Implementation of DC-DC converter

with maximum power point tracking

control
for thermoelectric generator applications

DAVID JAHANBAKHSH

Degree project in
Electrical Engineering
Master of Science
Stockholm, Sweden 2012

XR-EE-E2C 2012:015
Implementation of DC-DC converter with
maximum power point tracking control for
thermoelectric generator applications

DAVID JAHANBAKHSH

Supervisor

Jan Dellrud, Scania CV AB

Examiner

Prof. Hans-Peter Nee, E2C, KTH

Master Thesis
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)
School of Electrical Engineering
Electrical Energy Conversion

Stockholm 2012
XR-EE-E2C 2012:015
 Abstract

A heavy duty vehicle looses approximately 30-40 % of the energy in the fuel as waste
heat through the exhaust system. Recovering this waste heat would make the vehicle
meet the legislative and market demands of emissions and fuel consumption easier.
This recovery is possible by transforming the waste heat to electric power using a thermo-
electric generator. However, the thermoelectric generator electric characteristics makes
direct usage of it unprofitable, thus an electric power conditioner is necessary.

First a study of different DC-DC converters is presented, based on that the most suit-
able converter for thermoelectric application is determined. In order to maximize the
harvested power, maximum power point tracking algorithms have been studied and an-
alyzed.
After the investigation, the single ended primary inductor converter was simulated and
implemented with a perturb and observe algorithm, and the incremental conductance al-
gorithm. The converter was tested with a 20 W thermoelectric generator, and evaluated.
The results show that the incremental conductance is more robust and stable compared
to the perturb and observe algorithm. Further on, the incremental conductance also has
a higher average efficiency during real implementation.

Keywords: Thermoelectric generator, Waste heat recovery, DC-DC converter, single

ended primary inductor converter, Maximum power point tracking, Perturb and observe,
Incremental conductance.

ii
 Sammanfattning

En lastbil forlorar ungefar 30-40 % av energin fran branslet i form av spillvarme i avgas-
systemet. Att kunna atervinna denna spillvarme skulle fa fordonet att lattare uppfylla
framtida rattsliga och marknadskrav pa utslapp och bransleforbrukning.
Med en termoelektrisk generator ar denna atervinning mojlig, genom att omvandla
spillvarme till elektrisk effekt. Dock har termoelektriska generatorn dalig elektrisk ka-
rakteristik, vilket medfor att direkt inkoppling ar olonsamt. Darfor kravs en elektrisk
omvandlare for att pa ett effektivt satt atervinna energin.

Denna rapport presenterar forst en studie av olika DC-DC-omvandlare, baserat pa denna

studie bestams den mest lampliga omvandlare for termoelektriska generatorn.
For att maximera den atervunna effekten har tva maximala effekt punkt algoritmer stu-
derats och analyserats.
Efter undersokningen utfordes simulering och implementering av single ended prima-
ry inductor omvandlaren, med perturbe and observe algoritmen samt incremental con-
ductance algoritmen. Omvandlaren testades med en 20 W termoelektrisk generator, och
utvarderades. Resultaten visar att incremental conductance algoritmen ar mer robust
och stabil jamfort med perturbe and observe algoritmen. Dessutom har incremental con-
ductance algoritmen ocksa en hogre genomsnittlig verkningsgrad under implementering.

iii
 Acknowledgements

This thesis finalizes my Master of Science degree in Electrical Engineering at

the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden.
This work has been conducted between April 2012 and September 2012 at the
Pre-development department (REP) at Scania CV AB in Sodertalje, Sweden and was
supervised at the Electrical Engineering Department at KTH.

First, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor at Scania, Jan Dellrud, for
his valuable time, support and guidance he has given me throughout the whole project.
I also want to thank Jan Hellgren at Scania, for his help, support and vast knowledge.
I also want to express my gratitude to my supervisor at KTH, Hans-Peter Nee, for his
wise inputs and feedback.
Many thanks go to everyone at REP, at Scania for the great atmosphere and the warm
welcoming.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, in particular my parents. Without their support
I would not have been able to accomplish anything.

v
Contents

Abstract ii

Abstract iii

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xi

Nomenclature xii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Thesis objective and delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Thesis outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 The thermoelectric generator 3

2.1 The thermoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Figure of merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Equivalent circuit of TEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 System overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 TEG in vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 DC-DC Converters 11
3.1 DC-DC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Control of DC-DC converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 The Buck-Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 Cuk Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 SEPIC converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 Full bridge converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.7 Continuos and Discontinuos conduction mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.8 Design of converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.1 Buck-Boost converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.2 Cuk converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

vii
 3.8.3 SEPIC converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8.4 Fullbridge converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.9 Dimensioning of TEG module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Maximum power point control 27

4.1 MPPT control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1.1 Perturb and observe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1.2 Incremental conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 Simulation 31
5.1 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Modelling of the TEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4 Model limitations and simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5 Driving cycle simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6 Simulation settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7 MPPT algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8 Efficiency mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6 Implementation 43
6.1 Current sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Voltage sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3 MOSFET-switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.4 Complete converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.5 Converter control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7 Results 49
7.1 Simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.2 Implementation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8 Conclusion 53

9 Discussion 55

Bibliography 57

Appendices 59

viii
List of Figures

2.1 Two dissimilar materials joint at different temperatures, forming a circuit. 3

2.2 A p- and n-doped material connected electrically in series and thermally
in parallel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Several thermocouples connected in series, yielding a larger net voltage. . 4
2.4 Equivalent circuit of a TEG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 TEG connected to a variable load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.6 Pl and Pint plotted as a function of load resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.7 Pl and Pint plotted as a function of Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.8 I-U characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.9 TEG unit connected to a converter and load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.10 Typical energy path for a combustion engine[2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.11 Basic model of a TEG module implemented in a HDV electrical system. . 9

3.1 Ideal switching DC converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.2 Comparator generating PWM signal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Generation of the PWM signal for the transistor switch. . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 Buck-Boost converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5 Equivalent circuit of the Buck-Boost converter during on- and off-state of
switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6 Cuk converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.7 Equivalent circuit of the Cuk converter during on- and off-state of switch. 15
3.8 SEPIC converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.9 Equivalent circuit of the SEPIC converter during on- and off-state of switch. 17
3.10 example caption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.11 Waveforms for continuos- and discontinous-conduction mode. . . . . . . . 19
3.12 Buck-Boost converter connected to TEG and battery. . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.13 Cukconverter connected to TEG and battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.14 SEPIC converter connected to TEG and battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.15 Fullbridge converter connected to TEG and battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.16 TEG module represented as a matrix and equivalent circuit. . . . . . . . . 24
3.17 The power dissipated in the load as a function of load resistance, for
different TEG unit setups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.18 Power dissipated in the load, as a function of current. . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ix
4.1 Operation of perturb and observe control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Perturbe and observe algorithm flowchart, where k is the sample. . . . . . 29
4.3 Incremental conductance algorithm flowchart, where k is the sample. . . . 30
4.4 Operation of incremental conductance control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5.1 The test circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.2 P-I curve plotted for different T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 U-I curve plotted for different T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Voltage plotted as a function of Th and T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5 Internal resistance as a function of T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.6 Internal resistance as a function of T = Th +T c
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.7 Simulink model of openload voltage and internal resistance. . . . . . . . . 37
5.8 Simulink model of TEG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.9 Comparison of model generated Uol and Rint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.10 Output power for P&O and INC with different update rate and D for
the SEPIC converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.11 Efficiency mapping for P&O and INC algorithm for the SEPIC converter. 41

6.1 Current sensing circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

6.2 Voltage divider used for voltage measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3 Driver circuit for the MOSFET transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.4 Implemented SEPIC converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.1 Segment of the output power of the SEPIC converter for the Spain drive
cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.2 Segment of the output power of the SEPIC converter for the Brussels
drive cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

1 The thermoelectric generator used in the project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2 The model generating the hot side temperature from driving cycle data [1]. 61
3 A section of the torque plot from the Brussels driving cycle. . . . . . . . . 62
4 A section of the temperature plot from the Brussels driving cycle. . . . . . 62
5 The recovered energy in kWh, from the Brussels driving cycle. . . . . . . 63
6 A section of the torque plot from the Spain driving cycle. . . . . . . . . . 63
7 A section of the temperature plot from the Spain driving cycle. . . . . . . 64
8 The recovered energy in kWh, from the Spain driving cycle. . . . . . . . . 64
9 The complete model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10 The SEPIC-converter model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11 The perturb and observe algorithm model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12 The incremental conductance algorithm model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
13 The mapping model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
14 The SEPIC-converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
15 The Arduino UNO micro controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

x
List of Tables

6.1 Outputs and inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

6.2 Component values and ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.1 Simulated efficiencies of the two algorithms during the two driving cycles. 50
7.2 Simulated and measured average efficiencies of the converter for the two
different algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

