Computer Aided Design &

computer Aided Manufacturing..

CAD
CAM
History Of CAD:
1940s:
Came into existence, by Dr. Robert Issac Newton.
1960s:
Found use in the aircraft and automotive industries.
Also used by 3D surface and NC programming the first
commercial user of CAD.
1971:
Founding of MCS (Manufacturing And Consulting Services
Inc.) by Dr. P. J. Hanratty, one of the most influential events.
Computer Aided Design:

Definition:
CAD (computer-aided design) software is used
by architects, engineers, drafters, artists, and
others to create accurate drawings or
technical illustrations. CAD software can be
used to create two-dimensional (2-D)
drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) OR 4D
models.
Who uses This:
1.Architects. 2.Animation industry. 3.Automobile industry.
4.Aerospace Industry. 5.Gaming industry
6.Fashion Designers 7.Machine-Manufacturers
Used By Architects:
Architects use CAD to make maps of the house or some
building which they want to made.
It is used for proper calculations of the building.
With the help of this software they make the building good
and there is proper way of light at day or proper air in the
building by the use of windows at proper place.
Used In Aerospace Industry:

The aerospace industry produces satellites, space

vehicles, missiles, and aircrafts.
Any one of these products usually costs millions of
dollars, and as such AutoCAD sample drawings play
an important role in the first step of the design
process.
Before starting work on the final product, the details
are thoroughly planned with the AutoCAD software.
Used in Automobile Industry:

Now we are talking about the automobile industry

and Cad also used there for the design of the cars
and other vehicles.
How to design the new model first they draw the
model on the computer by complete calculations
and if they feel good with that model they make
practical on that drawing.
That type of activity save their cost also.
 A typical CAD Process
Overview Of CAD:

Current Computer-Aided Design software ranges

from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid
and surface modelers. Newer models of CAD
packages allow rotations in three dimensions,
allowing viewing of a designed object from any
angle.
Some CAD software is capable of dynamic
mathematic modeling - CADD computer-aided
design and drafting.
 CAD is also used throughout the manufacturing
process from conceptual design and layout of products,
through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies.
CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and
drafting and design of all types of buildings, from
small residential building to the largest commercial
and industrial structures.

CAD Advantages:
1) Precise 2) 3d Detailed Drawing. 3) You can resize easily by using
calculations. 4) Easier to see the calculation. 5) More economical and
efficient. 6) Computerized models. 7) Storage and Retrieval.
Disadvantages of CAD:

The initial costs of buying computer systems

are always quite high.
Recurring costs for software updates are
expensive and time consuming.
Information can be instantly lost or corrupted
if a computer problem occurs and there are no
back ups.
How It Works:

1. Product is conceived by engineer.

2. Product is designed using CAD software.
3. CAD data is transferred to manufacturing
machines memory.
4. Machine uses the CAD data to produce the
product, with little human intervention.
List of Software names:
1) ArchiCAD 2) AutoCAD 3) Auto desk inventor.
4) Auto turn 5) Cadwork 6) Constructor.
7) High-Design. 8) IntelliCAD 9) KiCAD 10) NX.
Introduction:
CAM engineers similarly use computer modeling to
determine the best overall manufacturing procedures for
use in an industrial plant, including the testing and
handling of finished products. Engineers use CAD and
CAM together to create the design in CAD on one
computer, then transmit the design to a second computer
that creates the part using CAM.
 Computer Aided Manufacturing:

Definition:
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use
of computer software to control machine tools and
related machinery in the manufacturing of work
pieces.
OR:
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is an
application technology that uses computer software
and machinery to facilitate and automate
manufacturing processes
Old System (without CAM):

Product is designed without CAM software

Each production machine is programmed individually OR if not
automated :
Employees are trained on proper production of the product.

