The Gist of NCERT Geography

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CONTENTS
1. INDIA - LOCATION ............................................................................................................ 1
Structure and Physiography......................................................................................................... 2
The Peninsular Block ................................................................................................................... 2
The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains ........................................................................... 2
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain ..................................................................................................... 2
Physiography .............................................................................................................................. 3
North and North Eastern Himalaya: .............................................................................................. 3
The Himalayan Mountains ........................................................................................................... 3
Karewas ...................................................................................................................................... 4
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Longitudinal division ................................................................................................................... 4
Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas ............................................................................................. 4
The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalays ....................................................................................... 5
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The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas ............................................................................................ 5
The Arunachal Himalayas ............................................................................................................ 6
The Eastern Hills and Mountains ................................................................................................. 6
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The Northern Plains ..................................................................................................................... 6
The Peninsular Plateau ................................................................................................................. 7
The Deccan Plateau ..................................................................................................................... 8
The Central Highlands ................................................................................................................. 8
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The Northeastern Plateau ............................................................................................................. 9

The Indian Desert ........................................................................................................................ 9
The Coastal Plains ....................................................................................................................... 9
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The Islands ............................................................................................................................... 10

2. DDRAINAGE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 11
Drainage systems of India .......................................................................................................... 12
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Important Drainage Patterns ....................................................................................................... 12

The Himalayan Drainage ............................................................................................................ 12
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage .......................................................................................... 12
The river Systems of the Himalayan Drainage ............................................................................. 13
The Indus system ...................................................................................................................... 13
The Ganga System ..................................................................................................................... 14
The Brahmaputra System ........................................................................................................... 15
The peninsular drainage system ................................................................................................. 16
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System ............................................................................ 16
River systems of the peninsular drainage .................................................................................... 16
Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West .................................................................................... 17
3. CLIMATE ....................................................................................................................... 19
Factors determining the climate of India ...................................................................................... 19
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II Contents
Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season .............................................................................. 20

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) .................................................................................... 21
Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season ............................................................................ 21
The Nature of Indian Monsoon .................................................................................................. 22
Onset of the Monsoon ............................................................................................................... 22
Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall Distribution ........................................................................... 23
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon ............................................................................................... 23
Break in the Monsoon ................................................................................................................ 24
The Rhythm of Seasons ............................................................................................................. 24
Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather Season .................................................................... 24
The Cold Weather Season .......................................................................................................... 24
Role of Westerly Jet Stream ........................................................................................................ 25
The Hot Weather Season ........................................................................................................... 26
The Southwest Monsoon Season .............................................................................................. 27
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Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea ........................................................................................... 27
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal ........................................................................................ 28
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall ........................................................................................ 28
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Season of Retreating Monsoon ..................................................................................................
Distribution of Rainfall ...............................................................................................................
Types of Forests ........................................................................................................................
29
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31
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Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests .......................................................................... 31
4. NATURAL VEGETATION .................................................................................................... 31
Tropical Deciduous Forests ....................................................................................................... 32
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Tropical Thorn Forests .............................................................................................................. 32

Montane Forests ....................................................................................................................... 32
Littoral and Swamp Forests ........................................................................................................ 33
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Forest cover in India .................................................................................................................. 34

Forest Conservation .................................................................................................................. 34
Social Forestry........................................................................................................................... 35
Farm Forestry ............................................................................................................................ 35
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Wildlife ...................................................................................................................................... 35
Wildlife Conservation in India .................................................................................................... 36
Biosphere Reserves ................................................................................................................... 37
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve ........................................................................................................... 37
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve .................................................................................................. 37
Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve .................................................................................................. 38
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve ............................................................................................. 38
5. SOILS ............................................................................................................................ 39
Classification of Soils ................................................................................................................. 39
Alluvial Soils ............................................................................................................................. 40
Black Soil ................................................................................................................................... 40
Red and Yellow Soil ................................................................................................................... 40
Laterite Soil ............................................................................................................................... 41
Contents III
Arid Soils .................................................................................................................................. 41
Saline Soils ................................................................................................................................ 41
Peaty Soils ................................................................................................................................. 41
Forest Soils ............................................................................................................................... 42
Soil Degradation ........................................................................................................................ 42
Soil Erosion ............................................................................................................................... 42
Soil Conservation ...................................................................................................................... 43
Water Resources ....................................................................................................................... 43
Water Resources of India ........................................................................................................... 43
Surface Water Resources ........................................................................................................... 44
Groundwater Resources ............................................................................................................. 44
Demand of Water for Irrigation ................................................................................................... 45
Prevention of Water Pollution .................................................................................................... 46
Watershed Management ............................................................................................................ 46
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Rainwater Harvesting ................................................................................................................. 47
Highlights of Indias National Water Policy, 2002 ........................................................................ 47
6. LAND USE AND AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................... 49
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Land-use Changes in India .........................................................................................................
Agricultural Land Use in India ....................................................................................................
Primitive Subsistence Farming ....................................................................................................
50
51
52
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Intensive Substance Farming ..................................................................................................... 52
Commercial Farming ................................................................................................................... 53
Types of Farming ....................................................................................................................... 53
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Cropping Pattern ....................................................................................................................... 53

Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology .......................................................................... 59
7. MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES ................................................................................... 61
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Mode of Occurrence of Minerals ................................................................................................ 61

Agencies Involved in the exploration of minerals ........................................................................ 62
Distribution of Minerals in India ................................................................................................. 62
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Major Industries ........................................................................................................................ 67

The Iron and Steel Industry........................................................................................................ 67
Integrated Steel Plants ............................................................................................................... 68
Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL) .......................................................................... 68
Rourkela Steel Plant ................................................................................................................... 68
Bhilai Steel Plant ........................................................................................................................ 69
The Cotton Textile Industry........................................................................................................ 69
8. SUGAR INDUSTRY ............................................................................................................ 72
Location of the Sugar Industry................................................................................................... 72
Petrochemical Industries ............................................................................................................ 73
Knowledge based Industries ...................................................................................................... 74
Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development in India ................... 74
Industrial Region and Districts ................................................................................................... 75
IV Contents
Industrial Regions in India ......................................................................................................... 76

Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region ................................................................................................. 76
Hugli Industrial Region .............................................................................................................. 77
Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region ......................................................................................... 77
Gujarat Industrial Region ............................................................................................................ 78
Chotanagpur Region .................................................................................................................. 78
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region ................................................................................................. 78
Gurgaon-Delhi-Merrut Region .................................................................................................... 79
Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region .............................................................................................. 79
9. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION ...................................................................................... 80
Land Transport .......................................................................................................................... 80
Indian Road Network (2005) ....................................................................................................... 80
Rural Roads ............................................................................................................................... 81
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Other Roads .............................................................................................................................. 81
National Highways Development Projects .................................................................................. 81
Rail Transport ............................................................................................................................ 82
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Water Transport ........................................................................................................................
Inland Waterways ......................................................................................................................
Oceanic Routes .........................................................................................................................
Air Transportation .....................................................................................................................
83
83
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83
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History of Indian Airlines ........................................................................................................... 84
Mass Communication System .................................................................................................... 85
International Trade .................................................................................................................... 86
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Direction of Trade ...................................................................................................................... 87

Ports ......................................................................................................................................... 87
Tourism as a Trade ..................................................................................................................... 89
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11. OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 90

The Moon ................................................................................................................................. 91
Development of Lithosphere ...................................................................................................... 91
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Minerals & Rocks ...................................................................................................................... 92

Metallic Minerals ....................................................................................................................... 92
Non-Metallic Minerals ............................................................................................................... 93
Rocks ........................................................................................................................................ 93
Igneous Rocks ........................................................................................................................... 93
Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................................................... 93
Metamorphic Rocks ................................................................................................................... 94
Interior of the Earth .................................................................................................................... 94
Direct Sources ........................................................................................................................... 94
Indirect Sources ......................................................................................................................... 94
Earthquake ................................................................................................................................ 94
Why does the earth shake? ........................................................................................................ 94
Earthquake Waves ..................................................................................................................... 95
Propagation of Earthquake Waves .............................................................................................. 95
Contents V
Emergence of Shadow Zone ....................................................................................................... 95
Measuring Earthquakes ............................................................................................................. 96
Structure of the Earth ................................................................................................................. 96
12. LAND FORMS .................................................................................................................. 99
Running Water .......................................................................................................................... 99
Youth ........................................................................................................................................ 99
Mature ...................................................................................................................................... 99
Old ........................................................................................................................................... 100
Erosional landforms .................................................................................................................. 100
Vallyes...................................................................................................................................... 100
Potholes and Pluge Pools .......................................................................................................... 100
Incised or Entrenched Meanders ............................................................................................... 100
River Terraces ........................................................................................................................... 100
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Depositional Landforms ............................................................................................................ 100
Alluvial Fans ............................................................................................................................ 100
Deltas ....................................................................................................................................... 100
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Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars ............................................................................... 100
Meanders ................................................................................................................................. 101
Groundwater ............................................................................................................................. 101
Erosional Landforms ................................................................................................................. 102
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Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone Pavements ................................................................... 102
Glaciers .................................................................................................................................... 102
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Horns and Serrated Ridges ........................................................................................................ 103

Glacial Valleys/Troughs............................................................................................................. 103
Depositional Landforms ............................................................................................................ 103
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Eskers ...................................................................................................................................... 103

Outwash Plains ......................................................................................................................... 104
Drumlins ................................................................................................................................... 104
Waves and Currents ................................................................................................................. 104
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High Rocky Coasts ................................................................................................................... 104