1 Components used in the converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

xi
Nomenclature

D Duty ratio [-]

D Duty ratio step [-]
fs Switching frequency [Hz]
Is Source current [A]
K Kelvin [K]
P Power [W]
R Resistance []
Rint Internal resistance []
Rl Load resistance []
T Temperature [o C]
Tc Cold side temperature [o C]
Th Hot side temperature [o C]
Ts Switch period [s]
tof f Off time of switch [s]
ton On time of switch [s]
ts Algorithm update period [s]
T Temperature difference [o C]
U Voltage [V ]
Ubat Battery voltage [V ]
Uin Input voltage [V ]
Uo Output voltage [V ]
Uol Openload voltage [V ]
Upwm Pulse width voltage [V ]
Uref Reference voltage [V ]
Utri Triangle voltage [V ]
V
Seebeck coefficient [K ]
ZT Figure of merit [-]

xii
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background
Fossil fuel engines are the main source of energy for vehicles today. However, approx-
imately 40 % of the energy in the fuel is lost through the exhaust system as waste
heat[2]. For commercial vehicles, in this case heavy duty vehicles (HDV), the legislative
and market of emissions and fuel consumption are becoming harder to meet. Hence, the
possibility to recover this heat is of high interest.

For waste heat recovery, based on the Seebeck effect[3], the thermoelectric generator
(TEG) is a great candidate. Mainly because it has no moving parts and does not require
complex machinery to convert the heat energy to electrical energy.
Today the technique is still premature and efficiency has not yet reached a level that
makes the technology profitable.
However new materials are being developed that increase efficiency and are more envi-
ronmental friendly. This allows TEG technology to be a great candidate for waste heat
recovery, compared to other technologies.

1.2 Related work

In the recent years the TEG technology for different applications has been in the spot-
light. When it comes to the vehicle industry, major car companies are researching in the
area. However, in the area of HDV the technology has not been focused on. Although,
some publications have been published, where companies have implemented TEG units
in a HDV engine. However, the actual implementation during driving cycles has not
been investigated and published. Previous experiments and studies show that this tech-
nology have great potential to harvest electrical energy from the waste heat of engines,
for instance, Hi-Z Technology Inc. developed a TEG for diesel engines, that was able to
deliver 1 kW of power [4]. Todays TEGs have an efficiency on the order of 5 % [3], in
order to be able to use TEGs profitably, some kind of electrical conditioner is necessary.
Furthermore, TEGs have been able to reduce fuel consumtion with 10 %, by replacing a

1
significant portion of the electric power produced by the alternator[5]. This shows that
the usage of a TEG in a vehicle is very interesting.
Previously in a thesis work a DC-DC converter with constant output voltage has been
implemented and evaluated [6], however no MPPT controlled converter has yet been
investigated at Scania CV.

1.3 Thesis objective and delimitations

There has been sufficient research in TEG technology in vehicle applications, however
not very much regarding HDV. The research is mainly focused on harvesting energy
rather than conditioning it after the harvesting.
The idea of maximizing the harvested power and effectively using it, has been well in-
vestigated in the photovoltaic area[7]. Nevertheless, when it comes to TEGs, further
research and analyze is required.
The objectives of this master thesis has been to design, implement and present a power
conditioner to extract maximum electrical power from a TEG unit that previously has
been developed at Scania.
The power conditioner is a DC-DC converter that is controlled with a maximum power
point tracking algorithm (MPPT). Furthermore, the focus in this thesis has been on the
MPPT algorithms.
The efficiency and cost of the implemented converter has also been investigated. Fi-
nally the work has been concluded with suggestions of further investigation and future
possibilities.

1.4 Thesis outline

The thesis is structured as followed: chapters 2 and 3 describe the TEG and DC-DC
converters. Furthermore, chapter 4 gives an overview over MPPT algorithms, mainly
the perturb and observe algorithm and the incremental conductance algorithm.
Chapter 5 describes the modelling of the TEG that was used, and the simulated results.
In chapter 6, the implemented SEPIC converter is presented and in chapter 7 the re-
sults are described. Finally, chapter 8 and 9 summarises the project along with some
suggestions to future work.

2
Chapter 2

The thermoelectric generator

2.1 The thermoelectric effect

In the year 1821, the physicist Johann Seebeck discovered that when two dissimilar
metals with junctions at different temperatures was formed, an electric current was
produced [8]. This phenomenon, named after its discoverer, is today known as the
Seebeck effect.
In order to describe the Seebeck effect, consider the circuit shown in figure 2.1.The
circuit consists of two dissimilar materials connected in series, and the junctions are at
two different temperatures, which results in a temperature difference T . The temper-
ature difference at the junctions will give rise to an open load voltage U .

Material A

T T + T
Material B Material B
U

Figure 2.1: Two dissimilar materials joint at different temperatures, forming a circuit.

Hence, this phenomenon is described by the Seebeck coefficient, and is given by:
U
= [V /K] (2.1)
T
The Seebeck coefficient describes how many volts every Kelvin of temperature differ-
ence can generate when the junctions of two dissimilar materials are held at different
temperatures. Different materials have different and the higher , the more voltage is
generated at a certain T .
As in any electronic semiconductor technology, it is known that positive- and negative-
doped materials, have better electric conductivity. Hence, this has been used to create
thermoelectric couples in order to generate a higher voltage. The materials are electri-
cally connected in series and thermally in parallel. As seen in figure 2.2, in the N-doped

3
material the electrons will flow to the hot side, and in the P-doped material the holes
will flow to the cold side. This will result in a net current.

Th

Heat flow
electrons holes

N P

Tc Tc

Figure 2.2: A p- and n-doped material connected electrically in series and thermally in
parallel.

Furthermore, several thermocouples are connected in series forming a TEG as seen in

figure 2.3. Thus, the thermoelectric modules (TEM) consist of several of these ther-
mocouples. Modern thermoelectric modules have this configuration, however this con-
nection is not so reliable, since if one junction brakes the whole TEM will not work.

Th

P N P N

electron flow
Tc

Figure 2.3: Several thermocouples connected in series, yielding a larger net voltage.

2.2 Figure of merit

In order to evaluate a TEG unit in terms performance a figure of merit, ZT is derived.
This figure of merit is given by:
2 T
ZT = (2.2)

Where is the resistivity of the material, the heat conductivity, T the absolute tem-
perature at which the TEG unit operates and the Seebeck coefficient. Materials with
a ZT higher than 0.5, are considered as thermoelectric materials [3].
With a higher ZT the efficiency rises, at the same time the cost increases as well.

4
This makes TEG less common in applications due to its manufacturing cost and the
overall profitability in terms of harvested energy.

2.3 Equivalent circuit of TEG

The circuit of TEG is described as a Thevenin equivalent circuit, consisting of a voltage
source and a resistance connected in series as seen in figure 2.4

Is
+

Rint

+
Uol
-

Figure 2.4: Equivalent circuit of a TEG.

The voltage source is dependent of the temperature difference of the hot and cold side as
described previously. At the same time the resistance is dependant of the temperature
difference as well as the temperature of the cold side, this will be shown further on.
This means that the internal resistance varies when the cold side temperature and T
varies. As seen in figure 2.5 the TEG is connected to a load. Since the aim is to harvest
as much power as possible from the TEG, the power delivered to the load is of interest.
This means that the power dissipated in the load needs to be maximized.

Is

+
Rint
Rl Ul
+
Uol

Figure 2.5: TEG connected to a variable load.

Applying Kircchoffs voltage law on the circuit shown in figure 2.5,the following is de-
rived:
Uol = Is Rint + Is Rl Uol = Is (Rint + Rl ) (2.3)
Hence the current Is flowing through the circuit is given by:
Uol
Is = (2.4)
Rint + Rl

5
Furthermore, using equation (2.4) the power dissipated in the load is given by:

Uol2
Pl = Ul Is = Rl Is2 = Rl (2.5)
(Rint + Rl )2

And the power dissipated in the internal resistance is given by:

Uol2
Pint = URint Is = Rint Is2 = Rint (2.6)
(Rint + Rl )2

As seen in figure 2.6, Pl and Pol are plotted as a function of Rl , when Rint = 5 and
Uol = 10V . As seen in the plot, the power dissipated in the load is maximized when the
load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the TEG module.