New System (using CAM):

Product is designed with CAM software
Product specifications are sent over the plant network to each machine
Machines have intelligence to produce the products without human intervention
CAM Uses:

One of the primary uses of Cam software is

for the creation of machine toolpath.
This is the path in which cutting tool will take
to cut the material in most efficient manner to
save time and achieve the closest result to the
finished piece.
It is further divided into two toolpaths that are
2d toolpath and 3d toolpath.
2D ToolPath:
2D machining toolpath are used for creating the majority of
parts in manufacturing.
There are roughing and finishing operations for the
majority of the machining.
Roughing:
A roughing toolpath is generally used in the CAD/CAM
CNC programming phase for removing the most amount of
material possible, as accurately and as efficiently as
possible.
Finishing:
Finishing toolpath comes after roughing and essentially
finishes the cutting process removing the last amount of
material on the machine to complete the machining
process.
3D Toolpath:
This software is designed to prevent problems in
workflows.
This software provides high levels of control for
machining.
3D paths suitable for water jet cutting, precise
operations with minimal operator involvement.
A Real World Example:
C D War and Associates turned to CAM:
Converting the artistic garment specification into a
technical specification.
Using the technical specification to calculate fast and
reliable weights and manufacturing times.
C D Ward and Associates CAM solution:
Enables faster turnaround of new products.
Reduces waste by using raw materials more
efficiently.

Advantages:
Increased productivity.
Error free drafting.
Repeatability.
Three dimension modeling.
Lower overhead cost.
Gives us zoom feature similar to a camera lens.
Design can altered easily.
Limitation:
1) Expensive software. 2) Special skills required.
3) Expensive machine required. 4) High maintenance
cost. 5) Nature of material of the object.
Software:
1) GibbsCAM 2) Dassault systems 3) Siemens PLM
software. 4) Delcam 5)Vero software 6)PTC
7)Tebis 8)OPEN MIND Technologies. 9)Cimatron.
Typical areas of concern:
1) High Speed Machining. 2) Multi-function
Machining 3) Feature recognition and machining
4)Automation of Machining processes 5) Ease of Use
CAD-CAM Applications:
CAE( computer aided engineering).
CAA( computer aided analysis)
CIM( computer integrated manufacturing)
CNC( computer numerical control)
CAP( computer aided planning)
Photo realistic rendering.
Super imposition of objects.
CAD & CAM Usage Industry:
1)Automotive industry. 2)Aerospace and aircraft industry.
3)Textile industry. 4)Medical industry.
5)Video gaming industry. 6)Welding and cutting industry.
7)Die manufacturing industry.
Need for CAD & CAM:
To increase productivity of Designer.
To improve quality of design.
To improve communication.
To create a manufacturing database.
To create and test tool paths.
Conclusion:
Less chances of error.
More reliable.
All the work done with proper calculation.
Both CAD & CAM use together.
Chapter 4:Geometric Modeling
 Objectives:
Understand the various requirements for the information that is
generated during the geometric modeling stage.
Study various types of geometric models possible and their applications
Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction such as
sweep, surface models, solid models, etc.
Recognize the various types of surfaces and their application as used in
geometric modelling
Appreciate the concept of parametric modeling which is the current
mainstay of most of the 3D modeling systems
Develop the various mathematical representations of the curves used in
the geometric construction
Discuss the various CAD system requirements that need to be considered
while selecting a system for a given application
Understand the concept of rapid prototyping (3D model of the product)
and the various methods available for the purpose.
4.1 Requirements of Geometric Modelling
Functions of Geometric Modelling:
Design analysis:
Evaluation of areas and volumes.
Evaluation of mass and inertia properties.
Interference checking in assemblies.
Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies.
Analysis of kinematics mechanics, robotics.
Automatic mesh generation for finite element
analysis.
Functions of Geometric Modelling:
Drafting:
Automatic planar cross sectioning.
Automatic hidden line and surface removal.
Automatic production of shaded images.
Automatic dimensioning.
Automatic creation of exploded views for
technical illustrations.
Functions of Geometric Modelling:
Manufacturing:
Parts classification.
Process planning.
Numerical control data generation and
verification.
Robot program generation.
Functions of Geometric Modelling:
Production Engineering:
Bill of materials.
Material requirement.
Manufacturing resource requirement.
Scheduling.