Low sedimentary coasts ............................................................................................................ 105
Depositional landforms ............................................................................................................. 105
14. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE .............................................................. 109
Composition and Structure of Atmosphere ................................................................................ 109
Composition of the Atmosphere ................................................................................................ 109
Structure of the Atmosphere ..................................................................................................... 110
Evaporation and Condensation ................................................................................................. 111
Geography
1 1
INDIA - LOCATION
The mainland of India, extends from climate, soil types and natural vegetation in
Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the country.
the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east There is a general understanding among
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to Gujarat in the west. Indias territorial limit the countries of the world to select the
further extends towards the sea upto 12 standard meridian in multiples of 730 of
nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. longitude. That is why 8230 E has been
(See the box for conversion).
Statute mile= 63,360 inches
Nautical mile= 72,960 inches
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selected as the standard meridian of India.
Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich
Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes.
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1 Statute mile= about 1.6 km (1.584 km) There are some countries where there
1 Nautical mile= about 1.8 km (1.852 km) are more than one standard meridian due to
Our southern boundary extends upto their vast east-to-west extent. For example,
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645 N latitude in the Bay of Bengal. If you the USA has seven time zones.
work out the latitudinal and longitudinal Now, let us observe the extent and its
extent of India, they are roughly about 30 implications on the Indian people. From the
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degrees, whereas the actual distance values of longitude, it is quite discernible that
measured from north to south extremity is there is a variation of nearly 30 degrees, which
3,214 km, and that from east to west is only causes a time difference of nearly two hours
between the easternmost and the
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2,933 km. What is the reason for this

difference? westernmost parts of our country. What is
This difference is based on the fact that the use of the standard meridian? While the
the distance between two longitudes sun rises in the northeastern states about two
decreases towards the poles whereas the hours earlier as compared to Jaisalmer, the
distance between two latitudes remains the watches in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and
same everywhere. Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other
parts of India show the same time. Why does
From the values of latitude, it is
this happen?
understood that the southern part of the
country lies within the tropics and the Name a few place in India through
northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or which the standard meridian passes?
the warm temperate zone. This location is India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km
responsible for large variations in land forms, accounts for 2.4 per cent of the worlds land
2 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
surface area and stands as the seventh largest subjected to various vertical movements and
country in the world. block faulting. The rift valleys of the
Structure and Physiography Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and
the Satpura block mountains are some
Current estimation shows that the earth
examples of it. The Peninsula mostly consists
is approximately 4600 million years old.
of relict and residual mountains like the
Based on the variations in its geological
Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi
structure and formations, Indian can be
hills, the Veliconds hills, the Palkonda range
divided into three geological divisions. These
and the Mahendragiri hills, etc. The river
geological regions broadly follow the physical
valleys here are shallow with low gradients.
features:
Most of the east flowing rivers form
(i) The Peninsular Block
deltas before entering into the Bay of Bengal.
(ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular
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The deltas formed by the Mahanadi, the
Mountains Krishna, the Kaveri and the Godavari are
(iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain important examples.
The Peninsular Block
The northern boundary of the
Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular
p.
The Himalayas and
other Peninsular Mountains
The Himalayas along with other
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the running from Kachchh along the western peninsular mountains are young, weak and
flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and flexible in their geological structure unlike the
then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the rigid and stable peninsular Block,
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Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Consequently, they are still subjected to the
Ganga delta. Apart from these, the Karbi interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces,
Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau the the resulting in the development of faults, folds
northeast and Rajasthan in the west are also
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and thrust plains. These mountains are

extensions of this block. The northeastern tectonic in origin, dissected by fast-flowing
parts are separated by the Media fault in rivers which are in their youthful stage.
West Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped
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In Rajasthan, the desert and other desert-like valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative
features overlay this block. of this stage.
The Peninsula is formed essentially by Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
a great complex of very ancient gneisses and The third geological division of India
granites, which constitutes as major part of comprises the plains form by the river Indus,
it. Since the Cambrian period, the Peninsula the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Originally,
has been standing like a rigid block with the it was a geo-synclinal depression which
exception of some of its western coast which attained its maximum development during
is submerged beneath the sea and some other the third phase of the Himalayan during the
parts changed due to tectonic activity without third phase of the Himalayan mountain
affecting the original basement. As a part of formation approximately about 64 million
the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been years ago. Since then, it has been gradually
India - Location 3
filled by the sediments brought by the of extensive alluvial deposits led to the
Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. Average formation of the northern plains of India.
depth of alluvial deposits in these plains The land of India displays great physical
ranges from 1,000-2,000 m. variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau
Physiography constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on
Physiography of an area is the outcome the earths surface. It was supposed to be one
of structure, process and the stage of of the most stable land blocks. The
development. Himalayans and the Northern Plains are the
most recent landforms. From the view point
Based on these macro variations, India
of geology, Himalayan Mountains form an
can be divided into the follow physiographic
unstable zone. The whole mountain system
divisions:
of Himalaya represents a very youthful
(i) The Northern and Northeastern
in
topography with high peaks, deep valleys
Mountains
and fast flowing rivers. The northern plains
(ii) The Northern Plain are formed of alluvial deposits. The
(iii) The Peninsular Plateau peninsular plateau is composed of igneous
(iv) The Indian Desert
(v) The Coastal Plains
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and metamorphic rocks with gently rising
hills and wide valleys.
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(vi) The Islands. The Himalayan Mountains
North and North Eastern Himalaya: The Himalayas, geologically young and
structurally fold mountains stretch over the
Formation of Physical features of north
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northern borders of India. These mountain

and north-eastern Himalay is a result of
ranges run in a west-east direction from the
Plate tectonics According to Plate Tectonic
Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas
theory earth is divided into several plateau.
represent the loftiest and one of the most
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The formation of Himalaya & north eastern

rugged mountain barriers of the world. They
mountain is due to convergent of two plates
form an arc, which covers a distance of about
Eurasia (North of Himalaya) and Gondwana
2,400 Km.
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(Indian subcontinents Australia, South Africa,

Their width varies from 400 Km in
South America). Both the plates came close
Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
to each other and tethys sediment called
The altitudinal variations are greater in the
geosynclines was pressed from two sides
eastern half than those in the western half.
gave birth to current Himalaya mountains.
The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges
The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys
in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys
sea and subsidence of the northern flank of lie between these ranges. The northern most
the peninsular plateau resulted in the
range is known as the Great or Inner
formation of a large basin. In due course of Himalayas of the Himadri. It is the most
time this depression, gradually got filled with
continuous range consisting of the loftiest
deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing
peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres.
from the mountains in the north and the
It contains all the prominent Himalayan
peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land
peaks. The folds of Great Himalayas are There are large-scale regional variations
asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part within the Himalayas. On the basis of relief,
of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is alignment of ranges and other
perennially snow bound, and a number of geomorphological features the Himalayas can
glaciers descend from this range. be divided into the following sub-divisions:
The range lying to the south of the Longitudinal division
Himadri forms the most rugged mountain (i) Kashmir or Northwestern
system and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalayas
Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed
(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal
of highly compressed and altered rocks. The
Himalayas
altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres
and the average width is of 50 Km. While (iii) Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
(iv) Arunachal Himalayas
in
the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and
the most important rage, the Dhaula Dhar (v) Eastern Hills and Mountains
and the Mahabharat ranges are also Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
prominent ones. This range consists of the
famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and
Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region
is well known for its hill stations.
p. It comprise a series of ranges such as
the Karakoram. Ladakh. Zaskar and Pir
Panjal. The northeastern part of the Kashmir
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Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies
Karewas between the Greater Himalayas and the
Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial Karakoram ranges. Between the Great
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clay and other materials embedded with Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range, lies the
moraines. The outer most range of the world famous valley of Kashmir and the
Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They famous Dal Lake. Important glaciers of South
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extend over a width of 10.50 Km and have Asia such as the Baltoro and Siachen are also
an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 found in this region. The Kashmir Himalayas
metres. These ranges are composed of are also famous for Karewa formations, which
unconsolidated sediment brought down by
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are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local

rivers from the main Himalayans ranges variety of saffron. Some of the important
located farther north. These valleys are passes of the region are Zoji La on the Great
covered with thick gravel and alluvium. The Himalayas. Banihal on the Panjal, Photu La
longitudinal valley lying between lesser on the Zaskar and Khardung La on the
Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Ladakh range. Some of the important fresh
Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun lakes such as Dal and Wular and salt water
are some of the well-known Duns. lakes such as Pangong Tso and Moriri are also
An Interesting Fact in Kashmir Valley, in this region. This region is drained by the
the meanders in Jhelum river are caused by river Indus, and its tributaries such as the
the local base level provided by the erstwhile Jhelum and the Chenab. The Kashmir and
larger lake of which the present Dal lake is a northwestern Himalayas are well-known for
small part. their scenic beauty and picturesque
India - Location 5
landscape. The landscape of Himalayas is a m specially attracted to the British colonial

major source of attraction for adventure administration, and subsequently, some of the
tourists. Some famous places of pilgrimage important hill stations such as Dharamshala,
such as Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Mussoorie, Shimla Kaosani and the
Charar -e-Shariff, etc. are also located here cantonment towns and health resorts such as
and large number of pilgrims visits these Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora,
places every year. Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc. were
Srinagar, capital city of the Jammu and developed in this region.
Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum The two distinguishing features of this
river. Dal Lake in Srinagar presents an region from the point of view of
interesting physical feature. Jhelum in the physiography are the Shiwalik and Dun
valley of Kashmir is still in its youth stage formations. Some important duns located in
in
and yet forms meanders- a typical feature this region are the Chandigarh- Kalka dun,
associated with the mature stage in the Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and
evolution of fluvial land form. the Kota dun, etc. Dehra Dun is the largest
of all the duns with an approximate length
The southernmost part of this region
consists of longitudinal valleys known as
duns. Jammu dun and Pathankot dun are
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of 35-45 km and a width of 22-25 km. In the
Great Himalayan range, the valleys are
mostly inhabited by the Bhotias. These are
important examples.
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The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalays nomadic groups who migrate to Bugyals
(the summer grasslands in the higher reaches)
This part lies approximately between the
during summer months and return to the
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Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of

valleys during winters. The famous Valley
Ghaghara) in the east. It is drained by two
of flowers is also situated in this region. The
major river systems of India, i.e. the Indus
places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri,
ar
and the Ganga. Tributaries of the Indus

Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and
include the river Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj,
Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this part.
and the tributaries of Ganga flowing through
The region is also known to have five famous
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this region include the Yamuna and the

Prayags (river confluences). Can you name
Ghaghara. The northernmost part of the
some other famous prayags in other parts of
Himachal Himalayas is an extension of the
the country?
Ladakh cold desert, which lies in the Spiti
subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti. All the The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
three ranges of Himalayas are prominent in They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas
this section also. These are the Great in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east.
Himalayan range, the Lesser Himalayas It is relatively small but is a most significant
(which is locally known as Dhaoladhar in part of the Himalayas. Known for its fast-
Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in flowing rivers such as Tista, it is a region of
Uttaranchal) and the Shiwalik range from the high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga
North to the South. In this section of Lesser (Kanchengiri), and deep valleys. The higher
Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 reaches of this region are inhabited by
Lepcha tribes while the southern part, these communities practice Jhumming. It is
particularly the Darjeeling Himalayas, has a also known as shifting or slash and Figure:
mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and Eastern Himalayas communities. Due to
tribals from Central India. The British, taking rugged topography, the inter-valley
advantage of the physical conditions such as transportation linkages are nominal. Hence,
moderate slope, thick soil cover with high most of the interactions are carried through
organic content, well distributed rainfall the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam
throughout the year and mild winters, border.
introduced tea plantations in this region. As The Eastern Hills and Mountains
compared to the other sections of the
These are part of the Himalayan
Himalayas, these along with the Arunachal mountain system having their general
Himalayas are conspicuous by the absence of
alignment from the north to the south
the Shiwalik formations. In place of Shiwaliks
in
direction. They are known by different local
here, the duar formations are important, names. In the north, they are known as Patkai
which have also been used for the
Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in the
development of tea gardens. Sikkim and
Darjeeling Himalayas are also known for
their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
particularly various types of orchids.
p.
south as Mizo or Lushai hills. These are low
hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups
practicing Jhum cultivation.
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Most of these ranges are separated from
The Arunachal Himalayas each other by numerous small rivers. The
These extend from the east of the Bhutan Barak is an important river in Manipur and
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Himalayas upto the Diphu pass in the east. Mizoram. The physiography of Manipur is
The general direction of the mountain range unique by the presence of a large lake known
is from southwest to northeast. Some of the as Loktak lake at the centre, surrounded by
important mountain peaks of the region are
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mountains from all sides. Mzoram which is