20
Pl
Pint
18

16

14

12
P/W

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Rl /

Figure 2.6: Pl and Pint plotted as a function of load resistance.

Furthermore, plotting Pl and Pol as a function of Is , with Rint = 5 and Uol = 10V , the
power dissipated in the load has a peak at a certain current, see figure ??. The point
where Pl has its maximum is referred to as the maximum power point (MPP).

6
 20
P
l
P
18 int

16

14

12
P/W

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
I/A

Figure 2.7: Pl and Pint plotted as a function of Is .

Furthermore,as seen in figure 2.8, when plotting Is as a function of Ul with Rint = 5,

Uol = 10V , the relationship is clearly linear. Hence it is shown that maximum power
is dissipated in the load when the operating point of the TEG is at the MPP. That
particular point corresponds to a certain voltage and current, which occurs when the
load resistance is equal to the internal resistance. Thus, by always keeping the operating
point of the TEG at the MPP, the power dissipated in the load will be maximized.
However when having a variable load and a varying T , the load resistance will vary
and not be equal to the internal resistance at all time, and hence maximum power is not
delivered to the load. In order to maintain the operating point of the TEG at the MPP,
a converter is necessary to be connected before the load, as seen in figure 2.9, in order
to keep the operating point of the TEG at the MPP at all time.
The converter controls the current and the voltage delivered to the load and hence
regulates the operating point of the TEG to be at the maximum power point. This is the
main purpose of the MPP control that is used for control of the converter. Furthermore,
knowing the characteristics of U and I, algorithms can be derived to control the converter
to keep the TEG operating point at its maximum at all time.

7
 2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
I/A

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
U/V

Figure 2.8: I-U characteristics.

2.4 System overview

The setup of the TEG with the converter and load will be as shown in figure 2.9.

TEG DC-DC LOAD

Figure 2.9: TEG unit connected to a converter and load.

2.5 TEG in vehicles

Since vehicle manufacturers strive to reduce fuel consumption and emissions, the use of
TEGs is highly interesting in vehicles. Furthermore, as seen in figure 2.10 approximately
40% of the energy from the fuel is waste heat in the exhaust gas, and is not used. Thus,
using the waste heat caused by the exhaust gases to heat the hot side of a TEG and at
the same time cool the other side would yield a great amount of power.

TEG implemented in HDV

Since the driving mode always varies, e.g. having a high or a low rpm, the temperature of
the exhaust gases will vary aswell. Thus the heat exchanger of the TEG is dependant of

8
 Automotive Applications of Thermoelectric Materials 25-5

Vehicle operation
30%
Engine

Combustion
100%
Gasoline
25%
Mobility and
accessories
5%
Friction and
parasitic losses
30%
40% Coolant
Exhaust
gas

FIGURE 25.1 Typical energy path for vehicles with gasoline fueled internal combustion engines.
Figure 2.10: Typical energy path for a combustion engine[2].
There is an economic component to improving fuel efficiency that has to be considered in thermoelec-
tric generator (TEG) design. There are competing technologies to use waste heat for electric or mechani-
the temperature of the exhaust
cal power production. gases would
Some examples and hence the or
be Rankin temperature
Sterling cycle will vary.
engines, The
steam variation
engines,
of temperature will give different T and thus different open load voltages.
thermo-acoustic systems, and so on. Thermoelectric devices seem to have an edge because of their abil-This means
ity to do direct heat-to-electric power conversion. It must also be considered
that the operating point of the TEG will change with the temperature. Thus again the that for automotive manu-
use offacturers (and usually
a converter for customers),
connected the lowest
in between thecost method
load for improving fuel economy is the best.
is necessary.
That means that the real competitor for TEG systems will continue to be all of the conventional improve-
As seen in figure 2.11 the electrical system of a Scania HDV is shown. The loads are high
ments to engines, transmissions, and vehicles that improve their fuel economy. Fuel economy can be
consuming
improved with low methods,
by many resistance.
such asFurthermore, the charging
enhanced fuel delivery systems, lowerof friction
the battery
engines, is regulated
improved
by thetransmissions
alternatorwith which is driven
more speeds, betterby the aerodynamics,
vehicle motor drive shaft.
hybrid This systems,
propulsion meansand thatmanyif the
other vehicle
alternator engineering improvements.
was substituted with a TEG If these methods
module, of fuel
that efficiency
could improvement
match the power cost generation,
less than
TEG systems,
the alternator then the
would notTEG
be systems
needed. willHence
not be selected for automotive
the torque neededapplications.
for the alternator would not
There are many reasons to incorporate TEGs in automotive systems. Some of those are as follows:
be used, and thus less load on the drive shaft will cause reduction of the fuel consumption.
However, in
Improve
this fuel efficiency
project the alternator has not been taken into account, hence the
Lower greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide) emissions
converter will be assumed connected to a battery and a load.
Support increased vehicle electrification
Simpler to implement than alternative waste heat recovery systems
Provide a green image for the vehicles
While all of these are good reasons to study TEGs, only improved fuel efficiency is important enough
to justify the cost of adding TEGs to cars and trucks. Typical Load
An automotive TEG is a complete system integrated into a vehicle that uses vehicle waste heat energy
and a cooling system to produce electricity for use on the vehicle. It should be noted that there is also the
potential to produce the heat by burning fuel for the energy source in certain applications
+ or some oper-
ating conditions. This integrated TEG system consists of several general components (see Figure 25.2):
TEG DC-DC LOAD Ubat ALTERNATOR
1. A heat exchanger to take heat from the exhaust gases or engine coolant and deliver it to the hot

side of the thermoelectric modules.
2. Thermoelectric modules with good conversion efficiency (heat to electricity) in the available tem-
perature range.
3. A heat exchanger to maintain the cold side of the thermoelectric modules by taking heat from the
modules and radiating it to liquid coolant or to the air.
4. A housing to package the above components and to interface with the vehicle: mounting, exhaust
connections, coolant connections, wiring, and so on.
5. An electrical power conditioning and interface unit to match the power output of the thermo-
electric modules to the vehicle electrical system.

Figure 2.11: Basic model of a TEG module implemented in a HDV electrical system.

9
TEG implemented in Hybrid HDV
A HDV driving style is often long haulage, which means that break regeneration will
rarely occur. This means that the use of a TEG in a hybrid HDV could be beneficial
since extra electric power is generated from the waste heat recovery system.

The implementation of a TEG in a HDV could be done in two ways:

Using one TEM for each cell in the hybrid battery, for charging.

Using a TEG to charge the 24 V battery.

Both implementation techniques are possible, however further investigation is needed to

determine which one is the most beneficial.

10
Chapter 3

DC-DC Converters

3.1 DC-DC Converters

Several converter topologies can be used for maximum power harvesting from a TEG. In
this project four converter topologies has been studied, the Buck-Boost, Cuk, SEPIC and
full bridge converter. However only the SEPIC converter was implemented. This was
due to its simplicity and suitability, which is described in this chapter. Furthermore, this
chapter describes the basic idea behind DC-DC converters and the different converters
that has been studied.

3.2 Control of DC-DC converters

In DC-DC converters one want to control the output voltage level, either to a higher or
a lower value. This is done by controlling a switch that will feed a load with a voltage
in pulses with different width, this control method is known as pulse width modulation
(PWM). PWM control is the most used control method for all applications and also in
this project this control method has been used.
In order to further explain the method, the circuit shown in figure 3.1 is studied, assuming
an ideal switch and load.

S U

+ Ud

+ Uo
Ud R Uo

t
ton tof f

Ts = ton + tof f

Figure 3.1: Ideal switching DC converter.

11
The switch is conducting during ton and not conducting during tof f , this is repeated
periodically. Thus the entire switching period is given by

Ts = ton + tof f (3.1)

And from figure 3.1 it is found that the duration that the switch is conducting is given
by
ton
D= (3.2)
ton + tof f
and is known as duty ratio (D).

