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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The concept of multilevel converters has been introduced since 1975. The term
multilevel began with the three-level converter. Subsequently, several multilevel
converter topologies have been developed. However, the elementary concept of a
multilevel converter to achieve higher power is to use a series of power semiconductor
switches with several lower voltage dc sources to perform the power conversion by
synthesizing a staircase voltage waveform. Capacitors, batteries, and renewable energy
voltage sources can be used as the multiple dc voltage sources. The commutation of the
power switches aggregate these multiple dc sources in order to achieve high voltage at
the output; however, the rated voltage of the power semiconductor switches depends
only upon the rating of the dc voltage sources to which they are connected [6].
The importance of multilevel inverters has been increased since last few
decades. These new types of inverters are suitable for high voltage and high power
application due to their ability to synthesize waveforms with better harmonic spectrum
and with less Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). Numerous topologies have been
introduced and widely studied for utility of non-conventional sources and also for drive
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The Multi-Level Inverter [MLI] is a promising inverter topology for high voltage and
high power applications. This inverter synthesizes several different levels of DC
voltages to produce a stepped AC output that approaches the pure sine waveform. It has
the advantages like high power quality waveforms, lower voltage ratings of devices,
lower harmonic distortion, lower switching frequency and switching losses, higher
efficiency, reduction of dv/dt stresses etc. It gives the possibility of working with low
speed semiconductors in comparison with the two-level inverters [19].
1. Ability to reduce the voltage stress on each power device due to the utilization of
multiple levels on the DC bus.
2. Important when a high DC side voltage is imposed by an application (e.g. traction
systems).
3. Even at low switching frequencies, smaller distortion in the multilevel inverter AC
side waveform can be achieved (with stepped modulation technique).
1. Staircase waveform quality: Multilevel converters not only can generate the output
voltages with very low distortion, but also can reduce the dv/dt stresses; therefore
Electro Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) problems can be reduced.
2. Common-Mode (CM) voltage: Multilevel converters produce smaller CM voltage;
therefore, the stress in the bearings of a motor connected to a multilevel motor drive
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can generate higher number of output voltage levels with the same number of
semiconductor switchers in symmetric ones. Therefore, in these inverters the
efficiency is improved by using less semiconductor devices [32] and more complicated
switching algorithms; while, output filters are very small or even removed. One leg of
an asymmetric multilevel inverter is shown in Fig.1.4.
Since the different cells of asymmetric inverter work with different dc link
voltages and different switching frequencies, it is more efficient to use
appropriate semiconductor devices in different cells. For example, using IGCT
integrated (Gate-Commutated Thyristor) switches which are suitable for high voltages
low frequency applications, in higher voltage cells decreases the power losses.
These inverters are called hybrid multilevel inverters [31]. A hybrid inverter which
uses several types of semiconductors has many advantages Active power is
transferred by semiconductors with low losses and high reliability and the output
harmonic spectrum is improved by other semiconductors.
symmetric multilevel inverters are characterized by the fact that the voltages
across the different dc link capacitors are equal[59], importance to mention that the
switches applied in the symmetric inverter have the same off-state voltage.
Together with the converter topology, great effort has been addressed from the
research community in investigating different switching methods for these inverters.
This is mainly due to the fact that the adopted switching strategy impacts the
harmonic spectrum of output waveforms as well as the switching and the conduction
power losses. In case of multilevel converters, three switching methods are usually
used.
as, its capabilities to operate at high voltage with lower dv/dt per switching, high
efficiency and low electromagnetic interference [EMI]. CMLI is one of the most
important topology in the family of multilevel and multi pulse inverters. It requires
least number of Components with compare to diode-clamped and flying capacitors type
multilevel inverters and no specially designed transformer is needed as compared to
multi pulse inverter. It has modular structure with simple switching strategy and
occupies less space.
A cascaded multilevel inverter is discussed to eliminate the excessively large number
of component.
2. It switches each device only once per line cycle and generates a multistep
staircase voltage waveform approaching a pure sinusoidal output voltage by increasing
the number of levels.
3. Since the inverter structure itself consists of a cascade connection of many single-
phase, Full-Bridge Inverter (FBI) units and each bridge is fed with a separate DC
source, it does not require voltage balance (sharing) circuits or voltage matching of the
switching devices.
4. Packaging layout is much easier because of the simplicity of structure and lower
component count.
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5. Soft-switching can be used in this structure to avoid bulky and lossy resistor -
capacitor-diode snubbers.
6. For real power conversions, (ac to dc and dc to ac), the cascaded-inverter needs
separate dc sources. The structure of separate dc sources is well suited for
various renewable energy sources such as fuel cell, photovoltaic, and biomass, etc.