Kangtu and Namcha Barwa. These rangers also known as the Molassis basin which is
are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.
north to the south, forming deep gorges. Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the
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Brahmaputra flows through a deep gorge tributary of the Brahmaputra. While two
after crossing Namcha Barwa. Some of the rivers of Mizoram and Manipur are the
important rivers are the Kameng, the tributaries of Barak river, which in turn is
Subansiri, the Dihang and the Lohit. the tributary of Meghna; the rivers in the
These are perennial with the high rate eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries
of fall, thus, having the highest hydro-electric of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of
power potential in the country. An important the Irrawaddy of Myanmar.
aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the The Northern Plains
numerous ethnic tribal community inhabiting
The northern plains are formed by the
in these areas. Some of the prominent ones
alluvial deposits brought by the rivers- the
from west to east are the Monpa, Daffla,
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of
These plain extend approximately 3,200 km
India - Location 7
from the east to the west. The average width sea level. The states of Haryana and Delhi
of these plains varies between 150-300 km. form a water divide between the Indus and
The maximum depth of alluvium deposits the Ganga river systems. As opposed to this,
varies between 1,000-2,000 m. From the north the Brahmaputra river flows from the
to the south, these can be divided into three northeast to the southwest direction before
major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the it takes an almost 90 southward turn at
alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be Dhubri before it enters into Bangladesh.
further divided into the Khadar and the These river valley plains have a fertile alluvial
Bhangar. soil cover which supports a variety of crops
Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between like wheat, rice, sugarcane and jute, and
8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at hence, supports a large population.
the break-up of the slope. As a result of this, The Peninsular Plateau
in
the streams and rivers coming from the Rising from the height of 150 m above
mountain deposit heavy materials of rocks the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900
and boulders, and at times, disappear in this m is the irregular triangle known as the
zone. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt,
with an approximate width of 10-20 km
where most of the streams and rivers re-
emerge without having any properly
p.
peninsular plateau. Delhi ridge in the
northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the
Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the
re
west and the Cardamom hills in the south
demarcated channel, thereby, creating constitute the outer extent of the peninsular
marshy and swampy conditions known as the plateau. However, an extension of this is also
Tarai. This has a luxurious growth of natural
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seen in the northeast, in the form of Shillong

vegetation and houses a varied wild life. Karbi-Anglong plateau. The peninsular India
The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of is made up of a series of patland plateaus such
old and new alluvial deposits known as the as the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu
ar
Bhangar and Khadar respectively. These plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa
plains have characteristic features of mature plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the
stage of fluvial erosional and depositional Karnataka plateau, etc. This is one of the
Sm
landforms such as sand bars, meanders, oldest and the most stable landmass of India.
oxbow lakes and braided channels. The The general elevation of the plateau is from
Brahmaputra plains are known for their the west to the east, which s also proved by
riverine islands and sand bars. Most of these the pattern of the flow of rivers. Name some
areas are subjected to periodic floods and rivers of the peninsular plateau which have
shifting river courses forming braided their confluence in the Bay of Bengal and the
streams. Arabian sea and mention some landforms
The mouths of these mighty rivers also which are typical to the east flowing rivers
form some of the largest deltas of the world, but are absent in the west flowing rivers.
for example, the famous Sunderbans delta. Some of the important physiographic features
Otherwise, this is a featureless plain with a of this region are tors, block mountains, rift
general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, series
of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous
dykes offering natural sites for water storage. and low hills are highly eroded by the rivers
The western and northwestern part of the such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
plateau has an emphatic presence of black Krishna, the Kaveri, etc. Some of the
soil. This peninsular plateau has undergone important ranges include the Javadi hills, the
recurrent phases of upliftment and Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, the
submergence accompanied by crustal faulting Mahendragiri hills, etc. The Eastern and the
and fractures. (The Bhima fault needs special Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri
mention, because of its recurrent seismic hills.
activities). These spatial variations have The Central Highlands
brought in elements of diversity in the relief They are bounded to the west by the
of the peninsular plateau. The northwestern
Aravali range. The Satpura range is formed
part of the plateau has a complex relief of
in
by a series of scarped plateaus on the south,
ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, generally at an elevation varying between
Bhind and Morena are some of the well-
600-900 m above the mean sea level. This
known examples.
On the basis of the prominent relief
features, the peninsular plateau can be
divided into three broad groups: (i) The
p.
forms the northernmost boundary of the
Deccan plateau. It is a classic example of the
relict mountains which are highly denuded
re
and form discontinuous ranges. The extension
Deccan Plateau (ii) The Central Highlands (iii) of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far
The Northeastern Plateau. as Jaisalmer in the West, where it has been
The Deccan Plateau
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covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and

This is bordered by the Western Ghats crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and This region has undergone metamorphic
processes in its geological history, which can
ar
the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills

in the north. Western Ghats are locally be corroborated by the presence of
known by different names such as Sahyadri metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate,
in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and gneiss, etc.
Sm
Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and The general elevation of the Central
Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above
comparatively higher in elevation and more the mean sea level and it slopes towards the
continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their north and northeastern directions. Most of
average elevation is about 1,500 m with the the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their
height increasing from north to south. origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
Anaimudi (2,695 m), the highest peak of Banas is the only significant tributary of the
Peninsular plateaus is located on the river Chambal that originates from the
Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats Aravalli in the west. An eastern extension of
followed by Dodabetta (2,670 m) on the the Central Highland is formed by the
Nilgiri hills. Most of the Peninsular rivers Rajmahal hills, to the south of which lies a
have their origin in the Western Ghats. large reserve of mineral resources in the
India - Location 9
Chotanagpur plateau. wood fossils park at Aakal and marine

The Northeastern Plateau deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer
(The approximate age of the wood fossils is
In fact it is an extension of the main
peninsular plateau, it is believed that due to estimated to be 180 million years).
the force exerted by the northeastward Though the underlying rock structure
movement of the Indian plate at the time of of the desert is an extension of the peninsular
the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created plateau, yet, due to extreme arid conditions,
between the Rajmahal hills and the its surface features have been carved by
Meghalaya plateau. Later, this depression got physical weathering and wind actions. Some
filled up by the deposition activity of the of the well pronounced desert land features
numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya and present here are mushroom rocks, shifting
Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part).
in
the main peninsular Block. The meghalaya On the basis of the orientation, the desert
plateau is further sub-divided into three: (i) can be divided into two parts: the northern
The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (ii) The part is sloping towards Sindh and the
southern towards the Rann of Kachchh. Most
Jaintia Hills, named after the tribal groups
inhabiting this region. An extension of this is
also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.
p.
of the rivers in this region are ephemeral. The
Luni river flowing in the southern part of the
desert is of some significance. Low
re
Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the
Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral precipitation and high evaporation makes it
resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, a water deficit region. There are some streams
which disappear after flowing for some
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limestone and uranium. This area receives

maximum rainfall from the south west distance and present a typical case of inland
monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau drainage by joining a lake or playa. The lakes
has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapunji and the playas have brackish water which is
ar
displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any the main source of obtaining salt.
permanent vegetation cover. The Coastal Plains
India has a long coastline. On the basis
Sm
The Indian Desert

To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies of the location and active geomorphological
the Great Indian desert. It is a land of processes, it can be divided into two: (i) the
undulating topography dotted with western coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal
longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region plains.
receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; The western coastal plains are an
hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation example of submerged coastal plain. It is
cover. It is because of these characteristic believed that the city of Dwaraka which was
features that this is also known as Marusthali. once a part of the Indian mainland situated
It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, along the west coast is submerged under
this region was under the sea. This can be water. Because of this submergence it is a
corroborated by the evidence available at narrow belt and provides natural conditions
for the development of ports and harbours.
Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, The Islands

Marmagao. Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some There are two major island groups in
of the important natural ports located along India- one in the Bay of Bengal and the other
the west coast. Extending from the Gujarat in the Arabian. The Bay of Bengal Island
coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the groups consist of about 572 islands/islets.
south, the western coast may be divided into These are situated roughly between 6N
following divisions- the Kachchh and 14N and 92E-94E. The two principal groups
Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast in of islets include the Ritchies archipelago and
Maharashtra. Goa coast and Malabar coast the Labrynth island. The entire group of
in Karnataka and Kerala respectively. The island is divided into two broad categories-
western coastal plains are narrow in the the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar
middle and get broader towards north and in the south. They are separated by a water
south. The rivers flowing through this coastal
in
body which is called the Ten degree channel.
plain do not form any delta. The Malabar It s believed that these islands are an elevated
coast has got certain distinguishing features portion of submarine mountains. However,
in the form of Kayals (backwaters), which
are used for fishing, inland navigation and
also due to its special attraction for tourists.
Every year the famous Nehru Trophy
p.
some smaller islands are volcanic in origin.
Barren island, the only active volcano in India
is also situated in the Nicobar islands.
re
The coastal line has some coral deposits,
Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada and beautiful beaches. These islands receive
Kayal in Kerala. conventional rainfall and have an equatorial
Some important mountain peaks in type of vegetation.
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Andaman and Nicobar islands are Saddle The islands of the Arabian sea include
peak (North Andaman- 738 m), Mount Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These are
Diavolo (Middle Andaman- 515 m), Mount scattered between 8N and 71E- 74E
ar
Koyob (South Andaman- 460 m) and Mount longitude. These islands are located at a
Thuiller (Great Nicobar- 642 m). distance of 280 km- 480 km off the Kerala
As compared to the western coastal coast. The entire island group is built of coral
Sm
plain, the eastern coastal plain is broader and deposits. There are approximately 36 islands
is an example of an emergent coast. There of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the
are well developed deltas here, formed by largest island with an area of 453 sq. km. The
the rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of entire group of islands is broadly divided by
Bengal. These include the deltas of the the Eleventh degree channel, north of which
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the is the Amini Island and to the south of the
Kaveri. Because of its emergent nature, it has Canannore Island. The islands of this
less number of ports and harbours. The archipelago have storm beaches consisting of
continental shelf extends up to 500 km into unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and
the sea, which makes it difficult for the boulders on the eastern seaboard.
development of good ports and harbours.
Name some ports on the eastern coast.
Geography
2 11
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
A river drains the water collected from the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay
a specific area, which is called its catchment of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the
area. Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and
in
The flow of water through well-defined the Periyar systems discharge their waters
channels is known as drainage and the in the Arabian Sea.
network of such channels is called a drainage On the basis of the size of the
system. The drainage pattern of an area is
the outcome of the geological time period,
nature and structure of rocks, topography,
p.
watershed, the drainage basins of India are
grouped into three categories: (i) Major river
basins with more than 20,000 sq. km. of
re
slope, amount of water flowing and the catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins
periodically of the flow. such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the
An area drained by a river and its Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi,
the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. (ii)
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tributaries is called a drainage basin. The