As seen in figure 3.1, during ton the output voltage is equal to the input voltage and
during tof f the output voltage is zero since the switch does not conduct.
Furthermore, by controlling ton and tof f , the average output voltage Uo is controlled.
Thus, the average voltage Uo is dependent of the magnitude of Uin , ton and tof f .
This means that a higher ton gives a higher average output voltage, hence the average
voltage is given by:
Z ton
1 ton ton
Uo = Uin dt = Uin = Uin (3.3)
Ts 0 Ts ton + tof f
The value of D gives the duration that the switch is conducting during one period in
percent, and changing D changes the output voltage. A higher D results in a higher
output voltage, and lower D results in a lower voltage.
This yields a transfer function for the example circuit:

Uo = DUin (3.4)

When the converter is implemented the ideal switch that was used in the previous ex-
ample is usually a MOSFET-transistor [9], thus a PWM signal is necessary in order
to trigger the transistor switch to conduct or not. This PWM control voltage can be
generated using a comparator circuit as shown in figure 3.2 .
The comparator is fed with a reference voltage Uref and a triangle voltage Utri , gener-
ating a PWM signal. As seen in figure 3.3, the PWM signal is high when Uref > Utri ,
and low when Uref < Utri . Thus, the switch is conducting when Uref > Utri and not
conducting when Uref < Utri . This implies that by controlling Uref the conducting du-
ration can be controlled and hence the average output voltage Uo .

Utri
Upwm
Uref

Figure 3.2: Comparator generating PWM signal.

12
The frequency of the PWM signal is the same as the triangle voltage, hence by control-
ling the frequency of the triangle voltage the PWM frequency is controlled. The PWM
control method is the most common way of controlling a DC-DC converter.
However, it is necessary to mention that in modern power electronics the PWM control
voltage is usually generated by a microprocessor. And in the implementation part of
this thesis, a micro controller has been used to generate a PWM signal.

U
Utri

Uref

t
Upwm

On Off

t
ton toff

Ts = ton + toff

Figure 3.3: Generation of the PWM signal for the transistor switch.

3.3 The Buck-Boost Converter

The buck-boost converter shown in figure 3.4 is based on the buck and boost principle[9].
As the name implies, the average output voltage can be higher or lower than the input
voltage. The output average voltage and input voltage is given by:
Uo D
= (3.5)
Uin 1D
Since the buck-boost is an inverting converter the ratio of average output voltage and
input voltage has a negative sign.

S D

+
Uin L C Rl Uo

Figure 3.4: Buck-Boost converter.

13
 On-State Off-State

iL iL
+
Uin L C Rl Uo L C Rl Uo
iC + iC +

Figure 3.5: Equivalent circuit of the Buck-Boost converter during on- and off-state of
switch.

The equivalent circuits of the converter during the on- and off-state of the switch is
shown in figure ??. During the on-state, the inductor current increases and the output
voltage is supplied by the capacitor, e.g. the capacitor is discharged. When the circuit
is in the off-state, the inductor current decreases and the capacitor is charged. However,
when implemented, it takes some time to reach steady-state, since both the inductor
and capacitor are discharged from start.
Applying Kirchoffs laws on the circuits in figure 3.4 the following equations are derived,
during the on-state:
diL
Uin = L (3.6)
dt
dUo
iC = C (3.7)
dt
and during the off-state:
diL
Uo = (3.8)
dt
dUo Uo
0 = iL + C + (3.9)
dt Rl

3.4 Cuk Converter

Named after its inventor, the Cuk converter shown in figure 3.6, is similar to the Buck-
Boost converter described in the previous section[9]. It gives an inverted output voltage
and the voltage can either be higher or lower than the input voltage. The output average
voltage and input voltage ratio is given by:
Uo D
= (3.10)
Uin 1D

Comparing the expression of the transfer functions of the Buck-Boost and the Cuk
converter, it is noticed that they are the same. However, the Cuk converter has twice as
much passive components as the Buck-Boost converter. Furthermore, the switch does
not disconnect the input which is beneficial in terms of TEG applications.

14
 L1 C1 L2

+
Uin S D C2 Rl Uo

Figure 3.6: Cuk converter.

In this topology, the capacitor C1 is the main component that stores energy and
transfers it from the input to the output.

On-State
L1 C1 L2
+
iL1 iL2
+
Uin C2 Rl Uo
+

Off-State
L1 C1 L2
+
iL1 iL2
+
Uin C2 Rl Uo
+

Figure 3.7: Equivalent circuit of the Cuk converter during on- and off-state of switch.

As seen in figure 3.7, during the on time of the switch, the currents through L1 and L2
flow through the switch and C1 is discharged, transferring energy to L2 . Furthermore,
the input charges L1 .

15
 Hence, using Kirchoffs voltage law the following equations are derived during the
on-state:
diL1
Uin = L1 (3.11)
dt
diL2
(Uin + Uo ) Uo = L2 (3.12)
dt
During the off time of the switch, the currents through inductor L1 and L2 flows through
the diode. Furthermore, the capacitor C1 is charged with energy from the input and the
current stored in L1 and the inductor L2 feeds the output with its stored energy.
Hence, using Kirchoffs voltage law the following equations are derived during the off-
state:
diL1
(Uin + Uo ) Uin = L1 (3.13)
dt
diL2
Uo = L2 (3.14)
dt

3.5 SEPIC converter

The single ended primary inductance (SEPIC) converter, shown in figure 3.8, is a non-
inverting converter derived from the boost converter [10], and can give a higher or a
lower output voltage compared to the input voltage.

L1 C1

D +
+
Uin S L2 C2 Rl Uo

Figure 3.8: SEPIC converter.

It has the same components as the Cuk converter, however the diode and the second
inductor are swapped, resulting in a non inverted output voltage. As seen in figure 3.9
during the on-state the following equations are derived, using Kirchoffs voltage law and
assuming that the voltage over C1 is the same as Uin [11]:

diL1
Uin = L1 (3.15)
dt
diL2
UC1 = L2 (3.16)
dt

16
 On-State
L1 C1
+
iL1 +
+
Uin L2 C2 Rl Uo
iL2

Off-State
L1 C1
+
iL1 +
+
Uin L2 C2 Rl Uo
iL2

Figure 3.9: Equivalent circuit of the SEPIC converter during on- and off-state of switch.

and during the off-state:

diL1
Uin UC1 Uo = L1 (3.17)
dt
diL2
Uo = L2 (3.18)
dt

17
3.6 Full bridge converter
The full bridge converter shown in figure 3.10, is usually used to invert DC voltages,
however with unipolar switching the converter can be used as a DC-DC converter. Fur-
thermore the fullbridge converter is a bidirectional converter, meaning that it can transfer
energy in both directions. This could be useful for future applications like heating the
TE modules.
This converter type might be a better choice for usage with high power generation,
due to it having no passive components. However, this type of converter might need a
filter on its output if the voltage and current ripple needs to be in a certain range.

S S

+
Uin Rl

S S

Figure 3.10: example caption

18
3.7 Continuos and Discontinuos conduction mode
Depending on the size of the inductor, the conduction of the inductor current is continuos
or discountinuos. When the converter is operating in continuos conduction mode, the
inductor current will never be zero. However during discontinous conduction mode, the
inductor current will fall to zero before the next period. This is avoided by picking a
relatively large inductor, so the discharging of it takes more time. Nevertheless, the time
of charging of the inductor will increase along with the inductor size. In this thesis, the
converter is dimensioned so it always runs in CCM, this is due to the fact that we do
not want an output power ripple that goes to zero since the aim is to harvest maximum
available power.

Continous conduction mode

U
Switch voltage

On Off

t
iL

t
ton toff

Ts = ton + toff

Discontionus conduction mode

U
Switch voltage

On Off

t
iL

t
ton toff

Ts = ton + toff

Figure 3.11: Waveforms for continuos- and discontinous-conduction mode.

19
3.8 Design of converters
The input of the converter will be connected to a TEG unit with three TEGs, and the
output will be connected to a 12 V lead-acid battery and a resistive load.
Furthermore, since the converters will be controlled with a MPP algorithm, the operating
point of the TEG is assumed to be at the maximum point at all time. Hence, as shown
in chapter 1, the input voltage of the converter will be half of the open load voltage at
the MPP.
The converters will be designed with respect to the following parameters:
Uol 20
Input voltage = = 10 V.
2 2
Output battery voltage Ubat = 12 V.

Input power Pin = 20 W.

Pin = Pout

Switching frequency fs = 62.5 kHz

Current ripple ir = 0.5 A

Voltage ripple ur = 0.5 V

3.8.1 Buck-Boost converter

Using the previously derived transfer function:
Uo D Uo
= = Uo (1 D) = Uin D D = (3.19)
Uin 1D Uin + Uo
6
which yields in D = 11 . Furthermore, using:

diL ir Uin DTs

Uin = L =L L= (3.20)
dt DTs ir
diL ir Uo (1 D)Ts
Uo = L =L L= (3.21)
dt (1 D)Ts ir

and solving for L, yields in L 175H. The capacitor is chosen typically large, C =
2700F

20
 S D

Rint Rbat
L C Rl Uo
+ +
Uol Ubat
+

Figure 3.12: Buck-Boost converter connected to TEG and battery.

