Name : Siow Pui Wan

Matric ID : 21215

Programme : Petroleum Geoscience

Lecturer : Mr Abd. Rahman

Title : "The effects of hydraulic fracturing in shale gas exploration

on the quality of water resources"

 The effects of hydraulic fracturing in shale gas exploration

on the quality of water resources

Hydraulic fracturing or "fracking" is an extraction process developed to extract oil or

gas reserves that are trapped in geologic formations of poor flow rate due to low

permeability. The process involves drilling horizontally through targeted zones that

contain oil or gas and injecting large quantities of pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid,

a mixture of freshwater, sand, and other chemicals that create fractures in the shale

formations to facilitate the flow of oil and gas. If the process is executed properly,

hydraulic fracturing can lower natural gas prices, offer a cleaner environmental

footprint, enable local economic development, provide a widely available source of

energy and provide direct and indirect economic benefits (Sovacool, 2014). However,

the process is difficult to control and the introduces a host of certain and potential

environmental impacts. When done poorly, production can be prone to accidents and

leakage, surface spills of chemicals and waste fluids, casing and cementing practices

that compromise the integrity of the seal between the well bore and surrounding

groundwater thus posing serious risks to human and environmental health (Rahm,

Bates, Bertoia, Galford, Yoxtheimer, & Riha, 2013). The process of hydraulic

fracturing carries many potential risks towards the quality of water resources such as

stray gas migration to shallow groundwater, contaminant transport through induced and

natural fractures and mismanagement of hydraulic fracturing waste.

Firstly, stray gas migration as a result of poor casing quality leads to contamination of

underground aquifers and private wells. Wellbore casings serve as the principal protection

against groundwater contamination. Poor casing quality can cause methane to seep through or
along improperly cemented gas well casings and permanently contaminate underground

aquifers and private wells (Vidic, Brantley, Vandenbossche, Yoxtheimer & Abad, 2013; AEA

Technology, 2012; as cited in Werner et. al., 2015; Beren, 2012 as cited in Sovacool, 2014). For

instance, in Pennsylvania, between 2008 and 2011, there were two major cases of stray gas

migration into groundwater, where 15 drinking-water wells were affected due to faulty casing

of gas wells (Considine, Watson, Considine, & Martin, 2012 as cited in McPhillips, Creamera,

Rahmb, & Waltera, 2014). One study in Pennsylvania found increased amounts of dissolved

methane in groundwater located within a radius of one kilometre of hydraulically fractured gas

wells (Osborn et al., 2011 as cited in McPhillips et. al., 2014). Osborn and his colleagues

studied 68 private drinking water wells in north eastern Pennsylvania and New York, and found

that methane contamination rose sharply with proximity to natural gas drilling and hydraulic

fracturing sites (Osborn, Vengosh, Warner, & Jackson, 2011 as cited in Sovacool, 2014).

Additionally, Bamberger and Oswald (2012) documented effects of exposure to contaminated

water wells in animals, and found reproductive effects such as increased incidence of stillborn

calves and congenital anomalies, seizures, vomiting, and rashes, as well as death from acute

liver or kidney failure or respiratory failure with circulatory collapse (Werner et. al., 2015).

Although dissolved methane in drinking water is not currently classified as a health

hazard for ingestion, inhaling at high concentrations can lead to effects such as headaches,

asphyxiation, nausea, and vomiting (Minnesota Department of Health, 2013; National

Institutes of Health, 2014 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015) and is a fire hazard due to its

flammable properties. As methane is flammable, possible injury is most likely, where if

methane gas is combined with air in confined spaces, will ignite and possibly explode

(Eltschlager, Hawkins, Ehler, & Baldassare, 2001; La Plata County, 2002 as cited in Werner et.

al., 2015). Reports tell of incidents where explosions are attributed to methane migration

caused by shale gas and tight gas development, that enters homes through drinking water
systems via well water sources (House Republican Policy Committee, 2010; Ohio Department

of Natural Resources Division of Mineral Resources Management, 2008 as cited in Werner et.

al., 2015). On December 7, 2010 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued an

endangerment order against a shale gas company in Texas to take immediate action to protect

homeowners who have complained repeatedly about flammable and bubbling drinking tap

water. EPA testing confirmed that high levels of methane gas in the water posed an immediate

risk of explosion or fire (Rahm, 2011).