boundary line separating one drainage basin Medium river basins with catchment area
from the other is known as the watershed. between 2,000- 20,000 sq. km. incorporating
The catchments of large rivers are called river 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the
ar
basins while those of small rivulets and rills Periyar, the Meghna, etc. (iii) Minor river
are often referred to as watersheds. There is basins with catchment area of less than 2,000
however, a slight difference between a river sq. km. include fairly good number of rivers
Sm
basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small flowing in the area of low rainfall.
in area while the basins cover larger areas. The Narmada and Tapi are two large
Indian drainage system may be divided rivers which are exceptions. They along with
on various bases. On the basis of discharge many small rivers discharge their waters in
of water (orientations to the sea), it may be the Arabian Sea.
grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea drainage; On the basis of the mode of origin,
and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are nature and characteristics, the Indian
separated from each other through the Delhi drainage may also be classified into the
ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water Himalayan drainage and the peninsular
divide is shown by a line in Figure. Nearly drainage. Although it has the problem of
77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of including the Chambal, the Betwa, the Son,
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, etc. which are much older in age and origin
than other rivers that have their origin in the Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form
Himalayas, it is the most accepted basis of V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in
classification. their mountainous course. While entering the
Drainage systems of India plains, they form depositional features like
flat valleys, ox-bow, lakes, flood plains,
Indian drainage system consists of a
braided channels, and deltas near the river
large number of small and big rivers. It is
mouth. In the Himalayan reaches, the course
the outcome of the evolutionary process of
of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over
the three major physiographic units and the
the plains they display a strong meandering
nature and characteristics of precipitation. tendency and shift their courses frequently.
Important Drainage Patterns River Kosi, also know as the sorrow of
(i) The drainage pattern resembling the Bihar, has been notorious for frequently
branches of a tree is known as changing its course. The Kosi brings huge
in
dendritic the examples of which quantity of sediments from its upper reaches
are the rivers of northern plain. and deposits in the plains. The course gets
(ii) When the rivers originate from a hill blocked, and consequently the river changes
and flow in all directions, the
drainage pattern is known as radial.
The rivers originating from the
p.
its course.
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage
There are difference of opinion about
re
Amarkantak range present a good the evolution of the Himalayan rivers.
example of it. However, geologists believe that a mighty
(iii) When the primary tributaries of river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma
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rivers flow parallel to each other and traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the
secondary tributaries join them at Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards
right angles, the pattern is known to Sind, and finally discharge into the Gulf
ar
as trellis. of Sind near lower Punjab during the

(iv) When the rivers discharge their Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.
waters from all directions in a lake The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik
Sm
or depression, the pattern is know and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits
as centripetal. consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and
conglomerates support this viewpoints.
The Himalayan Drainage
It is opined that in due course of time
The Himalayan drainage system has Indo-Brahma river was dismembered into
evolved through a long geological history. It three main drainage systems: (i) the Indus
mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the and its five tributaries in the western part;
Brahmaputra rivers basins. Since these are fed
(ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries
both by melting of snow and precipitation,
in the central part: and (iii) the stretch of the
rivers of this system are perennial. These riv-
Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan
ers pass through the giant gorges carved out
tributaries in the eastern part. The
by the erosional activity carried on simulta-
dismemberment was probably due to the
neously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
Drainage System 13
Pleistocene upheaval in the western other important tributaries joining the right
Himalayan, including the uplift of the Potwar bank of the Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi,
Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the the Gomal. The Viboa and the Sangar. They
water divide between the Indus and Ganga all originate in the Sulaiman ranges. The river
drainage systems. Likewise, the down flows southward and receives Panjnad a little
thrusting of the Malda gap area between the above Mithankot. The Panjnad is the name
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the
during the mid-Pleistocene period, period, Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the
diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra Jhelum. It finally discharges into the Arabian
systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal. Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus flows in India
The river only through the Leh district in Jammu and
Systems of the Himalayan Drainage Kashmir.
in
The Himalayan drainage consists of The Jhelum an important tributary of the
several river systems but the following are Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated
the major river systems: at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-
eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows
The Indus system
It is one of the largest river basins of
the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq.
p.
through Srinagar and the Wular lake before
entering Pakistan through a deep narrow
gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in
re
km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total Pakistan. The Chenab is the largest tributary
length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km). The of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at
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westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
(31 15 N latitude and 8140 E longitude) in The river flows for 1,180 km before entering
ar
the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m into Pakistan.

in the Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, it is
The Ravi is another important tributary
known as Singi Khamban; or Lions mouth.
of the Indus it rises west of the Rohtang pass
Sm
After flowing in the northwest direction

in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and
between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it
flows through the Chamba valley of the state.
passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts
Before entering Pakistan and joining the
across the ladakh range, forming a
Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area
spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and
lying between the southeastern part of the
Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chillar
Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
in the Dardistan region.
The Beas is another important tributary
The Indus receives a number of
of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund
Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the
near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the
m above the mean sea level. The river flows
Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras. It finally
through the Kullu valley and forms gorges
emerges out of the hills near Attock where it
at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It
receives the Kabul river on its right bank. The
enters the Punjab plains where it meets the river system is the largest in India having a
Satluj near Harike. number of perennial and non-perennial rivers
The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake originating in the Himalayas in the north and
near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in the Peninsula in the south, respectively. The
Tibet where it is known as Langchen Son is its major right bank tributary. The
Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the Indus important left bank tributaries are the
for about 400 km before entering India, and Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
comes out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The
through the Shipki La on the Himalayan river finally discharges itself into the Bay of
ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an Bengal near the Sagar Island.
antecedent river. It is a very important The Yamuna, the western most and the
tributary as it feeds the canal system of the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source
in
Bhakra Nangal project. in the Yamunotri glacier on the western
The Ganga System slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It
joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is
The Ganga is the most important river
joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa
of India both from the point of view of its
basin and cultural significance. It rises in the
Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in
p.
and the Ken on its right bank which originates
from the Peninsular plateau while the
Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna,
re
the Uttarkashi district of Uttarankhand. Here,
etc. join it on its left water feeds the western
it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through
and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for
the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in
irrigation purposes.
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narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi

meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known The Chambal rises near Mhow in the
as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh
northwards through a gorge up wards of
ar
in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The

Alaknanda consists of the Dhaul and the Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar
Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or dam has been constructed. From Kota, it
Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur
Sm
Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets The Chambal is famous for its badland
it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the topography called the Chambal ravines.
plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first The Gandak comprises two streams,
to the south, then to the south-east and east namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises
before splitting into two distributaries, in the Nepal Himalayas between the
namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the
river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga
Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins
(1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
(520 km). The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers
lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga of Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters
Drainage System 15
of its tributaries- Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes The Brahmaputra System
out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at The Brahmaputra, one of the largest
Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali rivers of the world, has its origin in the
Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range
meets the Ganga at Chhapra. near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it
The Kosi is an antecedent river with its traverses eastward longitudinally for a
source to the north of Mount Everest in Ti- distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat
bet, where its main stream Arun rises. After region of southern Tibet, where it is known
crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it as the Tsangpo, which means the purifier.
is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank
the Tamur Kosi from the east. It forms Sapt tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as
Kosi after uniting with the river Arun. a turbulent and dynamic river after carving
The Ramganga is comparatively a small
in
out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas
river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river
It changes its course to the southwest emerges from the foothills under the name
direction after crossing the Shiwalik and
enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near
Najibabad. Finally, it joins the Ganga near
Kannauj. The Damodar occupies the eastern
p.
of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of
Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing
southwest, it receives its main left bank
tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit;
re
margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where thereafter; it is known as the Brahmaputra.
it flows through a rift valley and finally joins The Brahmaputra receives numerous
the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. tributaries in its 750 km long journey through
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Once known as the sorrow of Bengal, the the Assam valley. Its major left bank
Damodar has been now tamed by the tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari
Damodar Valley corporation, multipurpose (South) and Kalang whereas the important
ar
project. right bank tributaries are the Subansiri,

The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Kameng, Manas and sankosh. The Subansiri
Milan glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent
Sm
it is known as the Goriganga. Along the Indo- river. The Brahmaputra enters into
Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows
where it joins the Ghaghara. southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it
The Mahananda is another important on its right bank from where the river is
tributary of the Ganga rising in the known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with
Darjeeling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of
left bank tributary in West Bengal. Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known for
The Son is a large south bank tributary floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.
of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak This is due to the fact that most of its
plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls tributaries are large, and bring large quantity
at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its
west of Patna, to join the Ganga. catchment area.
The peninsular drainage system and deltaic deposits in these rivers, (iii) Slight
The peninsular drainage system is older tilting of the peninsular block from northwest
than the Himalayan one. This is evident from to the southeastern direction gave orientation
the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, to the entire drainage system towards the
and the maturity of the rivers. The Western Bay of Bengal during the same period.
Ghats running close to the western coast act River systems of the peninsular drainage
as the water divide between the major There are a large number of river
peninsular rivers, discharging their water in systems in the peninsular drainage. A brief
the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining account of the major peninsular river systems
the Arabian Sea. Most of the major peninsular is given below:
rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in
west to east. The Chambal, the Sind, the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs
in
Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the through Orissa to discharge its water into
northern part of the peninsular belong to the the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its
Ganga river system. The other major river catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakhs sq.
systems of the peninsular drainage are- the
Mahanadi the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri, Peninsular rivers are characterized by
p.
km. Some navigation is carried on in the lower
course of this river. Fifty three per cent of
the drainage basin of this rivers lies in Madhya
fixed course, absence of meanders and no
re
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent
perennial flow of water. The Narmada and lies in Orissa.
the Tapi which flow through the rift valley
The Godavari is the largest peninsular
are, however, exceptions. They meet in
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river system. It is also called the Dakshin