3.8.2 Cuk converter

6
Since the transfer function is the same as for the Buck-Boost converter, we have D = 11 .
Furthermore using:
diL1
Uin = L1 (3.22)
dt
diL1
Uo = L1 (3.23)
dt

diL2
Uin = L2 (3.24)
dt
diL2
Uo = L2 (3.25)
dt
and solving for L1 and L2 we obtain:
(
Uin DTs
L1 = ir
Uo (1D)Ts (3.26)
L1 = ir

and (
Uin DTs
L2 = ir
Uo (1D)Ts (3.27)
L2 = ir

Thus, after input, we obtain L1 175H and L2 175H. The capacitors are chosen
typically large as C1 = 1000F and C2 = 2700F.

21
 L1 C1 L2

Rint Rbat
S D C2 Rl Uo
+ +
Uol Ubat
+

Figure 3.13: Cukconverter connected to TEG and battery.

3.8.3 SEPIC converter

The component values of the SEPIC converter are the same as the Cuk converter, hence
they are chosen as, L1 175H, L2 175H, C1 = 1000F and C2 = 2700F.

L1 C1

D +
Rint Rbat
S L2 C2 R l Uo
+ +
Uol Ubat

Figure 3.14: SEPIC converter connected to TEG and battery.

22
3.8.4 Fullbridge converter
As seen in the figure below, a filter is added to the fullbridge converter to give desired
voltage and current ripple. However, since this converter has not been investigated the
component values has not been set.

S S
Rs Rbat

C Rl
+ +
Uin Ubat
S S

Figure 3.15: Fullbridge converter connected to TEG and battery.

23
3.9 Dimensioning of TEG module

As seen in figure 3.16, the entire TEG module could be described as a matrix. This
means that the columns m are the number of TEGs connected in series, and the rows n
are the number of branches, connected in parallel. For instance a 3x3 TEG system has
three TEGs in series and three branches in parallel.

n columns
Is
+
TEG TEG +

m
n Rint

m rows

+
m Uol

TEG TEG -
-

Figure 3.16: TEG module represented as a matrix and equivalent circuit.

Furthermore, when dimensioning a TEG module for connection to a MPPT controlled

DC-DC converter, the rows m should be chosen so that m Uol is twice as large as the
desired output voltage from the converter. This is due to the fact that the TEG with
the converter will operate at MPP, and that point corresponds to half of the open load
voltage. Furthermore in order to increase the robustness of the TEG, the amount of
parallel branches should be increased. This is to prevent failure if one of the TEG units
stops working. However, since P = RI 2 , the losses in the converter will increase with
an increasing number of parallel branches. Hence, the branches should be limited to as
few as possible.
As seen in figure 3.17 the MPP is moved closer to zero for a higher number of parallel
branches. This means that the MPP occurs at a lower Rl since the current will increase
with increasing parallel branches.
A seen in figure 3.18 the current is increased with an increasing number of parallel
branches. Which means that a higher current is required for MPP operation. When the
power dissipated in the load is plotted as a function of current as seen in figure 3.18, the
MPP is moved towards zero for a larger number of TEGs in series and vice versa for a
larger number of TEGs in parallel. Hence, a larger current can be generated when there
are more parallel branches. However, since P = RI 2 it is clear that with an increasing
current the losses in the converter will be higher. Thus it is better to keep the number
of the parallel branches somewhat low.

24
 20
1x1
2x1
18 1x2
3x1
1x3
16

14

12
Pl / W

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Rl /

Figure 3.17: The power dissipated in the load as a function of load resistance, for different
TEG unit setups.

3.10 Summary
After evaluating the converters, the SEPIC converter is determined to be most suitable
for implementation. This is due to the fact that it is non inverting and the TEG is
connected to the converter at all time, even when the switch is not conducting. This is
taken into account since the aim is to harvest maximum power.
Furthermore, due to the fact that the Buck-Boost converter will disconnect the TEG
from the converter when the switch is not conducting, the Buck-Boost converter is ex-
cluded from the simulations.
In future applications, if the need of energy transfer in two directions is needed the full-
bridge converter will be the best option. However, further investigation of the fullbridge
converter is necessary.

25
 1x1
16 2x1
1x2
3x1
14 1x3

12

10
Pl / W

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
I/A

Figure 3.18: Power dissipated in the load, as a function of current.

26
Chapter 4

Maximum power point control

4.1 MPPT control

In order to set the duty ratio (D) to a value that sets the operating point of the TEG
at the MPP, some feedback control is needed.
There are several MPPT control algorithms that can be used for the control of a DC-
DC converter. In this thesis the perturbe and observe (P&O) and the incremental
conductance (INC) algorithm have been investigated, since comparisons have shown
that these two have good dynamic responses [12], hence they are suitable for TEG
applications. Furthermore, [12] also shows an algorithm based on setting the operating
voltage at half of the open load voltage, since this requires that the TEG is disconnected
from the converter, this algorithm is to some extent determined as inefficient since it
disconnects the TEG from the converter. Thus, this algorithm has not investigated.

4.1.1 Perturb and observe

The perturb and observe (P&O) algorithm is a hill climbing algorithm, that observes
measured values and based on that takes action. While most P&O algorithms are based
on the voltage and power [12], the algorithm that was implemented in this project is
based on the power and duty ratio.
Figure 4.1 shows the profile of the P curve which has a maximum for a certain duty
ratio D. Hence, the algorithm moves up or down the power curve until maximum is
reached. However, since it is an iterative algorithm it will never reach the maximum,
it will oscillate near the maximum power but never reach it. As seen figure 4.2, the
algorithm flowchart measures the input voltage and the input current and decides if the
duty ratio should be incremented or decremented. The change in duty ratio will yield a
change in power, which yields in further iterations.

27
 P

Figure 4.1: Operation of perturb and observe control.

4.1.2 Incremental conductance

As seen in figure 4.4 the MPP corresponds to a certain operating voltage, hence depend-
ing on what that voltage is, the slope with respect to the MPP voltage will be negative,
positive or zero. From this relationship the following equations are derived:
dP
= 0 , U = Umpp (4.1)
dU
dP
> 0 , U < Umpp (4.2)
dU
dP
< 0 , U > Umpp (4.3)
dU
Furthermore,since P = U I we get:
dP dI I
=I +U I +U (4.4)
dU dU U
Thus, combining (4.7) and (4.4) yields:

I I
= , U = Umpp (4.5)
U U
I I
> , U < Umpp (4.6)
U U
I I
< , U > Umpp (4.7)
U U
The basic functioning of the algorithm is shown in figure 4.3. Based on the equations
above, an algorithm is derived, as seen in figure 4.4.

28
 Initial D = 50%

Uin (k), Is (k)

Pin (k) = Uin (k)Is (k)

Pin (k) > Pin (k 1)

Yes No

D(k) > D(k 1) D(k) < D(k 1)

No Yes
Yes No
D + D D D

Return

Figure 4.2: Perturbe and observe algorithm flowchart, where k is the sample.

29
 Initial D = 50%

Uin (k), Is (k)

Uin = Uin (k) Uin (k 1)

Is = Is (k) Is (k I)

I Is (k)
<
U Uin (k)
Yes No

D + D D D

Return

Figure 4.3: Incremental conductance algorithm flowchart, where k is the sample.

I-U

Figure 4.4: Operation of incremental conductance control.

30
Chapter 5

Simulation

5.1 Simulation

In order to analyse the TEG connected to a converter, simulation is necessary. However,

since no TEG model was available a simulation model of the TEG was derived from
a real TEG consisting of three TEMs connected i series. The same setup was later
used to test with the converter. All the simulations were done in Matlab and Simulinks
Simscape and Sim Powersystems, the results and comparisons of the simulations that
was made are presented in this chapter.

5.2 Modelling of the TEG

Previously no accurate model of the TEG was available for simulation, a model was
necessary to be derived. The model was created using measurements of a real TEG
that consisted of three TEMs. The TEMs were connected in series and connected to a
variable resistive load, as seen in figure 5.1, the actual test TEG is shown in Appendix
A.
Hence, using this circuit the characteristics of the TEMs could be analysed, which later
would be translated to a Simulink model in simulation environment.
The TEMs where sandwiched between two aluminium plates. Temperature sensors
where placed in the aluminium plates both on the heated side and on the heat sink
for temperature monitoring. The heat sink was cooled with water and the hot side
was heated with a hot plate. The temperature of the hot side was held constant by
manual adjustements of the hot plate, this was a simple but not an accurate method of
temperature regulation. The temperature of the heat sink was regulated by adjusting
the flow of water in the cooler, also this method was not accurate.

