively tagged molecules to image the body. These radioactive
"radionuclides" give off gamma radiation, which eventually annihilates an electron. These
radionuclides are isotopes with short half-lives, usually less than 30 minutes. This
annihilation sends two gamma rays in exactly opposite directions with energy of 511keVs,
which is picked up by a 5,000 to 20,000 gamma detectors that surround the patient.
When two detectors on opposite sides of the patients body absorb gamma rays at the
same time, the computer marks where the substance is and using this data can render a
3-D image.

PET Scanning, is used to image the physiological aspects of the body rather than the
anatomy. It images the function of the body rather than the form, such as where tagged
molecules go and how they are used. For instance, if you were to image the brain of a
deceased person, nothing would show up on a PET scan opposed to a CAT scan, as the
brain is no longer functional. Pet Scanning is very useful in imaging tumors, which can be
done when patients are injected with certain tracers. Often times PET scanners are used
in collaboration with CAT scanners to create a composite image that shows both the
function and form of the body.
RADIOGRAPHY

An industrial radiography camera being used to inspect a weld for defects

Essentially high-powered versions of the types of X-Ray machines used in medicine,

industrial radiography cameras use X-rays or even gamma sources (such as Iridium-192,
Cobalt-60, or Cesium-137) to examine hard to reach or hard to see places. This is
frequently used to examine welds for defects or irregularities, or examining other
materials to locate structural anomalies or internal components.

Industrial radiography is also very useful for secure, non-invasive scanning at security
checkpoints, such as airports, where x-ray baggage scanners are in routine use. Larger
versions of the same machines are often used to examine shipping containers all over
the world.
FOOD SAFETY

The Radura is the international symbol denoting that a food product has been irradiated

Food irradiation is the process of using radioactive sources to sterilize foodstuffs. The
radiation works by killing bacteria and viruses, or eliminating their ability to reproduce by
severely damaging their DNA or RNA. Since neutron radiation is not used, the remaining
food doesnt become radioactive itself, leaving it safe to eat. This method is also used to
sterilize food packaging, medical devices, and manufacturing parts.
Nuclear Power Plant

A nuclear power plant or nuclear power station is a thermal power station in which the
heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations
the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to an electric
generator which produces electricity. As of 23 April 2014, the IAEA report there are 449
nuclear power reactors in operation[1] operating in 31 countries.[2]

Nuclear power stations are usually considered to be base load stations, since fuel is a
small part of the cost of production.[3] Their operations and maintenance (O&M) and fuel
costs are, along with hydropower stations, at the low end of the spectrum and make them
suitable as base-load power suppliers. The cost of spent fuel management, however, is
somewhat uncertain.

Uranium-235 is used as a nuclear fuel at nuclear reactor. In nuclear fission, a lot of heat
will be produced. The moderators graphite stand are made of carbon blocks with small
holes used to slow down the motion of neutrons. Thus, the rate of nuclear fission can be
controlled.The boron and cadmium rods are used as control rods to absorb some of the
secondary neutrons.Carbon dioxide or water is used as a cooling agent in the nuclear
reactor to remove the heat of reaction to make steam for turbine generator. This
produces steam as heat carrier.The lead and concrete shielding wall prevents the escape
of radioactive rays from the nuclear reactor.

Nuclear fission of uranium-235 produces a large amount of heat energy at the nuclear
reactor.

This heat energy is used to boil water and change it into steam at a high temperature and
pressure.

This steam turns the turbine. The used steam goes to a condenser where it is condensed
into water which is then returned to the reactor for use again.

The turbine spins the dynamo in the generator to produce electricity which is then
transmitted by cables to consumers.
USES OF RADIOISOTOPE

Naturally-occurring radioisotopes

Carbon-14 (5730 yr) Used to measure the age of wood, other carbon-containing
materials (up to 20,000 years), and subterranean water (up to
50,000 years).
Chlorine-36 (301,000 yr) Used to measure sources of chloride and the age of water (up
to 2 million years).
Lead-210 (22.3 yr) Used to date layers of sand and soil up to 80 years.
Tritium, H-3 (12.3 yr) Used to measure 'young' groundwater (up to 30 years).

Artificially-produced radioisotopes

Americium-241 (432 yr) Used in backscatter gauges, smoke detectors, fill height
detectors, and in measuring ash content of coal.

Caesium-137 (30.17 yr) Used for radiotracer technique for identification of sources of
soil erosion and deposition, as well as in density and fill height
level switches. Also for low-intensity gamma sterilisation.

Chromium-51 (27.7 yr) Used to label sand to study coastal erosion, also a tracer in
study of blood.

Cobalt-60 (5.27 yr), Used together in blast furnaces to determine resident times
lanthanum-140 (1.68 d), and to quantify yields to measure the furnace performance.
scandium-46 (83.8 d),
silver-110m (250 d),
gold-198 (2.7 d)

Cobalt-60 (5.27 yr) Widely used for gamma sterilisation, industrial radiography,
density, and fill height switches.

Gold-198 (2.7 d) & Used to study sewage and liquid waste movements, as well
technetium-99m (6 hr) as tracing factory waste causing ocean pollution, and to trace
sand movement in river beds and ocean floors.

Gold-198 (2.7 d) Used to label sand to study coastal erosion.

Hydrogen-3 (in tritiated Used as a tracer to study sewage and liquid wastes.
water) (12.3 yr)

Iridium-192 (73.8 d) Used in gamma radiography to locate flaws in metal

components.

Krypton-85 (10.756 yr) Used for industrial gauging.

Manganese-54 (312.5 d) Used to predict the behaviour of heavy metal components in

effluents from mining waste water.
Nickel-63 (100 yr) Used in light sensors in cameras and plasma display, also
electronic discharge prevention and in electron capture
detectors for thickness gauges. Also for long-life beta-voltaic
batteries. Made from nickel-62 by neutron capture.

Selenium-75 (120 d) Used in gamma radiography and non-destructive testing.

Strontium-90 (28.8.yr) Used for industrial gauging.

Thallium-204 (3.78 yr) Used for industrial gauging.

Ytterbium-169 (32 d) Used in gamma radiography and non-destructive testing.

Zinc-65 (244 d) Used to predict the behaviour of heavy metal components in

effluents from mining wastewater.