Arabian sea.
Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of
The Evolution of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the
Peninsular Drainage System
ar
Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the

Three major geological events in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
distant past have shaped the present Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. It
drainage systems of peninsular India: (i)
Sm
is 1,465 km long with a catchment area

Subsidence of the western flank of the spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent
peninsula leading to its submergence below of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in
the sea during the early tertiary period. Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the
Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical rest in Andhra Pradesh. The Penganga, the
plan of the river on either side of the original Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are
watershed. (ii) Upheavel of the Himalayas its principal tributaries. The Godavari is
when the northern flank of the peninsular subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches
block was subjected to subsidence and the to the south of Polavaram, where it forms a
consequent trough faulting. The Narmada picturesque gorge. It is navigable only in the
and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill deltaic stretch. The river after Rajamundri
the original cracks with their detritus splits into several branches forming a large
materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial delta.
Drainage System 17
The Krishna is the second largest east Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent
flowing peninsular river which rises near in Gujarat.
Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total length Luni is the largest river system of
is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near
the Bhima are its major tributaries. Of the Pushkar in two branches. i.e. the Saraswati
total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per and the Sabarmati, which join with each other
cent lies in Maharashyra, 44 per cent in at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes
Karnataka and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh. out of Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills towards the west till Telwara and then takes
1,341m of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its a southwest direction to join the Rann of
length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 Kuchchh. The entire river system is
sq. km. Since the upper catchment area ephemeral.
in
receives rainfall during the southwest River Catchment area sq. km
monsoon season (summer) and the lower Sabarmati 21,674
part during the northeast monsoon season
Mahi 34,842
(winter), the river carries water throughout
the year with comparatively less fluctuation
than the other peninsular rivers. About 3 per
cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41
p.
Dhandhar
Kalinadi
Sharavati
2,770
5,179
2,029
re
per cent in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Bharathapuzha 5,397
Nadu. Its important tributaries are the Periyar 5,243
Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati. Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West
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The Narmada originates on the western The rivers flowing towards the Arabian
flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height sea have short courses. Find out the smaller
of about 1,057 m. Flowing in a rift valley
ar
rivers of Gujarat. The Shetruniji is one such

between the Satpura in the south and the river which rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli
Vindhyan range in the north. It forms a district. The Bhadra, originates near Aniali
picturesque gorge in marble rocks and
Sm
village in Rajkot district. The Dhadhar rises

Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. After near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous
the Arabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a rivers of Gujarat.
broad 27 km long estuary. Its catchment area
The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak
is about 98,796 sq. km. The Sardar Sarovar
hills in Nasik district at an elevation of 670
Project has been constructed on this river.
m. The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district
The Tapi is the other important and falls in the Karwar Bay. The source of
westward flowing river. It originates from Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and
Multai in the Betul district of Madhya traverses a course of 161 km. The Sharavati
Pradesh. It is 724 km long and drains an area is another important river in Karnataka
of 65,145 sq. km. Nearly 79 per cent of its flowing towards the west. The Sharavati
basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka
and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. longest river of Kerala, Bharathapuzha rises
Goa has two important rivers which can be near Annamalai hills. It is also known as
mentioned here. One is Mandovi and the Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km
other is Juari. Compare its catchment area with that of the
River Catchment area sq. km Sharavati river of Karnataka.
The Periyar is the second largest river
Subarnarekha 19.296
of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km.
Baitarni 12.789 You can see that there is a marginal difference
Brahmani 39.033 in the catchment area of the Bhartapuzha and
Penner 55.213 the Periyar rivers.
Palar 17.870 Another river of Kerala worth
Kerala has a narrow coastline. The mentioning is the Pamba river which falls in
in
the Vemobanad lake after traversing a course
of 177 km.
p.
re
tP
ar
Sm
Gist of NCERT
Indian Polity
ISBN: 9789351720249
Book Code: F21
Geography
3 19
CLIMATE
Climate refers to the sum total of Rajasthan. In the coastal area the variation of
weather conditions and variations over a rainfall is less. Whereas in the inner part of
large area for a long period of time (more country the seasonal variation is more. Ac-
in
than thirty years). Weather refers to the state cordingly the Indians show their unity in di-
of the atmosphere over an area at any point versity in terms of food, clothing, housing
of time. and culture.
The elements of weather and climate are
the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric
pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.
p.
Factors determining the climate of India
Indias climate is controlled by a number
of factors which can be broadly divided into
re
You may have observed that the weather two groups- (a) factors related to location and
conditions fluctuate very often even within relief, and (b) factors related to air pressure
a day. But there is some common pattern over and winds.
a few weeks or months, i.e. days are cool or
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(a) Factors related to Location and Relief

hot, windy or calm, cloudy or bright, and
Latitude: You know that the Tropic of
wet or dry. On the basis of the generalized
Cancer passes through the central part of
monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is
ar
India in east-west direction. This, northern

divided into seasons such as winter, summer
part of the India lies in sub-tropical and
or rainy seasons.
temperate zone and the part lying south of
During the summer season the desert
Sm
the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone.

area of Rajasthan witnesses 50 temperature
The tropical zone being nearer to the equator,
whereas Pahalgam sector of Jammu and
experiences high temperatures throughout
Kashmir has 20C temperature. During
the year with small daily and annual range.
winter nights Dras sector of Jammu and
Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being
Kashmir witnesses 45C temperature where
away from the equator, experiences extreme
as Thiruvananthpuram has 20C.
climate with high daily and annual range of
Rainfall also varies in terms of quantity temperature.
and distribution in the regions of Himalaya
The Himalayan Mountains: The
rainfall is in the from of snowy balls where
towering mountain chain provides an
as in the rest of part of India it is a general
invincible shield to protect the subcontinent
rain. Again annual rainfall varies from 400C
from the cold northern winds. The Himalayas
in the Meghalya to 10c in Ladakh and West
also trap the monsoon winds, forcing them
to shed their moisture within the Ghats.

subcontinent. Distribution of Land and (b) Factors
Water: India is flanked by the India Ocean Related to Air Pressure and Wind
on three sides in the south and girdled by a To understand the differences in local
high and continuous mountain-wall in the climates of India, we need to understand the
north. As compared to the landmass, water mechanism of the following three factors:
heats up or cools down slowly. This
(i) Distribution of air pressure and
differential heating of land and sea creates
winds on the surface of the earth.
different air pressure zones in different
seasons in and around the Indian (ii) Upper air circulation caused by
factors controlling global weather
subcontinent. Difference in air pressure
causes reversal in the direction of monsoon and the inflow of different air
masses and jet streams.
winds.
in
Distance from the Sea: With a long (iii) Inflow of western cyclones generally
coastline, large coastal areas have an equable known as disturbances during the
climate. Areas in the interior of India are far winter season and tropical
away from the moderating influence of the
sea. Such areas have extremes of climate. That
is why, the people of Mumbai and the Konkan
p. depressions during the south-west
monsoon period into India, creating
weather conditions favourable to
re
coast have hardly any idea of extremes of rainfall.
temperature and the seasonal rhythm of The mechanism of these three factors can
weather. On the other hand, the seasonal be understood with reference to winter and
tP
contrasts in weather at places in the interior summer seasons of the year separately.
of the country such as Delhi, Kanpur and Mechanism of
Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life. Weather in the Winter Season
ar
Altitude : Temperature decreases with Surface pressure and winds: In winter

height. Due to thin air, places in the months, the weather conditions over India
mountains are cooler than places on the are generally influenced by the distribution
Sm
plains. For example, Agra and Darjeeling are of pressure in Central and Western Asia. A
located on the same latitude, but temperature high pressure centre in the region lying to
of January in Agra is 16C whereas it is only the north of the Himalayas during winter.
4C in Darjeeling. This centre of high pressure gives rise to the
Relief: The physiography or relief of flow of air at the low level from the north
India also affects the temperature, air towards the Indian subcontinent, south of the
pressure, direction and speed of wind and mountain range. The surface winds blowing
the amount and distribution of rainfall. The out of the high pressure centre over Central
windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam Asia reach India in the form of a dry
receive high rainfall during June-September continental air mass. These continental winds
whereas the southern plateau remains dry to come in contact with trade winds over
its leeward situation along the Western northwestern India. The position of this
Climate 21
contact zone is not, however, stable. brought into India by the westerly jet stream.
Occasionally, it may shift its position as far An increase in the prevailing night
east as the middle Ganga valley with the temperature generally indicates an advance
result that whole of northwestern and in the arrival of these cyclones disturbances.
northern India up to the middle Ganga valley Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay
comes under the influence of dry of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. These
northwestern winds. tropical cyclones have very high wind
Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation: velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil
The pattern of air circulation discussed above Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast.
is witnessed only at the lower level of the Most of these cyclones are very destructive
atmosphere near the surface of the earth. due to high wind velocity and torrential rain
Higher up in the lower troposphere, about that accompanies it.
in
three km above the surface of the earth, a Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
different pattern of air circulation is The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
observed. The variations in the atmospheric (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the
pressure closer to the surface of the earth have
no role to play in the making of upper air
circulation. All of Western and Central Asia
remains under the influence of westerly
p.
equator where trade winds converge, and so,
it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July,
the ITCZ is located around 20N latitudes
re
(over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called
winds along the altitude of 9-13 km from the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough
west to east. These winds blow across the encourages the development of thermal low
Asian continent at latitudes north of the over north and northwest India. Due to the
tP
Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the south-
highlands. These are known as jet streams. ern hemisphere cross the equator between
Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path 40E and 60E longitudes and start blowing
ar
of these jet streams. As a result, jet streams from southwest to northeast due to the
get bifurcated. On of its branches blows to Coriolis force. It becomes southwest
the north of the Tibetan highlands, while the monsoon. In winter, the ITCZ moves south-
Sm
southern branch blows in an eastward ward, and so the reversal of winds from
direction, south of the Himalayas. It has its northeast to south and southwest, takes
mean position at 25N in February at 200-300 place. They are called northeast monsoons.
mb level. It is believed that this southern Mechanism of
branch of the jet stream exercise an important Weather in the Summer Season
influence on the winter weather in India. Surface Pressure and Winds: As the
Western Cyclonic Disturbance and summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards,
Tropical Cyclones: The western cyclone the wind circulation over the subcontinent
disturbances which enter the Indian undergoes a complete reversal at both, the
subcontinent from the west and the lower as well as the upper levels. By the
northwest during the winter months middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer
originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are the surface (termed as Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts northwards, the rainfall pattern during the southwest
roughly parallel to the Himalayas between monsoon period.
20N and 25N. By this time, the westerly jet The Nature of Indian Monsoon
stream withdraws from the Indian region. Monsoon is a familiar, though a little
In fact, meteorologists have found an
known climatic phenomenon. Despite the
interrelationship between the northward observations spread over centuries, the
shift of the equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the
monsoon continues to puzzle the scientists.
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from
Many attempts have been made to discover
over the North Indian Plain. It is generally the exact nature and causation of monsoon,
believed that there is a cause and effect
but so far, no single theory has been able to
relationship between the two. The ITCZ being explain the monsoon fully. A real
a zone of low pressure attracts inflow of
breakthrough has come recently when it was
winds from different directions. The
in
studied at the global rather than at regional
maritime tropical air mass (mT) from the level.
southern hemisphere, after crossing the
Systematic studies of the causes of
equator, rushes to the low pressure area in
the general southwesterly direction. It is this
moist air current which is popularly known
as the southwest monsoon.
p.
rainfall in the South Asian region help to
understand the causes and salient features
of the monsoon, particularly some of its
re
important aspects, such as:
Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation:
(i) The onset of the monsoon.
The pattern of pressure and winds as
mentioned above is formed only at the level (ii) Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical
tP
of the troposphere. An easterly jet stream cyclones) and the relationship

flows over the southern part of the Peninsula between their frequency and
in June, and has a maximum speed of 90 km distribution of monsoon rainfall.
ar
per hour. In August, it is confined to 15N (iii) Break in the monsoon.