Secondly, contaminant transport through induced and natural fractures is able to cause

groundwater contamination, due to the difficulty in controlling the direction of fissures created

by hydraulic fracturing. The fissures are created by the injection of water and chemicals at

intense pressures to pry open uniform masses of rocks in directions that cannot be predicted.

The inability to control the way rock fractures may unexpectedly penetrate groundwater

sources thus releasing chemicals into them. Concerns of hydraulic fracturing related chemical

contamination persist because the composition of the chemical mixtures used in the process is

often unknown and are generally considered proprietary so drilling companies are not required

to disclose their content (Werner, Vink, Watt, & Jagals, 2015; Rahm, 2011). While it is said that

chemical additives make up approximately 2% of the total volume of fracturing fluid (Eaton,

2013; Wang, Chen, Jha, & Rogers, 2014 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015) each well requires up

to 5 million gallons of fluid per hydraulic fracturing event, hence amounting to tons of

chemicals being used (Finkel & Hays, 2013; Finkel, Hays, & Law, 2013a; Goldstein &

Malone, 2013 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015). Advocates of hydraulic fracturing practices

argue that for the most of the substances used in hydraulic fracturing are non-toxic (Vaughan &

Pursell, 2010 as cited in Rahmn, 2011). However, critics allege that some of the substances

used are hazardous materials and carcinogens, which are toxic enough to contaminate

groundwater resources (Rahm, 2011). Nonetheless, even at low concentrations, these chemicals
pose a health risk because of the potential for subsequent and chronic exposure to potentially

polluted water sources (Colborn et al., 2011 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015). Colborn et al.

(2011) warned that systems in the human body, especially the endocrine system, are sensitive

to low-dose exposures (Werner et. al., 2015).

Kassotis, Tillitt, Davis, Hormann, and Nagel, (2014) voiced concern that "there could

be more than 100 known or suspected endocrine-disrupting chemicals that could potentially be

used in natural gas extraction processes" (Werner et. al., 2015). These chemicals can cause

effects on skin, eyes, and other sensory organs, respiratory system, gastrointestinal system,

liver, brain, nervous system, and immune system (Colborn et al., 2011; Kargbo, Wilhelm, &

Campbell, 2010 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015). In fact, there were a number of cases in the

U.S. where local communities claim that their drinking water has been polluted by hydraulic

fracturing fluids, or petroleum by-products such as benzene. For example, in Pavillion,

Wyoming residents were informed by EPA in 2009 that many drinking water wells were

contaminated by toxics often used in hydraulic fracturing fluids. Moreover, for nearly a decade

Pavillion residents had complained about miscarriages, rare cancers, and central nervous

system disorders including seizures (Rahm, 2011).

As a final point, the millions of gallons of mismanaged hydraulic fracturing waste is

threatening surface water supplies and is causing long-term ecological effects. Shale

gas-related wastewater are composed of three waste streams namely drilling muds,

flowback, and produced brine (NYSDEC, 2011; NYWEA, 2011 as cited in Rahm, et.

al., 2013) which contains high levels of highly soluble salts (TDS), heavy metals,

organic compounds, naturally occurring radioactive materials and chemical constituents

(Finkel & Hays, 2013; Guidotti, 2011 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015). Due to these

reasons, wastewater management for natural gas development is a technical challenge.

For example, highly soluble salts (TDS), are difficult and expensive to remove from

wastewater. Furthermore, their combination with various other contaminants requires

multiple treatment technologies in sequence. These wastewater are usually treated to

some degree through industrial treatment facilities or municipal sewage treatment

plants, and then discharged via deep-injection, into surface waters such as streams and

rivers, disposed directly to the land or they can be recycled or stored, usually in open

ponds (Kibble, Cabianca, Daraktchieva, Gooding, Smithard, & Kowalczyk, 2013;

Rahmn, 2011 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015; Rahm, et. al., 2013).
 Surface handling of materials have been a problem in a number of cases. Concerns have

been expressed on the wastewater management protocols since shale gas drilling began.