31
 TEG TEG TEG
Us1 Us2 Us3

+
Rs1 Rs2 Rs3

is
Rvariable

Figure 5.1: The test circuit.

5.3 Measurements
In order to analyse the relationship between the hot and cold side temperatures and the
internal resistance and the open load voltage, the following tests where performed.

Initially, the cold side temperature and the hot side temperature was set and held con-
stant, resulting in a constant T . Furthermore, the open load voltage for that T was
measured, and the voltage over the load was measured as the resistance of the variable
load was increased in steps. This resulted in different values of load voltages and load
currents. These measurements where repeated for different values of T by changing
the hot and cold side temperatures.
The P-I plot shown in figure 5.2, shows that the power has a peak value for a given load
current as previously shown.

32
 12
T = 26
T = 47
T = 63
T = 75
T = 92
10 T = 116
T = 145

8
P/W

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
I/A

Figure 5.2: P-I curve plotted for different T .

The U-I plot shown in figure 5.3, shows that the voltage decreases linearly with an in-
creasing current. Furthermore, it is noticed that the peak power is approximately at the
point where the load voltage is half of the open analyse load voltage.
In order to analyse the effect of the cold side temperature on the openload voltage and
internal resistance the following test was performed.

A cold side temperature was set and held constant and the hot side temperature was in-
creased in steps. The openload voltage was measured as well as the short circuit current.
This was repeated for three different cold side temperatures.

33
 20
T = 26
T = 47
18
T = 63
T = 75
16 T = 92
T = 116
T = 145
14

12
Uol / V

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Is / A

Figure 5.3: U-I curve plotted for different T .

When plotting the openload voltage as a function of T it is shown that the openload
voltage is proportional to T , as seen in figure 5.4.
Furthermore, when plotting the internal resistance for different cold side temperatures
as a function of T as seen in figure 5.5, it is clear that the internal resistance is de-
pendant of the cold side temperatures. This relationship would yield a complex model
in Simulink.
However, when the internal resistance is plotted as a function of the mid temperature
T = Th +T
2
c
as seen in figure 5.6, the internal resistances for different cold side tempera-
tures are proportional to T . Thus, this relationship was used to build the TEG model.

In order to describe the openload voltage and the internal resistance as a function of
the temperatures of the hot and cold sides, the measurements where fitted with a linear
curve.

34
 30
TC = 20
T = 40
C
T = 60
C
25
Fitted line

20
Open load voltage / V

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
T/C

Figure 5.4: Voltage plotted as a function of Th and T .

Thus, from the fitted curves the following expression for the openload voltage is derived:

Uol (T ) = (Th Tc ) 0.13289 = T 0.13289 (5.1)

and for the internal resistance:

 
Th + Tc
Rint (T ) = 0.032 + 6.7 = T 0.032 + 6.7 (5.2)
2

Hence using equations (5.1) and (5.2), the model shown in figure 5.7 was built.
The model gives an openload voltage and an internal resistance for given hot side and
cold side temperatures.

35
 10.5
TC = 20
TC = 40
TC = 60
10

9.5

Rint /
9

8.5

7.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
T/C

Figure 5.5: Internal resistance as a function of T .

11.5
TC = 20
TC = 40
11
TC = 60
Fitted line
10.5

10

9.5
Rint /

8.5

7.5

7
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
T/C

Th +Tc
Figure 5.6: Internal resistance as a function of T = 2 .

Furthermore, the model controls a variable voltage source and a variable resistance
that are connected in series to resemble the equivalent circuit of the TEG, as seen in
figure 5.8. The hot and cold side temperatures in the model can be constant or varying.
Furthermore, in figure 7.1 it is shown that the simulated values are very close to the
real values that was measured. Thus the model gives a very good representation of the
TEG.

36
 1 dT U 1
Th fcn Uol
Openload Voltage

1/2 T Rint 2
2
fcn Rint
Tc Gain
Internal Resistance

Figure 5.7: Simulink model of openload voltage and internal resistance.

Rinternal

PS
+
140 Th Uol S PS

Hottemp SimulinkPS
Converter2

20 Tc Rint S PS Uopenload

Coldtemp SimulinkPS

TEG Converter1

Electrical Reference

Figure 5.8: Simulink model of TEG.

20 20

18

16

14 15

12
Rint
Uol

10

8 10

Measured Uol Measured Rint

4
Simulated Uol Simulated Rint
2 5
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
T T

(a) Measured and model generated Uol . (b) Measured and model generated Rint .

Figure 5.9: Comparison of model generated Uol and Rint .

5.4 Model limitations and simplifications

The following simplifications has been taken into account when building the models and
during simulation:

37
 The TEG models voltage and resistance is assumed to be linear for any tempera-
ture. This means that very high temperatures result in very high power output,
where in reality the TEG may be over its maximum temperature and break down.

It is assumed that all TEGs have identical characteristics. However, in reality

small differences can be expected.

It is assumed that every TEG is exposed to exactly the same temperatures on the
hot and cold side.

The model does not consider that stealing energy from the gas, the hot side of the
TEG and any material in between, would lower the temperature on the hot side,
and increase the temperature on the cold side.

The efficiency maps doesnt consider any transient behaviour of the converters,
and the efficiency between the measured points is linearly interpolated.

The look-up table for EGR-gas temperature doesnt cover every case in the drive
cycles. Temperature data outside of the map is extrapolated.

5.5 Driving cycle simulation

In previous thesis work that investigated the TEG, a Simulink model that simulated
the EGR gas temperatures was derived ref. This model has been used to simulate
the hot side temperature of the TEG model that was derived, see Appendix A. The
hot temperatures was generated by using torque data and rpm data of an engine, see
appendix A. This made it possible to use real drive cycle data to simulate and evaluate
a TEG with converter in a HDV. Furthermore, the hot side temperature was filtered
through a low-pass filter, thus making the dips and peaks slower and closer to reality.

38
5.6 Simulation settings
The simulations where run in Simulink, Simscape and Sim Power Systems. Since Sim
Power Systems does not have a variable resistor, the model of the converters where built
in Simscape. However, the battery model from Sim Power systems was used in the
model, also this model was modified in order to be able to run with Simscape.

Furthermore, in order to generate an accurate PWM signal, the maximum step length
was set to 16 and the solver was set to ode23t.
This yielded an accurate PWM signal, however the simulations where run at a very
slow speed. Furthermore, since a 2.5 h driving cycle of a HDV was going to be used to
generate the temperature of the hot side of a TEG. An efficiency mapping was made to
make it possible to use the hot temperature generated in a real driving cycle to evaluate
the efficiency of the converter. See Appendix B for the complete simulation models.

39
5.7 MPPT algorithms
To evaluate the effect of the size of D and the updating rate of the algorithms, the
P&O and INC algorithm was simulated with different values of D and ts . A hot side
temperature was applied as a step which yielded a maximum power as a step, furthermore
the output power for the two algorithms was evaluated as a step response.
As seen in figure 5.10 the INC algorithm is less oscillating compared to P&O for all
values of D and ts . However, the ripple of the output power is the lowest when ts
is large and D is small, as seen in figure 5.10 (b). Furthermore, when D is large
the output power becomes unstable for the P&O algorithm and oscillating for the INC
algorithm.
D = 0.001 , TD = 0.001 D = 0.001 , TD = 0.01
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6
P/W

P/W
5 5

4 4

3 3

2 Pmax 2 Pmax
PP&O PP&O
1 1
PINC PINC
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
t/s t/s

(a) P with D = 0.001 and ts = 0.001s (b) P with D = 0.001 and ts = 0.01s

D = 0.01 , TD = 0.001
10

6
P/W

2 Pmax
PP&O
1
PINC
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
t/s

(c) P with D = 0.01 and ts = 0.001s

Figure 5.10: Output power for P&O and INC with different update rate and D for the
SEPIC converter.

Hence, from these plots the update rate ts of the algorithms should be chosen as large
and the duty ratio step as small. However, when the values of D and ts are the same,
the system is quite stable but small oscillation is present. See Appendix B for the models
of MPPT systems.

40
5.8 Efficiency mapping
Since the aim is to evaluate the converters with the specific MPPT algorithm based on
an actual driving cycle, it is necessary to simulate the converters with a driving cycle.
However, since the driving cycle is very long, the simulation of the converter would
take a very long time. In order to reduce the computational power of the simulation
and thus the time, efficiency mapping was done for the converters. This was done by
creating a surface that is a function of the cold side and the hot side temperatures.
The simulated driving cycle would yield an EGR exhaust gas temperature, and with the
efficiency mapping the temperatures could be used as an input to the TEG and converter
model. The four efficiency mappings are shown in figure 7.1. As shown previously, the
algorithms with a larger step in duty ratio are more oscillating. Furthermore, the INC
algorithm gives a smoother efficiency surface, making it more efficient.