latitude, and in September up to 22N Onset of the Monsoon
latitudes. The easterlies normally do not Towards the end of the nineteenth
Sm
extend to the north of 30N latitude in the century, it was believed that the differential
upper atmosphere. heating of land and sea during the summer
Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical months is the mechanism which sets the stage
Cyclones: The easterly jet stream steers the for the monsoon winds of drift towards the
tropical depressions into India. These subcontinent. During April and May when
depressions play a significant role in the the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Cancer, the large landmass in the north of
Indian subcontinent. The tracks of these Indian Ocean gets intensely heated. This
depressions are the areas of highest rainfall causes the formation of an intense low
in India. The frequency at which these pressure in the northwestern part of the
depressions visit India, their direction and subcontinent. Since the pressure in the Indian
intensity, all go a long way in determining Ocean in the south of the landmass is high as
Climate 23
water gets heated slowly, the low attracts stream along the eastern coast of
the southeast trades across the Equator. Africa.
These conditions help in the northward shift The frequency of the tropical
in the position of the ITCZ. The southwest depressions originating from the Bay of
monsoon may thus, be seen as a continuation Bengal varies from year to year. Their paths
of the southeast trades deflected towards the over India are mainly determined by the
Indian subcontinent after crossing the position of ITCZ which is generally termed
Equator. These winds cross the Equator as the monsoon trough. As the axis of the
between 40E and 60E longitudes. monsoon trough oscillates, there are
The shift in the position of the ITCZ is fluctuations in the track and direction of these
also related to the phenomenon of the depressions, and the intensity and the
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from amount of rainfall vary from year to year.
in
its position over the north Indian plain, south The rain which comes in spells, displays a
of the Himalayas. The easterly jet stream sets declining trend from west to east over the
in along 15N latitude only after the western west coast, and from the southeast towards
jet stream has withdrawn itself from the the northwest over the North Indian Plain
region. This easterly jet stream is held
responsible for the burst of the monsoon in
India. Entry of Monsoon into India: The
p.
and the northern part of the Peninsula.
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon
re
EI-Nino is a complex weather system
southwest monsoon sets in over the Kerala
that appears once every three to seven years
coast by 1st June and moves swiftly to reach
bringing drought, floods and other weather
Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th
tP
extremes to different parts of the world.

June. By mid- July, southwest monsoon
The system involves oceanic and atmos-
engulfs the entire subcontinent.
pheric phenomena with the appearance of
Rain-bearing
ar
warm currents off the coast of peru in the

Systems and Rainfall Distribution
Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many
There seem to be two rain-bearing places including India. EI-Nino is merely an
systems in India. First originate in the Bay of
Sm
extension of the warm equatorial current

Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of which gets replaced temporarily by cold Pe-
north India. Second is the Arabian Sea current ruvian current or Humbolt current. This cur-
of the southwest monsoon which brings rain rent increases the temperature of water on
to the west coast of India. Much of the the Peruvian coast by 10C. This results in:
rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic (i) The distortion of equatorial
as the moist air is obstructed and forced to atmospheric circulation;
rise along the Ghats. The intensity of rainfall (ii) Irregularities in the evaporation of
over the west coast of India is, however, sea water;
related to two factors:
(iii) Reduction in the amount of
(i) The offshore meteorological planktons which further reduces the
conditions. number of fish in the sea.
(ii) The position of the equatorial jet The word EI-Nino means Child Christ
because this current appears around showers which are a common

Christmas in December. December is a phenomena in Kerala and coastal
summer month in Peru (Southern areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are
Hemisphere). known as mango showers since they
EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting help in the early ripening of
long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there mangoes.
was a wild EI-Nino even and the onset of (ii) Blossom Shower: With this shower,
southwest monsoon was delayed over most coffee flowers blossom in Kerala
parts of the country ranging from five to and nearby areas.
twelve days. (iii) Nor Westers: These are dreaded
Break in the Monsoon evening thunderstorms in Bengal
During the south-west, monsoon period and Assam. Their notorious nature
in
after having rains for a few days, it rain fails can be understood from the local
to occur for one or more weeks, it is known nomenclature of Kalbaisakhi, a
as break in the monsoon. These dry spells calamity of the month of Baisakh.
are quite common during the rainy season.
These breaks in the different regions are due
to different reasons:
p. These showers are useful for tea, Jute
and rice cultivation. In Assam, these
storms are known as Bordoiseela.
re
(i) In northern India rains are likely to (iv) Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds
fail if the rain-bearing storms are not blowing in the Northern plains from
very frequent along the monsoon Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity
tP
trough or the ITCZ over this region. between Delhi and Patna.
(ii) Over the west coast the dry spells The Cold Weather Season
are associated with days when Temperature: Usually, the cold weather
ar
winds blow parallel to the coast. season sets in by mid-November in northern

The Rhythm of Seasons India. December and January are the coldest
The climatic conditions of India can best months in the northern plain. The mean daily
Sm
be described in terms of an annual cycle of temperature remains below 21C over most
seasons. The meteorologists recognize the parts of northern India. The night
following four seasons: temperature may be quite low, sometimes
going below freezing point in Punjab and
(i) The cold weather season
Rajasthan. There are three main reasons for
(ii) The hot weather season
the excessive cold in north India during this
(iii) The southwest monsoon season season:
(iv) The retreating monsoon season. (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and
Some Famous Local Rajasthan being far away from the
Storms of Hot Weather Season moderating influenced of sea
(i) Mango Shower: Towards the end experience continental climate.
of summer. There are pre-monsoon (ii) The snowfall in the nearby
Climate 25
Himalayan ranges creates cold wave they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay
situation; and of Bengal.
(iii) Around February, the cold winds During the winters, the weather in India
coming from the Caspian Sea and is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions,
Turkmenistan bring cold wave along however, at intervals, get disturbed by
with frost and fog over the shallow cyclonic depressions originating over
northwestern parts of India. the east Medirranean Sea and travelling
The Peninsular region of India, eastwards across West Asia, Iran,
however, does not have any well-defined Afghanistan and Pakistan before the reach
cold weather season. There is hardly any the northwestern parts of India. On their
seasonal change in the distribution pattern way, the moisture content gets augmented
of the temperature in coastal areas because from the Caspian Sea in the north and the
in
of moderating influence of the sea and the Persian Gulf in the south.
proximity to equator. For example, the mean Role of Westerly Jet Stream
maximum temperature for January at Rainfall: Winter monsoons do not cause
Thiruvanantapuram is as high as 31C, and
for June, it is 29.5C. Temperatures at the hills
of Western Ghats remain comparatively low.
p.
rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It
is because firstly, they have little humidity;
and secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation
re
Pressure and Winds: By the end of on land, the possibility of rainfall from them
December (22nd December), the sun shines reduces. So, most parts of India do not have
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the rainfall in the winter season. However, there
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southern hemisphere. The weather in this are some exceptions to it:

season is characterized by feeble high (i) In northwestern India, some weak
pressure conditions over the northern plain. temperate cyclones from the
ar
In south India, the air pressure is slightly Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in
lower. The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western
pass through northwest India and far south, Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount
respectively.
Sm
is meager, it is highly beneficial for

As a result, winds start blowing from rabi crops. The precipitation is in the
northwestern high pressure zone to the low form of snowfall in the lower
air pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in Himalayas. It is this snow that
the south. sustains the flow of water in the
Due to low pressure gradient, the light Himalayan Rivers during the
winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km summer months. The precipitation
per hour begin to blow outwards. By and goes on decreasing from west to east
large, the topography of the region influences in the plains and from north to south
the wind direction. They are westerly or in the mountains. The average
northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They winter rainfall in Delhi is around 53
become northerly in the Ganga-Brahamputra mm. In Punjab and Bihar, rainfall
delta. Free from the influence of topography, remains between 25 mm and 18 mm
respectively. to the coast confirms that temperature does