Inspection and Quality Control:

Program generation for inspection machines.
Comparison of produced part with design.
Geometric Models

Two-dimensional, and
Three-dimensional.
The three principal classifications
can be
The line model,
The surface model, and
The solid or volume model
3D geometric representation techniques
A geometric model represented in wire-
frame model:
A wire-frame model is a visual presentation of a 3-dimensional (3D)
or physical object used in 3D computer graphics.
Ambiguities present in the wire-frame model
Generation of 3D geometry using planar surfaces
Geometric Construction Methods:
The three-dimensional geometric construction methods which extend
from the 2D that is normally used are:
Linear extrusion or translational sweep, and
Rotational sweep.
Component model produced using translational
(linear) sweep with taper in sweep direction
Component model produced using translational
(linear) sweep with an overhanging edge
Component produced by the rotational sweep
technique
Various solid modelling primitives
The Boolean operators and their effect on model
construction (More productive result)
The Boolean operators and their effect on model
construction
Creating a solid with the 3D primitives in solid modelling and
the model shown in the form of Constructive Solid Geometry
Model generated using the sculptured surfaces
Computer aided three-dimensional interactive application (CATIA)
The various types of surfaces used in geometric
modelling
Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves
from which the ruled surface on the right is formed
Coons surface generation:
The Bzier curve and the associated control
polygon
The various examples of Bzier curves depending
on the associated control polygons
The spline curve
The lofted surface:
Example of filleting or blend method for
model generation
Constraint Based Modelling
Example of initial sketch without any dimensions:
The sketch shown above which is fully constrained
and dimensioned:
The sketch for the new feature (a cut)
The solid after executing an extruded cut of the
geometry
A geometric model created following the sequence
of features as Box Hole Shell
Feature based model and its modified form:
Examples of form elements used for model generation in the case of axi-
symmetric components:
Examples of form features for modelling axi-symmetric
components with milled features
Example component modelled using the features
shown in Last Fig.
Curve representation
Implicit form, and
Parametric form.
In parametric form, the curve is represented as
X = x(t)
Y = y(t)
Z = z(t)
Circle
Ellipse
Parametric curve representation in Cartesian space
Typical surface display with the parametric
variables u and v
Modelling Facilities Desired
The geometric modelling features.
The editing or manipulation features.
The display control facilities.
The drafting features.
The programming facility.
The analysis features.
The connecting features.
Shaded image of a CAD geometric model ((Image appears with the
permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems -
Orthographic views from a geometric model (Image appears with the
permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems -
Rapid Prototyping (RP) :Schematic of selective laser sintering
device
Solid Model Creation Scheme
A solid model can be generated by the following schemes.
1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
3. Sweeping

1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

This scheme is based on the principle that two primitives can be
combined to produce a new solid model. This method is also known
as Building Block method.
The scheme uses the Union, Intersection, and Subtraction techniques
to create three-dimensional models, which are based on the Boolean
operation. The steps involved in generating a solid model are:
1. Select the primitives from a library
2. Go through the scaling, dimension modification, and any other
transformations.
3. Combine the primitives to create the desired solid model.
Solid Model Creation Scheme
New solid models can be created from the primitives or other solid
models by the following operations:

Union (U): Two solids are joined and the common volume of one of
the primitives is neglected in the resulting solid.
Subtraction or Difference (-): One solid is subtracted from the other
and the resultant solid retains only the uncut portion of the solid.
Intersection (): When two solids are combined, the resultant solid
represents the common volume of the two solids.