Each SDC (separate D.C. source) is associated with a single-phase full-bridge inverter.
The ac terminal voltages of different level inverters are connected in series. Through
different combinations of the four switches, S1-S4, each converter level can
generate three different voltage outputs, + ,- and zero.
This switching method makes all of the switching devices current stress equal.
In the motoring mode, power flows from the batteries through the cascade
inverters to the motor. In the charging mode, the cascade converters act as rectifiers,
and power flows from the charger (ac source) to the batteries. The cascade converters
can also act as rectifiers to help recover the kinetic energy of the vehicle if regenerative
braking is used. The cascade inverter can also be used in parallel HEV
configurations. This new converter can avoid extra clamping diodes or voltage
balancing capacitors.
1. The number of possible output voltage levels is more than twice the number of dc
sources (m = 2s + 1).
2. The series of H-bridges makes for modularized layout and packaging. This will
enable the manufacturing process to be done more quickly and cheaply.
1. Loads
2. The power system itself (HVDC, SVC, transformers, etc)
3. The generation stage (synchronous generators)
One of the biggest problems in power quality aspects is the harmonic contents in
the electrical system. Generally, harmonics may be divided into two types: 1) voltage
harmonics, and 2) current harmonics. Current harmonics is usually generated by
harmonics contained in voltage supply and depends on the type of load such as resistive
load, capacitive load, and inductive load. Harmonic currents can produce a number of
problems, namely: Equipment heating, Equipment malfunction, Equipment failure,
Communications interference, Fuse and breaker disoperation Process problems,
Conductor heating. Both harmonics can be generated by either the source or the load
side.
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Voltage distortion, on the other hand, directly affects loads. Distorted voltage
can cause motors to overheat and vibrate excessively. It can also cause damage to the
motor shaft. Even non-linear loads are prey to voltage distortion. Equipment ranging
from computers to electronically-ballasted fluorescent lights may be damaged by
voltage distortion. If damage occurs due to current distortion, except for high neutral
current, then one solution is to reduce the distortion. There are three methods for this.
First, a passive filter can be used to reduce the current from the one or two specific
harmonics.
In the second method, an active filter reduces all the harmonic currents. It is
more costly and complex to use, but it works better than passive filters. The third
method involves the use of transformers. Delta-Star transformers reduce certain
harmonics, particularly what are called zero sequence harmonics. Zigzag transformers
can also be used to reduce zero sequence harmonics, but without changing the system
type between delta and star. In addition, they can help reduce high neutral currents.
There are two ways to reduce voltage distortion. Remember that internal voltage
distortion is the result of the business's non-linear loads interacting with the wiring. The
first way to reduce the distortion is to reduce the harmonic current. The second way is
to reduce the impedance of the wiring. This is done by increasing the size of the
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conductors. Where the total voltage distortion is the sum of internal and external
distortion, these techniques reduce the internal contribution.
While motor drives and commercial power supplies are most often blamed for
harmonics, the most likely culprits in the typical commercial power system is
"switched-mode-power-supplies [33]" such as those seen in personal computers and
other electronically driven devices. The typical office can have as much as 50% of its
load being determined by devices of this type. There are several methods to indicate of
the quantity of harmonics contents. The most widely used measure in North America is
the total harmonics distortion (THD) which is defined in terms of the amplitudes of the
harmonics, at frequency n , where is frequency of the fundamental component
whose amplitude of H1 and n is integer. The THD is mathematically given by
significant distortion in the electrical current and voltage wave shape harmonic
distortion, measured as Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The distortion travels back
into the power source and can affect other equipment connected to the same source.
Most power systems can accommodate a certain level of harmonic currents but will
experience problems when harmonics become a significant component of the overall
load. As these higher frequency harmonic currents flow through the power system, they
can cause communication errors, overheating and hardware damage, such as:
Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples of
the fundamental power frequency. If the fundamental power frequency is 60 Hz, then
the 2nd harmonic is 120 Hz, the 3rd is 180 Hz, etc. When harmonic frequencies are
prevalent, electrical power panels and transformers become mechanically resonant to
the magnetic fields generated by higher frequency harmonics. When this happens, the
power panel or transformer vibrates and emits a buzzing sound for the different
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harmonic frequencies. Harmonic frequencies from the 3rd to the 25th are the most
common range of frequencies measured in electrical distribution systems.
All periodic waves can be generated with sine waves of various frequencies. The
Fourier theorem breaks down a periodic wave into its component frequencies.
Sinusoidal pulse width modulation is one of the primitive techniques, which are
used to suppress harmonics presented in the quasi-square wave [41]. In the modulation
techniques, there are two important defined parameters:
The second term of the equation gives the amplitude of the component of the carrier
frequency and the harmonics of the carrier frequency [53]. The magnitude of this term
decreases with increased modulation depth. Because of the presence of sin (m /2),
even harmonics of the carrier are eliminated. Term3 gives the amplitude of the
harmonics in the sidebands around each multiple of the carrier frequency.