One of them is the spilling of hydraulic fracturing chemicals and fluids. For instance, in

the year 2009, the Hopewell Township of Pennsylvania experienced a spill of hydraulic

fracturing fluid into a water body which resulted in a fish and amphibian kill. In a

separate case, Dimock, Pennsylvania experienced three spills of hydraulic fracturing

fluid amounting to more than 30,284 litres which entered a nearby creek (Vaughan &

Pursell, 2010 as cited in Rahm, 2011). One study examined fish that were exposed to

hydraulic fracturing fluids due to a spill in Acorn Fork Creek, Kentucky and found that

exposed fish had more gill lesions and signs of stress due to exposure to heavy metals

and a drop in pH when compared to unexposed fish (Papoulias & Velasco, 2013 as cited

in Werner et. al., 2015). Next, is the runoff of wastewater into natural surface waters. In

some areas, produced water is sprayed legally on the land, in which runoff could

contaminate surface water (Coussens & Martinez, 2013; Finkel & Hays, 2013 as cited

in Werner et. al., 2015). Beren (2012) pointed out that the "dumping of flowback waters

into streams and onto roads contaminate surface waters and improperly treated

hydraulic fracturing wastewater at sewage treatment plants damage streams and

drinking water supplies, putting human and ecological health at risk" (Sovacool, 2014).

Lastly, leakage of untreated waters from plastic-lined storage ponds, wastewater pits

and the failure to properly treat and dispose wastes have caused contamination of natural

surface waters in several cases (AEA Technology, 2012; Guidotti, 2011; Korfmacher, Jones,

Malone, & Vinci, 2013; Lechtenbhmer, Altmann, Capito, Matra, Weindrorf, & Zittel, 2011;

Thompson, 2012; Zoback et al., 2010 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015). For example, the Ohio

River have been contaminated with barium, strontium and bromides from municipal

wastewater treatment plants that were not designed to handle toxic substances. (Robert &
Anthony, 2011 as cited in Sovacool, 2014). Bamberger and Oswald (2012) documented effects

on animals and found that the most common exposure was to contaminated natural surface

water source. The authors found reproductive effects and congenital anomalies, seizures,

vomiting, and rashes, as well as death from acute liver or kidney failure or respiratory failure

with circulatory collapse (Bamberger & Oswald, 2012 as cited in Werner et. al., 2015). These

accidents damage streams and drinking water supplies hence, putting human and ecological

health at risk.

Hence, the process of hydraulic fracturing does carry many potential risk towards the

quality of water resources as the stray gas migration to shallow groundwater, contaminant

transport through induced and natural fractures and mismanagement of hydraulic fracturing

waste causes contamination of aquifers and natural surface waters. There are proven human

ailments from reputable researchers and reports of contamination from the communities living

near the extraction site. The process of hydraulic fracturing in shale gas exploration needs more

stringent regulation, more transparency in disclosing the chemicals used, have a proper and

robust well construction and exercise proper wastewater handling in order to reduce the

negative impacts of hydraulic fracturing on water quality as what impacts the environment

directly and indirectly impacts human health.

REFERENCE

McPhillips, L.E., Creamera, A. E., Rahmb, B. G., & Waltera, M. T. (2014). Assessing

dissolved methane patterns in central New York groundwater. Journal of Hydrology:

Regional Studies, 1, 5773. Retrieved April 11, 2015, from http://goo.gl/VGTlfY

Rahm, B. G., Bates, J. T., Bertoia, L. R., Galford, A. E., Yoxtheimer, D. A., & Riha, S. J.

(2013). Wastewater management and Marcellus Shale gas development : Trends,

drivers, and planning implications. Journal of Environmental Management, 120, 105

113. Retrieved April 2, 2015, from http://goo.gl/JiljDi

Rahm, D. (2011). Regulating hydraulic fracturing in shale gas plays : The case of Texas.

Energy Policy, 39, 2974-2981. Retrieved March 27, 2015, from http://goo.gl/tg71tJ

Sovacool, B. K. (2014). Cornucopia or curse? Reviewing the costs and benefits of shale gas

hydraulic fracturing (fracking). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 37, 249

264. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://goo.gl/kjDoUn

Werner, A. K., Vink, S., Watt, K., & Jagals, P. (2015). Environmental health impacts of

unconventional natural gas development : A review of the current strength of

evidence. Science of the Total Environment, 505, 1127-1141. Retrieved March 30,

2015, from http://goo.gl/ly2514