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 80 0 80
70 70
600 60 600 60
500 50 500 50
400 40 400 40
300 30 300 30
200 20 200 20
100 10 100 10
Th Tc Th Tc

(a) P&O with D = 0.001 and ts = 0.01 (b) INC with D = 0.001 and ts = 0.01

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 80 0 80
70 70
600 60 600 60
500 50 500 50
400 40 400 40
300 30 300 30
200 20 200 20
100 10 100 10
Th Tc Th Tc

(c) P&O with D = 0.01 and ts = 0.01 (d) INC with D = 0.01 and ts = 0.01

Figure 5.11: Efficiency mapping for P&O and INC algorithm for the SEPIC converter.

41
42
Chapter 6

Implementation

In order to analyse the TEG with the SEPIC converter, a SEPIC converter with MPPT
control was constructed. The aim was only to study the operation, thus it was not
optimised in terms of components and control.
For the control of the converter an Arduino UNO micro controller was used, mainly for
its easy implementation and usage.

6.1 Current sensor

Since the MPPT algorithms need real time measurements of the current and voltage, a
current sensor was used. The current sensor consisted of a shunt resistor that had a very
low resistance so it would affect the actual current as little as possible. Furthermore, the
voltage drop over the shunt resistor would be measured and by ohms law the current
would be obtained. However, because of the small resistance the voltage drop would be
very low. The Arduino controller could not detect such low values, thus a sensing circuit
was used. As seen in figure 6.1, the current sensing circuit amplifies the voltage drop
which the Arduino will read.
The equations for this circuit are:

Rout
Vout = Iin Rshunt (6.1)
Rin

where Rshunt = 0.008. Since the Arduino analog read input only can have a maximum
5 V input, the equation becomes:

Rout
5 V = Iin 0.008 (6.2)
Rin

Furthermore, Rin and Rout was chosen as 800 and 250k respectively. This makes a
5 V input voltage to the Arduino correspond to 2.5 A and 0.05 V corresponds to 0.025
A, which suits our TEG both in terms of maximum current and resolution.

43
 UDD = 5V Uout

Rout

Rin

iin Rshunt

Figure 6.1: Current sensing circuit.

6.2 Voltage sensor

In order to measure the input voltage a simple voltage divider was constructed, as seen
in figure 6.2. This was done to scale down the voltage by a factor of four, since the
Arduino UNO only can measure a maximum of 5 V. From Ohms law the expression for

Uin

R1

Uout

R2

Figure 6.2: Voltage divider used for voltage measurements.

the output voltage to the Arduino UNO will be:

R2
Uout = Uin (6.3)
R1 + R2
The values of R1 and R2 was chosen large and so that the above equation would yield
a scale of 14 , since the maximum input voltage would be 20 V and the Arduino UNO

44
maximum analog read is 5 V.
Furthermore, another voltage divider was constructed to measure the voltage of the
battery on the output, this was done to monitor the battery voltage and prevent over-
charging. The scale for the battery voltage was set to be 31 , to prevent over voltage to
be fed to the Arduino.

6.3 MOSFET-switch
For the switch in the converter a MOSFET transistor was used, since it is suitable for
low ratings. The MOSFET transistor was rated for large voltages and currents hence not
optimised for this application. For the triggering of the MOSFET transistor, a driver
shown in figure 6.3 was used to amplify the 5 V signal from the microprocessor to trigger
the MOSFET accurately.
The supply voltage UDD was fed from the 12 V battery, which was sufficient.

R
UP W M Transistor gate

UDD
C C

Figure 6.3: Driver circuit for the MOSFET transistor.

45
6.4 Complete converter
The final implemented converter is shown in figure 6.4, furthermore the outputs and
inputs of the converter are described in table 6.1.
The component values was derived with respect to the specifications described in chap-
ter 3, however the components where over dimensioned in terms of rating and values.
The component values are shown in table 6.2, and the type and serial numbers of the
components are shown in the appendix. The actual converter along with the components
are shown in Appendix C.

Current sensing circuit

A
B

Rshunt L1 C1

+ D +
R1 R3
Uin C L2 C2 D Uo

R2 R4

Driver circuit E

Figure 6.4: Implemented SEPIC converter.

Letter Type From Arduino To Arduino

A 5 V supply voltage
B Output (current) voltage
C Measured input voltage
D Measured battery voltage
E Upwm

Table 6.1: Outputs and inputs.

46
 Component Value Rating
L1 860 H 3A
L2 860 H 3A
C1 1000 F 50 V
C2 2700 F 35 V
R1 3 k 0.6 W
R2 1 k 0.6 W
R3 2 k 0.6 W
R4 1 k 0.6 W
Rshunt 8 -

Table 6.2: Component values and ratings.

6.5 Converter control

The converter was controlled by the Arduino UNO micro controller, the micro controller
has an inbuilt PWM generator that was used for the triggering of the transistor. The
built in PWM frequency of the Arduino UNO is about 500 Hz, hence this was not
suitable for this application. The frequency of the PWM was changed to fs =62000 Hz
since that was the highest base frequency available. This frequency was sufficient for
this application, however it would be better to have a higher frequency to keep the
components small as the power rating increases. The Arduino UNO and the algorithm
codes are shown in Appendix C.

47
48
Chapter 7

Results

7.1 Simulation results

As described in the previous section, the efficiency mappings where used to evaluate the
SEPIC converter along with the different algorithms and algorithm settings. A previous
model derived in a previous thesis was used [1]. The model takes torque data and
generates exhaust temperatures in the EGR. Two standard driving cycles of a total of
2.5 h where simulated, Brussels and Spain. Furthermore, the algorithms where evaluated
by plotting the total recovered energy and the output power of the SEPIC converter. As
seen in figure 7.1 the INC algorithm is capable of extracting more power compared to
the P&O algorithm. Furthermore, in the plot it is also noticed that a smaller D and
a larger ts yields in better tracking of the MPP.

49
 80

70

60

50
Pout / W

40

30

20

Pmax
P&O D = 0.001 ts=0.01
10 INC D = 0.001 ts=0.01
P&O D = 0.01 ts=0.01
INC D = 0.01 ts=0.01
Direct
0
2640 2660 2680 2700 2720 2740 2760 2780 2800
t/s

Figure 7.1: Segment of the output power of the SEPIC converter for the Spain drive
cycle.

When looking at the Brussels driving cycle output power in figure 7.2 the INC algorithm
with smaller D tracks the MPP better than the P&O algorithm. However, For a greater
D the P&O algorithm is better in terms of output power.
Furthermore, as seen in table 7.1 the efficiency, in terms of recovered energy, of the
SEPIC converter with the INC algorithm is slightly better that the P&O algorithm for
the Spain driving cycle withD =0.001. However, it is worse than the P&O algorithm
in all other cases, which implies that the efficiency of the total recovered energy depends
on the driving cycle.

D = 0.001, ts = 0.01 D = 0.01, ts = 0.01

P&O = 80.02 % = 80.73 %
Spain
INC = 80.46 % = 80.05 %
P&O = 84.54 % = 83.91 %
Brussels
INC = 84.41 % = 84.04 %

Table 7.1: Simulated efficiencies of the two algorithms during the two driving cycles.

50
 55
Pmax
INC D = 0.001 ts=0.01
P&O D = 0.001 ts=0.01
50 P&O D = 0.01 ts=0.01
INC D = 0.01 ts=0.01
Direct

45

40

35
Pout / W

30

25

20

15

10
2510 2520 2530 2540 2550 2560 2570 2580
t/s

Figure 7.2: Segment of the output power of the SEPIC converter for the Brussels drive
cycle.

P&O INC
Rl [] T [ C] Uol [V ] [%] [%]
10 40 5.316 73 76
Simulated
10 80 10.63 81.8 83.2
10 40 5.83 69.7 71.2
Measured
10 80 11.28 78.5 80.2

Table 7.2: Simulated and measured average efficiencies of the converter for the two
different algorithms.

7.2 Implementation results

Table 7.2 shows the measured and simulated values of the average efficiency at different
T . The measurements where done with a load of 5 and 10 with a 12 V car battery
connected to the output of the converter, and the TEG connected to the input. Where
D = 0.001 and ts = 0.01.