The most common primitive solids found in a CAD program are:

Block, Cylinder, Cone, Sphere, Wedge, and Torus.
Solid Model Creation Scheme
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep) Scheme
Polyhedral Solids: Polyhedral models consist of straight edges, e.g., a
non-cylindrical surface: box, wedge, combination of two or more non-
cylindrical bodies, etc.
Polyhedral solids can have blind or through holes, and two or three-
dimensional faces, with no dangling edges. A valid polyhedral abides
by the Eulers equation:
F E + V L = 2 (B-G)
Where,
F = Face
E = Edge
V = Vertices
L = Inner Loop
B = Bodies
G = Through holes
Solid Model Creation Scheme
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep) Scheme
This scheme is based on the concept that a physical object is
bounded by a set of faces. A solid model is created by combining
faces and contains vertices, edges, loops, and bodies.
Only the boundary surfaces of the model are stored and the
volumetric properties are calculated by the Gauss Divergence
theorem, which relates volume integral to surface integrals.
This scheme can model a variety of solids depending on the primitive
surfaces (planar, curved, or sculptured). There are two types of solid
models in this scheme:

1. Polyhedral solids
2. Curved solids
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep) Scheme

Eulers equation for a simple polyhedral can be reduced to:

F-E+V=2
Example: For the box shown, F = 6, E = 12, and V = 8
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep) Scheme
2. Curved Solids: A curved solid is similar to a polyhedral object but it
has curved faces and edges. Spheres and cylinders are examples of
curved solids.

Sphere with F = 1, V = 1, E = 0 Cylinder: F = 3, E = 3, V= 2

3. Sweeping Scheme
Sweeping can create a solid model. The method is useful for creating 2
dimension models. The generated models are axisymmetric and have
uniform thickness (i.e., extruded models).
There are two types of sweeps: linear and rotational. In linear sweep, a
closed 2-D sketch is extruded through the desired length, creating a
homogeneous and axisymmetric model, as shown in the figure.
3. Sweeping Scheme
In rotational sweep, a closed sketch is rotated around an axis. The
generated model is always axisymmetric.

In addition to the two sweeps described above, a model can also be

created by a non-linear sweep. In this type of sweep, a closed sketch is
sweeped along a non-linear path.
Summary:
Surfaces are more widely used and it is necessary to use different
types of surfaces such as b-splines, Bezier, NURB, lofted, to get the
user requirements fulfilled.
Constraint or parametric based modeling is the main methodology
used by most of the 3D CAD systems. This system helps in grasping the
designers intent and would greatly facilitate the modification and
reuse of the existing designs.
Some variant modeling systems are used based on tabular data
for specific applications.

Form features is another form of modeling system that helps in

designing CAD systems with more intelligence built into the geometric
entities that is possible by purely geometric systems discussed thus far.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATION
Computer Aided Design consists of three components:
Design (Geometric Modeling):
Geometric Modeling provides a mathematical description of a geometric
object - point, line, conic section, surface, or a solid.
Analysis (FEA, etc)
Finite element analysis helps predict the behaviour of products affected
by many physical effects, including: Mechanical stress; Mechanical
vibration; Fatigue; Motion; Heat transfer; Fluid flow; Electrostatics

Visualization (Computer Graphics).

Visualization deals with creation of visual effects, e.g., creation of pie
charts, contour plots, shading, animation, etc.
Computer graphics provides visual displays and manipulations of objects,
e.g., transformation, editing, printing, etc.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATION
Transformation is the backbone of computer graphics, enabling us to
manipulate the shape, size, and location of the object.
It can be used to effect the following changes in a geometric object:
Change the location
Change the Shape
Change the size
Rotate
Copy
Generate a surface from a line
Generate a solid from a surface
Animate the object
Types of Transformations:
1) Modeling Transformation:
This transformation alters the coordinate values of the object. Basic
operations are scaling, translation, rotation and, combination of one or
more of these basic transformations.
Examples of these transformations can be easily found in any
commercial CAD software. For instance, AutoCAD uses SCALE, MOVE,
and ROTATE commands for scaling, translation, and rotation
transformations, respectively.