(ii) Central parts of India and northern not decrease from north to south rather it
parts of southern Peninsula also get increases from the coast to the interior. The
winter rainfall occasionally. mean daily minimum temperature during the
(iii) Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the summer months also remains quite high and
northeastern parts of India also have rarely goes below 26C.
rains between 25 mm and 50 mm Pressure and Winds: The summer
during these winter months. months are a period of excessive heat and
(iv) During October and November, falling air pressure in the northern half of the
northeast monsoon while crossing country. Because of the heating of the
over the Bay of Bengal, pick up subcontinent, the ITCZ moves northwards
moisture and causes torrential occupying a position centred at 25N in July.
in
rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, Roughly, this elongated low pressure
southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast monsoon trough extends over the Thar
Karnataka and southeast Kerala. desert in the north-west to Patna and
Chotanagpur plateau in the east-southeast.
The Hot Weather Season
Temperature: With the apparent
northward movement of the sun towards the
p.
The location of the ITCZ attracts a surface
circulation of the winds which are
southwesterly on the west coast as well as
re
Tropic of Cancer in March, temperatures start along the coast of West Bengal and
rising in north India. April, May and June Bangladesh. They are easterly or
are the months of summer in north India. In southeasterly over north Bengal and Bihar.
tP
most parts of India, temperatures recorded It has been discussed earlier that these
are between 30-32C. In March, the highest currents of southwesterly monsoon are in
day temperature of about 38C occurs in the reality displaced equatorial westerlies. The
ar
Deccan Plateau while in April, temperature influx of these winds by mid-June brings
ranging between 38C and 43C are found in about a change in the weather towards the
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In May, the rainy season.
Sm
heat belt moves further north, and in the In the heart of the ITCZ in the north-
north-western part of India, temperatures west, the dry and hot winds known as Loo,
around 48C are not uncommon. blow in the afternoon, and very often, they
The hot weather season in south India continue to well into midnight. Dust storms
is mild and not so intense as found in north in the evening are very common during May
India. The Peninsular situation of south India in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and
with moderating effect of the oceans keeps Uttar Pradesh. These temporary storms bring
the temperatures lower than that prevailing a welcome respite from the oppressing heat
in north India. So, temperatures remain since they bring with them light rains and a
between 26C and 32C. Due to altitude, the pleasant cool breeze. Occasionally, The mois-
temperatures in the hills of Western Ghats ture-laden winds are attracted towards the
remain below 25C. In the coastal regions, periphery of the trough. A sudden contact
the north-south extent of isotherms parallel between dry and moist air masses gives rise
Climate 27
to local storms of great intensity. These local (i) The Arabian Sea branch
storms are associated with violent winds, (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
torrential rains and even hailstorms.
Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
The Southwest Monsoon Season
The monsoon winds originating over
As a result of rapid increase of the Arabian Sea further split into three
temperature in May over the northwestern branches:
plains, the low pressure conditions over there (i) Its one branch is obstructed by the
get further intensified. By early June, they Western Ghats. These winds climb
are powerful enough to attract the trade the slopes of the Western Ghats from
winds of Southern Hemisphere coming from 900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool,
the Indian Ocean. and as a result, the windward side
These southeast trade winds cross the of the Sahyadris and Western
in
equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Coastal Plain receive very heavy
Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air rainfall ranging between 250 cm and
circulation over India. Passing over the 400 cm. After crossing the Western
equatorial warm currents, they bring with
them moisture in abundance. After crossing
the equator, they follow a southwesterly
p. Ghats, these winds descend and get
heated up. This reduces humidity in
the winds. As a result, these winds
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direction. That is why they are known as cause little rainfall east of the
southwest monsoons. Western Ghats. This region of low
The rain in the southwest monsoon rainfall is known as the rain-shadow
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season begins rather abruptly. One result of area.

the first rain is that it brings down the (ii) Another branch of the
temperature substantially. This sudden onset Arabian sea monsoon strikes the
ar
of the moisture-laden winds associated with coast north of Mumbai. Moving

violent thunder and lightening, is often along the Narmada and Tapi river
termed as the break or burst of the valleys, these winds cause rainfall in
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monsoons. extensive areas of central India. The

The monsoon may burst in the first week Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm
of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, rainfall from this part of the branch.
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the Thereafter, they enter the Ganga
interior parts of the country; it may be plains and mingle with the Bay of
delayed to the first week of July. The day Bengal branch.
temperature registers a decline of 5C to 8C (iii) A third branch of this monsoon
between mid-June and mid-July. wind strikes the Saurashtra
As these winds approach the land, their Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then
southwesterly direction is modified by the passes over west Rajasthan and
relief and thermal low pressure over the along the Aravallis, causing only a
northwest India. The monsoon approaches scanty rainfall. In Punjab and
the landmass in two branches: Haryana, it too jokns the Bay of
Bengal branch. These two branches, governed by relief or topography.

reinforced by each other, cause rains For instance the windward side of
in the western Himalayas. the Western Ghats register a rainfall
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy
rainfall in the northeastern states can
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the
be attributed to their hill ranges and
coast of Myanmar and part of southeast
the Eastern Himalayas.
Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the
coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this (iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining
branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The trend with increasing distance from
monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and the sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm
Bangladesh from south and southeast instead during the southwest monsoon
of from the south-westerly direction. From period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76
in
here, this branch splits into two under the cm and Delhi 56 cm.
influence of the Himalayas and the thermal (iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet
low is northwest India. Its one branch moves spells of few days, duration at a time.
westward along the Ganga plains reaching
as far as the Punjab plains. The other branch
moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north
p. The wet spells are interspersed with
rainless interval known as breaks.
These breaks in rainfall are related
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and the northeast, causing widespread rains. to the cyclonic depressions mainly
Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills formed at the head of the Bay of
of Meghalya. Mawsynram, located on the Bengal, and their crossing into the
mainland. Besides the frequency and
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crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest

average annual rainfall in the world. intensity of these depressions, the
Here it is important to know why the passage followed by them
determines the spatial distribution
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Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this

season. There are two factors responsible for of rainfall.
it: (v) The summer rainfall comes in a
heavy downpour leading to
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(i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated

parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch considerable run off and soil
of southwest monsoon. erosion.
(ii) It lies in the rain shadow area of the (vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the
Arabian Sea branch of the south- agrarian economy of India because
west monsoon. over three-fourths of the total rain
in the country is received during the
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall
southwest monsoon season.
(i) Rainfall received from the southwest
(vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven
monsoons is seasonal in character,
which ranges from 12 cm to more
which occurs between June and
than 250 cm.
September.
(viii)The beginning of the rains
(ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely
Climate 29
sometimes is considerably delayed depressions which originate over the

over the whole or a part of the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
country. eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These
(ix) The rains sometimes end tropical cyclones are very destructive. The
considerably earlier than usual, thickly populated deltas of the Godavari,
causing great damage to standing Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred
crops and making the sowing of targets. Every year cyclones bring disaster
winter crops difficult. here. A few cyclonic storms also strike the
coast of West Bengal, Bangladesh and
Season of Retreating Monsoon
Myanmar. A bulk of the rainfall of the
The months of October and November Coromondal coast is derived from these
are known for retreating monsoons. By the depressions and cyclones. Such cyclonic
end of September, the southwest monsoon storms are less frequent in the Arabian Sea.
in
becomes weak as the low pressure trough of Distribution of Rainfall
the Ganga plain starts moving southward in
The average annual rainfall in India is
response to the southward march of the sun.
about 125 cm, but it has great spatial varia-
The monsoon retreats from the western
Rajasthan by the first week of September. It
withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western
p.
tions. Areas of High Rainfall: The highest
rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the
Western Ghats, as well as in the sub-
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Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by
the end of the month. By the beginning of Himalayan areas is the northeast and the hills
October, the low pressures covers northern of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds 200
cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills,
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parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early

November, it moves over Karnataka and the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the
Tamil Nadu. By the middle of December, the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills.
centre of low pressure is completely removed The rainfall is less then 200 cm. Areas of Me-
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from the Peninsula. dium Rainfall: Rainfall between 100-200 cm

is received in the southern parts of Gujarat,
The retreating southwest monsoon
east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula cov-
season is marked by clear skies and rise in
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ering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern

temperature. The land is still moist. Owing
Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain along
to the conditions of high temperature and
the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and
humidity, the weather becomes rather
Manipur.
oppressive. This is commonly known as the
October heat. In the second half of October, Seasons Months Months
the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly (According to the (According to the
India Calendar) Indian Calendar)
in northern India. The weather in the
retreating monsoon is dry in north India but Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
it is associated with rain in the eastern part Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
of the Peninsula. Here, October and Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
November are the rainiest months of the Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-
December
year. The widespread rain in this season is
Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February
associated with the passage of cyclonic
Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of

Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana. Punjab, Jammu and the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh,
Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and
Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall
50-100 cm. below 50 cm. Snowfall is restricted to the
Himalayan region.
in
p.
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Gist of NCERT
Indian History
ISBN: 9789382732785
Book Code: F16
Geography
4 31
NATURAL VEGETATION
Natural vegetation refers to a plant These forests are found in the western
community that has been left undisturbed slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the
over a long time. So as to allow its individual northeastern region and the Andaman and
in
species to adjust themselves to climate and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and
soil conditions as fully as possible. humid areas with an annual precipitation of
India is a land of great variety of natural over 200 cm and mean annual temperature
above 220C. Tropical evergreen forests are
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked
with temperate vegetation; the Western
Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands
p.
well stratified, with layers closer to the
ground and are covered with shrubs and
creepers, with short structured trees
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have tropical rain forests, the deltaic regions
have tropical forests and mangroves; the followed by tall variety of trees. In these
desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m
known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and or above. There is no definite time for trees
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thorny vegetation. Depending upon the to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition.
variations in the climate and the soil, the As such these forests appear green all the year
vegetation of India changes from one region round. Species found in these forests include
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to another. rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.

On the basis of certain common features The semi evergreen forests are found
such as predominant vegetation type and in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such
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climatic regions, Indian forests can be forests have a mixture of evergreen and
divided into the following groups: moist deciduous trees. The under growing
Types of Forests climbers provide an evergreen character to
these forests. Main species are white cedar,
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
hillock and kail.
Evergreen forests
The British were aware of the economic
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests value of the forests in India, hence, large scale
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests exploitation of these forests was started. The
(iv) Montane forests structure of forests was also changed. The
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests. oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were
Tropical replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed
Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared
for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and
coffee. The British also used timber of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty
construction activities as it acts as an insulator due to low rainfall and overgrazing.
of heat. The protectional use of forests was, Tropical Thorn Forests
thus, replaced by commercial use. Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas
Tropical Deciduous Forests which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These
These are the most widespread forests consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It
in India. They are also called the monsoon includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
forests. They spread over regions which Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
basis of the availability of water, these forests remain leafless for most part of the year and
are further divided into moist and dry give an expression of scrub vegetation.
deciduous. Important species found are babool, ber, and
in
The Moist deciduous forests are more wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas,
pronounced in the regions which record etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2
rainfall between 100-200 cm. These forests are m as the under growth.
found in the northeastern states along the
foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats and Odissa. Teak, sal,
p.
Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
re
shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
and sandalwood etc. are the main species of Mountain forests can be classified into two
these forests. types, the northern mountain forests and the
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Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas southern mountain forests.