51
52
Chapter 8

Conclusion

This project had three objectives, the first objective was to evaluate a suitable converter
to be connected to the TEG with 12 V lead-acid battery and a resistive load. It was
found that the SEPIC converter was the most suitable for this purpose.
This was due to the fact that it is non-inverting, which is better when implementing
in a electrical system. Furthermore, the switch never disconnects the TEG, which was
important since maximum power harvesting was the focus.
However, comparing it to the Buck-Boost converter, it has twice the amount of passive
components. This means that the production cost of the SEPIC converter will be higher
compared to the Buck-Boost converter, but at the same time it will be more efficient.

Further on, the second objective was to evaluate a suitable MPPT control algorithm.
Based on previous studies, the P&O and the INC algorithm was simulated and evalu-
ated. The results show that a smaller D and a larger ts yields better tracking ability
and stability.
The results show that the INC algorithm tracks the power better than the P&O algo-
rithm. Comparing the INC algorithm to the P&O algorithm, is more stable and could
withstand disturbances. However, when simulating the algorithms in a driving cycle,
the total recovered energy is in some cases higher with the P&O algorithm. This implies
that the efficiency of the converter in terms of recovered energy depends on the driving
style. Since the temperature will vary with different time constants, the algorithms will
sometimes not catch up to the actual MPP.

The third objective, was to implement the suitable converter, in this case the SEPIC con-
verter, with both algorithms. The results show that the INC algorithm is more efficient
compared to the P&O algorithm. However, the INC algorithm is more computational
heavy compared to the P&O algorithm.

53
54
Chapter 9

Discussion

As in any project, there is room for further investigation. This projects implementation
and design was based on a previous TEG with an output power of roughly 20 W, which
is too small for implementation in a HDV.
The aim is to reach an output power of roughly 5 kW in the future, to make the TEG
beneficial. However, in this power range the currents increase along with the ratings of
the components. This means that the components will be larger in size and the losses
will increase.

Due to these effects the full bridge converter might be a better choice as a converter.
Firstly since the conversion is mainly done by transistors, which means that the size of
the converter will be small even for high current ratings. Secondly, the passive com-
ponents will only be used for filtering and thus be fewer. However, this needs more
investigation and analysis.

Furthermore, the use of TEGs in hybrid HVDs are of high interest. This is due to
the driving style of a HDV, which is usually long haulage. Hence, regeneration caused
by braking will occur rarely. This implies that a TEG could be beneficial during long
haulage driving cycles, due to the generation of extra power. However, this also needs
investigation and analysis.

55
56
Bibliography

[1] Henrik Schauman. The thermoelectric generator, an analysis of seebeck-based waste

heat recovery in a scania r-series truck, master thesis. Royal Institute of Technology,
2009.

[2] D. M. Rowe. Thermoelectrics and its energy harvesting, Modules, systems, and
applications in thermoelectrics. 2012.

[3] D. M. Rowe. Thermoelectrics handbook, Macro to Nano. 2006.

[4] J. C. Bass, N. B. Elsner, and F. A. Leavitt. Performance of the 1kw thermoelectric

generator for diesel engines. 1994.

[5] J. LaGrandeur, D. Crane, S. Hung, B. Mazar, and A. Eder. Automotive waste heat
conversion to electric power using skutterudite, tags, pbte and bite. 2006.

[6] Adham Shawwaf. Optimization of the electric properties of thermoelectric genera-

tors, master thesis. Lund University, 2010.

[7] A. Thenkani and N. Dr. Senthil Kumar. Design of optimum maximum power point
tracking algorithm for solar panel. 2011.

[8] D. M. Rowe. CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics. 1995.

[9] Ned Mohan, Tore M. Undeland, and William P. Robbins. Power electronics, Con-
verters, Applications and Design. Second edition edition, 1995.

[10] Ph.D. Muhammad H. Rashid. Power electronics handbook, Devices, Circuits and
Applications. Third edition edition, 2011.

[11] Ben Schaeffer and Dennis Gilbert. Analysis of the sepic converter. 2010.

[12] I. Laird, H. Lovatt, N. Savvides, D. Lu, and V. G. Agelidis. Comparative sudy of

maximum power point tracking algorithms for thermoelectric generators. 2008.

57
58
Appendices

59
Appendix A

Figure 1: The thermoelectric generator used in the project.

Driving Cycle: Driving Cycle:

Brussels Brussels Spanien
Spanien
1400 RPM

1500 Torque

Torque

1 Torque

Out2 u t
Gain1 fcn 1
1 RPM MATLAB Function 15s+1
RPM Scope
Transfer Fcn
Gain2 EGR
Mass flow and Temp

80

Scope1 30 80 or 30 C

Tc 2 Th 1

Torque

RPM

Figure 2: The model generating the hot side temperature from driving cycle data [1].

61
Brussels driving cycle

2500

2000

1500
Torque / Nm

1000

500

500

1000
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
t/s

Figure 3: A section of the torque plot from the Brussels driving cycle.

500
Th
Th

450

400

350

300
Temperature / C

250

200

150

100

50

0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
t/s

Figure 4: A section of the temperature plot from the Brussels driving cycle.

62
 0.06

0.05

0.04
Energy

0.03

0.02

Pmax
0.01
INC D = 0.001 ts=0.01
P&O D = 0.001 ts=0.01
P&O D = 0.01 ts=0.01
INC D = 0.01 ts=0.01
Direct
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
t/s

Figure 5: The recovered energy in kWh, from the Brussels driving cycle.

Spain driving cycle

2500

2000

1500

1000
Torque / Nm

500

500

1000

1500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
t/s

Figure 6: A section of the torque plot from the Spain driving cycle.

63
 700
Th
Th
600

500

Temperature / C
400

300

200

100

0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
t/s

Figure 7: A section of the temperature plot from the Spain driving cycle.

0.1

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06
Energy

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02
Pmax
P&O D = 0.001 ts=0.01
INC D = 0.001 ts=0.01
0.01
P&O D = 0.01 ts=0.01
INC D = 0.01 ts=0.01
Direct
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
t/s

Figure 8: The recovered energy in kWh, from the Spain driving cycle.

Appendix B

64
 Openload voltage

Internal resistance

U
Pmax
Rinternal Pout
Maximum theoretical power

100 Th Uol SEPIC converter

Hot temp Uopenload iL1

Rint iLoad
30 Tc Rint
Switchsignal Uload
Cold temp
TEG 10 Upole
RLoad

Rload

i
u
I
U
INC P&O

D
PWM Generator
Manual Switch

PWM Reference

Figure 9: The complete model.

1 iL1 2 iLoad
PS S

PSSimulink
PS S

PSSimulink Converter1
Converter

I
C1 +
I Diode
+ +
+ + Current Sensor1

L1

Current Sensor + Voltage Sensor

Rload
V

+

Rint1 m
PS

Switch L2 C2
+
PS

PS

_
+

Battery
2 Voltage Sensor1
S PS
V

Rint
SimulinkPS
S PS

Uol SimulinkPS
Converter2
Converter
Solver
1 Configuration
S PS
S PS

PSSimulink
S PS

Uopenload SimulinkPS Converter2

SimulinkPS f(x)=0
Converter3
Converter1

Electrical Reference
S PS

PSSimulink
Converter3 double Data Type Conversion

Upole 4 RLoad Uload 3

4 3 Switchsignal Continuous

powergui

Figure 10: The SEPIC-converter model.

Appendix C

65
 Relational
Operator1
1 u 2 i
> Transport
Delay1

Product1

dD 1
D
Constant3
1

Constant2
NXOR >
>
Product2
Logical
Relational Switch Add2 SaturationMemory
Transport Operator 1
Operator
Delay
Constant1

Figure 11: The perturb and observe algorithm model.

2 I 1 1 D
U

dD
Add
Constant3
1
Transport
Delay Constant2
Divide1 < >
Product2
Relational
Switch Add2 SaturationMemory
Operator 1

Add1 Constant1
1
Transport
Delay1 Constant

Product1
Divide2

Figure 12: The incremental conductance algorithm model.

First run the init . files

T hot
Th
Pmax Pmax
Tc
T cold
Temp

TEG
Th Pconv Power

Power Energy Energy

Integrator
Tc

Temperature

Converter
Plot

Figure 13: The mapping model.

66
Component Beteckning
Dual Power MOSFET Driver MAX627
Rshunt SR20
MOSFET IRFP3710
Current sensor LTC6101

Table 1: Components used in the converter.

Figure 14: The SEPIC-converter.

67
Figure 15: The Arduino UNO micro controller.

68