Visual Transformation: In this transformation there is no change in

either the geometry or the coordinates of the object. A copy of the
object is placed at the desired sight, without changing the coordinate
values of the object.
In AutoCAD, the ZOOM and PAN commands are good examples of
visual transformation.
 Basic Modeling Transformations
There are three basic modeling transformations: Scaling, Translation, and Rotation.
[P*] = [P] [T]
where, [P*] is the new coordinates matrix
[P] is the original coordinates matrix, or points matrix
[T] is the transformation matrix
With the z-terms set to zero, the P matrix can be written as,

The size of this matrix depends on the geometry of the object, e.g., a
point is defined by a single set of coordinates (x1, y1, z1), a line is defined
by two sets of coordinates (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2), etc. Thus a point
matrix will have the size 1x3, line will be 2x3, etc.
Transformation Matrix:
A transformation matrix is always written as a 4x4 matrix, with a basic
shape shown below:

Values of the elements in the matrix will change according to the type
of transformation being used, as we will see shortly.
The transformation matrix changes the size, position, and orientation
of an object, by mathematically adding, or multiplying its coordinate
values. We
Scaling :
In scaling transformation, the original coordinates of an object are
multiplied by the given scale factor.
There are two types of scaling transformations: uniform and non-
uniform.
In the uniform scaling, the coordinate values change uniformly along
the x, y, and z coordinates, where as, in non-uniform scaling, the
change is not necessarily the same in all the coordinate directions.
Uniform Scaling :

Here, s is the scale factor.

Non-Uniform Scaling :
Homogeneous Coordinates :
Since the points matrix has three columns for the x, y, and z values,
and a transformation matrix is always 4x4 matrix, the two matrices are
incompatible for multiplication.
A matrix multiplication is compatible only if the number of columns in
the first matrix equals the number of row in the second matrix. For this
reason, a points matrix is written as,

Here, we have converted the Cartesian coordinates into homogeneous

coordinates by adding a 4th column, with unit value in all rows.
 Pr. 1: If the triangle A(1,1), B(2,1), C(1,3) is scaled by a factor 2,
find the new coordinates of the triangle.

Sol:
Translation Transformation
In translation, every point on an object translates exactly the same
distance. The effect of a translation transformation is that the original
coordinate values increase or decrease by the amount of the
translation along the x, y, and z-axes.

For example, if line A(2,4), B(5,6) is translated 2 units along the

positive x axis and 3 units along the positive y axis, then the new
coordinates of the line would be

A(2+2, 4+3), B(5+2, 6+3) or

A(4,7), B(7,9).
Example 2: Translate the rectangle (2,2), (2,8), (10,8), (10,2) 2
units along x-axis and 3 units along y-axis.
Rotation Transformation:
We will first consider rotation about the z-axis, which passes
through the origin (0,0,0), since it is the simplest
transformation for understanding the rotation
transformation.
Rotation about an arbitrary axis, other than an axis passing
through the origin, requires a combination of three or more
transformations, as we will see later.
When an object is rotated about the z-axis, all the points on
the object rotate in a circular arc, and the center of the arc
lies at the origin.
Similarly, rotation of an object about an arbitrary axis has
the same relationship with the axis, i.e., all the points on the
object rotate in a circular arc, and the center of rotation lies
at the given point through which the axis is passing.
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix :
Using trigonometric relations, as given below, we can derive the
rotation transformation matrix. Let the point P(x, y) be on the circle,
located at an angle , as shown. If the point P is rotated an additional
angle , the new point will have the coordinates (x*, y*). The angle and
the original coordinate relationship is found as follows.
Rotation Transformation:
In trigonometric form:
x* = r (cos cos - sin sin) = x cos - y sin
y* = r (cos sin + sin cos) = x sin + y cos
Fig. Point P1 (40, 20) can be seen being rotated about the origin through an
angle, = 45, in the anti-clockwise direction to position P2. The co-
ordinates of P2 can be obtained by multiplying the co-ordinates of P1 by the
matrix:
Combination and Homogeneous
Transformations: Assignment