The presence of sin ((m + n) /2) indicated that, for odd harmonics of the carrier,
only even-order sidebands exist, and for even harmonics of the carrier only odd order
sidebands exist. In addition, increasing carrier or switching frequency does not
decrease the amplitude of the harmonics, but the high amplitude harmonic at the carrier
frequency is shifted to higher frequency. Consequently, requirements of the output
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filter can be improved. However, it is not possible to improve the total harmonic
distortion without using output filter circuits.
Considerable research over the past two decades focused on the design of
parallel machines and many valuable research contributions were made. The
mainstream computer market, however, was largely unaffected by this research. Most
computers today are Uniprocessor and even large servers have only modest numbers (a
few 10s) of processors. In the first conferences, many of the hard problems of parallel
machine design have been solved. The design of fast and efficient networks to connect
arrays of the processors together and mechanisms those allow processors to quickly
communicate.
1) A grid is an intersection of a horizontal and vertical wire [71]. Hence the number of
grids on a chip is the square of the number of wiring tracks that fit along one edge of a
chip. As VLSI chips are limited by wiring, not devices, the number of grids is a better
measure of complexity than the number of transistors.
2) The key here is to match the design of the network to the properties of the
implementation technology rather than to optimize abstract mathematical properties of
the network. Odds of programming parallel machines have been demonstrated.
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While successful at the high end, parallel VLSI architectures have had little impact on
the main stream computer industry. Most desktop machines are Uniprocessor and even
departmental servers contain at most a few 10s of processors. Todays mainstream
microprocessor chips are dense enough to hold 1000 of the 8086s or 68000s of 1979,
yet all of this area is used to implement a single processor. By many objective measures
this would clearly be a more efficient architecture.
combination logical functions. The output of the LUT can be registered to realize
sequential functions [22].
In modern FPGAs are also CLBs with more than 4 inputs integrated.
Multiplexors in CLB can be also used for realization of logic function with more than 4
inputs, they allows combine outputs of LUTs CLBs are used for realization of main
logic in FPGA. It typically consists of 4-input Lookup Tables (LUT), multiplexers and
flip-flops.
DSP processor can be program in assembler or C language. On the other hand the
computation performance is still limited by the architecture of DSP processor and
program realization.
Any technique can prove its success if and only if it is been implemented in real-time.
In order to have a successful hardware implementation, the various constrains viz.
availability of equipment, durability for completion and viability of commercial
transactions should be overcome. Field programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) are found
to be the most cost-effective and least time consuming with simple solutions for
designers to implement their findings in real-time environment. FPGAs are future-
oriented building blocks, which allow perfect customization of the hardware at an
attractive price even in low quantities.
FPGA components available today have usable sizes at an acceptable price. This makes
them effective factors for cost savings and time-to-market when making individual
configurations of standard products.
The remarkable advantage of FPGAs and their nearly unlimited availability lies in the
fact that, even if the device migrates to the next generation, the code remains
unchanged. This is in accordance with norms like the (European standards) EN 50155
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which prescribes that customized parts like FPGAs must be documented to allow
reproduction and that the documentation and the source code must be handed out to the
customer. In order to have a customized function, normally a device is programmed
and is connected to the logic blocks through the transistors as interconnectors. The
major benefit of using FPGA has two fold, one is flexibility in design and the other one
is fast time in completion of the task.
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Chapter 1: Provides information about the inverters, multilevel inverters (MLI) and
Total Harmonic Distortion. It deals with cascade multi level inverters and real time
application of multilevel inverters, features and challenges in VLSI and advantage of
FPGA.
Chapter 2: Deals with review of literature survey about the generation of PWM, hence
it is applied in power inverters. It gives detailed studies of work before done and it
reviews the PWM and SPWM to be applied in various multilevel inverters.
Chapter 3: Provides information about generation of N-bit counter based PWM using
FPGA and it is applied as triggering pulse for multilevel inverters. A comparison of
Multi Level inverter is performed and analysis the THD values of seven and nine level
inverters using induction motor.
Chapter 4: Design and Analysis of Various PWM Techniques for Symmetric and
asymmetric multilevel inverters using FPGA. PWM pulses are given as triggering input
for multilevel inverters and also provide analyzed results.
Chapter 6: It deals with the results and discussions of all the methods. Provides
information about application of Twenty Seven Level Asymmetric Inverter.
Chapter 7: Concludes the overall work, which has been done. It provides highlights on
thesis work and suggestions for future work.