of the country, where rainfall ranges between The Himalayan ranges show a
70-100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a succession of vegetation from the tropical to
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transition to the moist deciduous, while on the tundra, which change in with the altitude.
the drier margins to thorn forests. These Deciduous forests are found in the foothills
forests are found in rainier areas of the of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet
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Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and temperate type of forests between an
Bihar. In the higher rainfall regions of the altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m.
Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian In the higher hill ranges of northeastern
plain, these forests have a parkland landscape
India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
with open stretches in which teak and other Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such
trees interspersed with patches of grass are
as oak and chestnut are predominant.
common. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also
As the dry season begins, the trees shed well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine
their leaves completely and the forest appears as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a
like a vast grassland with naked trees all highly valued endemic species grows mainly
around Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, in the western part of the Himalayan range.
axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in
forests. In the western and southern part of construction activity. Similarly, the chinar
Natural Vegetation 33
and the walnut, which sustain the famous Littoral and Swamp Forests
Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. India has a rich variety of wetland
Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises
2,225-3,048 m. At many places in this zone, areas under paddy cultivation. The total area
temperate grasslands are also found. of wetland is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites-
But in the higher reaches there is a Chilika Lake (Odissa) and Keoladeo National
transition to Alpine forests and pastures. Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and habitats under the Convention of Wetlands
rhododendrons, etc. occur between 3,000- of International Importance (Ramsar
4,000 m. However, these pastures are used Convention).
extensively for transhumance by tribes like
The countrys wetlands have been
the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and
grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the
in
the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the
reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
together with the lagoons and other wetlands
because of relatively higher precipitation than
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher of the southern west coast; (ii) the vast saline
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the
tundra vegetation.
p.
expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf
of Kachchh; (iii) freshwater lakes and
reservoirs from Gujarats through Rajasthan
The southern mountain forests include
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the forests found in three distinct areas of (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya
Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons
Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer of Indias east coast (Chilika Lake); (v) the
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to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain; (vi)
sea level, vegetation is temperate in the the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the
higher regions, and subtropical on the lower marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast
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regions of the Western Ghats, especially in India and the Himalayan foothills; (vii) the
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The lakes and rivers of the montane region of
temperate forests are called Sholas in the Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove
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Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of forest and other wetlands of the island arcs
the other trees of this forest of economic of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
significance include magnolia, laurel, Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt
cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and
found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges. estuaries.
The Region Percentage They consist of a number of salt-
Cover of the tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by
Forest creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows,
these forests give shelter to a wide variety
(i) The region of high concentration > 40
of birds.
(ii) The region of medium concentration 20-40
(iii) The region of low concentration 10-20 In India, the mangrove forests spread
(iv) The region of very low concentration < 10
over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the
worlds mangrove forests. They are highly are good for forest growth.
developed in the Andaman and Nicobar There is a lot of variation in actual forest
Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. cover, which ranges from 9.56 per cent in
Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01 per cent in
the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These Andaman and Nicobar Islands. From the
forests too, are being encroached upon, and table showing the distribution of forests in
hence, need conservation. India, it is clear that there are 15 states where
Forest cover in India the forest cover is more than one-third of the
According to state records, the forest total area, which is the basic requirement for
area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land maintaining the ecological balance.
area of the country. The forest area is the On the basis of the percentage of the
area notified and recorded as the forest land actual forest cover, the states have been
in
irrespective of the existence of trees, while grouped into four regions.
the actual forest cover is the area occupied Forest Conservation
by forests with canopy. Forests have an intricate
The former is based on the records of
the State Revenue Department, while the
latter is based on aerial photographs and
p.
interrelationship with life and environment.
These provide numerous direct and indirect
advantages to our economy and society.
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satellite imageries. In 2001, the actual forest Hence, conservation of forest is of vital
cover was only 20.55 per cent. Of the forest importance to the survival and prosperity of
cover, the share of dense and open forests man kind.
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was 12.60 per cent and 7.87 per cent Accordingly, the Government of India
respectively. proposed to have a nation-wide forest
Both forest area and forest covers vary conservation policy, and adopted a forest
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from state to state. Lakshadweep has zero policy in 1952, which was further modified
percent forest area; Andaman and Nicobar in 1988. According to the new forest policy,
Islands have 86.93 per cent. Most of the states the Government will emphasis sustainable
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with less than 10 per cent of the forest area forest management in order to conserve and
lie in the north and northwestern part of the expand forest reserve on the one hand, and
country. These are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, to meet the needs of local people on the
Haryana and Delhi. other.
Most of the forests in Punjab and The forest policy aimed at:
Haryana have been cleared for cultivation. (i) bringing 33 per cent of the
States with 10-20 per cent forest area are geographical areas under forest
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. In Peninsular cover;
India, excluding Tamil Nadu, Dadra and (ii) maintaining environmental stability
Nagar Haveli and Goa, the area under forest and to restore forests where
cover is 20-30 per cent. The northeastern states ecological balance was disturbed;
have more than 30 per cent of the land under
(iii) conserving the natural heritage of
forest. Hilly topography and heavy rainfall
the country, its biological diversity promotion of agro-forestry and community-

and genetic pool; forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees
(iv) checks soil erosion, extension of the and agriculture crops on the same land
desert lands and reduction of floods inclusive of the waste patches. It combines
and droughts; forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the
(v) increasing the forest cover through simultaneous production of food, fodder,
social forestry and afforestation on fuel, timber and fruit.
degraded land; Community forestry involves the raising
(vi) increasing the productivity of forests of trees on public or community land such as
to make timber, fuel, fodder and the village pasture and temple land, roadside,
food available to rural population canal bank, strips along railway lines, and
dependant on forests, and schools etc.
in
encourage the substitution of wood; Community forestry programme aims
at providing benefits to the community as a
(vii)creating of a massive peoples
whole. Community forestry provides a
movement involving women to
encourage planting of trees, stop
felling of trees, and thus, reduce
pressure on the existing forest.
p.
means under which the people of landless
classes can associate themselves in tree
raising and thus, get those benefits which
otherwise are restricted for landowners.
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Based on the forest conservation policy
Farm Forestry
the following steps were initiated:
Social Forestry Farm forestry is a term applied to the
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process under which farmers grow trees for

Social forestry means the management commercial and non-commercial purposes on
and protection of forests and afforestation their farm lands.
on barren lands with the purpose of helping
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Wildlife
in the environmental, social and rural
development. Wildlife of India is a great natural
The National Commission on heritage. It is estimated that about 4-5 per
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Agriculture (1976) has classified social cent of all known plant and animal species
forestry into three categories. These are on the earth are found in India. There are
Urban forestry, Rural forestry and Farm certain species that are at the brink of
forestry. extinction.
Urban forestry pertains to the raising Some estimates suggest that at least 10
and management of trees on public and per cent of Indias recorded wild flora and
privately owned lands in and around urban 20 per cent of its mammals are on the
centres such as green belts, parks, roadside threatened list.
avenues, industrial and commercial green Let us now understand the different
belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and categories of existing plants and animal
commercial green belts, etc. species. Based on the International Union for
Rural forestry lays emphasis on Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows- Wildlife Conservation in India

Normal Species: Species whose The protection of wildlife has a long
population levels are considered to be normal tradition in India. Many stories of
for their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, Panchtantra and Jungle Books, etc. have
rodents, etc. stood the test of time relating to the love for
Endangered Species: These are species wildlife. These have a profound impact on
which are in danger of extinction. The young minds. In 1972, a comprehensive
survival of such species is difficult if the Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the
negative factors that have led to a decline in main legal framework for conservation and
their population continue to operate. The protection of wildlife in India. The two main
examples of such species are black buck, objectives of the Act are; to provide
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion protection to the endangered species listed
in
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in in the schedule of the Act and to provide legal
Manipur), etc. Vulnerable Species: These are support to the conservation areas of the
species whose population has declined to country classified as National parks,
levels from where it is likely to move into
the endangered category in the near future
if the negative factors continue to operate.
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sanctuaries and closed areas.
This Act has been comprehensively
amended in 1991, making punishments more
The examples of such species are blue sheep,
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stringent and has also made provisions for
Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin etc. Rare the protection of specified plant species and
Species: conservation of endangered species of wild
Species with small population may move animals. There are 92 National parks and 492
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into the endangered for vulnerable category wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of 15.67
if the negative factors affecting them continue million hectares in the country. Wildlife
to operate. The examples of such species are conservation has a very large ambit with
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the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic unbounded potential for the wellbeing of
buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc. mankind. However, this can be achieved only
Endemic Species: These are species when every individual understands its
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which are only found in some particular areas significance and contributes his bit.
usually isolated by natural or geographical For the purpose of effective conservation
barriers. Examples of such species are the of flora and fauna, special steps have been
Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman initiated by the Government of India in
wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh. collaboration with UNESCOs Man and
Extinct Species: These are species which are Biosphere Programme. Special schemes like
not found after searches of known or likely Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant
areas where they may occur. A species may (1992) have been launched to conserve these
be extinct from a local area, region, country, species and their habitat in a sustainable
continent or the entire earth. Examples of manner.
such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink Project Tiger has been implemented
head duck. since 1973. The main objective of the scheme
is to ensure maintenance of viable population the first of the fourteen biosphere reserves
of tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic, of India, was established in September 1986.
cultural and ecological values, and to preserve It embraces the sanctuary complex of
areas of biological importance as natural Wyanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and
heritage for the benefit, education and Mudumalai, the entire forested hill slopes of
enjoyment of the people. Initially, the Project Nilambur, the Upper Nilgiri plateau, Silent
Tiger was launched in nine tiger reserves, Valley and the Siruvani hills. The total area
covering an area of 16,339 sq. km, which has of the biosphere reserve is around 5,520 sq.
now increased to 27 tiger reserves, km. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve possesses
encompassing 37,761 sq. km of tiger habitats different habitat types, unspoilt areas of
distributed in 17 states. The tiger population natural vegetation types with several dry
in the country has registered an increase from scrubs, dry and moist deciduous, semi
1,827 in 1972 to 3,642 in 2001-2002. evergreen and wet evergreen forests,
in
Project Elephant was launched in 1992 evergreen shoals, grasslands and swamps. It
to assist states having free ranging popula- includes the largest known population of two
tion of wild elephants. It was aimed at en- endangered animal species, namely the
suring long-term survival of identified viable
population of elephants in their natural habi-
tat. The project is being implemented in 13
p.
Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque.
The largest south Indian population of
elephant, tiger, gaur, sambar and chital as
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states. Apart from this, some other projects well as a good number of endemic and
such as Crocodile Breeding Project, Project endangered plants are also found in this
Hangul and conservation of Himalayan Musk reserve. The habitat of a number of tribal
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deer have also been launched by the Gov- groups remarkable for the traditional modes
ernment of India. of harmonious use of the environment are
Biosphere Reserves also found here. The topography of the NBR
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A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and is extremely varied, ranging from an altitude

representative ecosystem of terrestrial and of 250 m to 2,650 m. About 80 per cent of the
coastal areas which are internationally flowering plants reported from the Western
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recognized within the framework of Ghats occur in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
UNESCOs Man and Biosphere (MAB) Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
Programme. The Biosphere Reserve aims at The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
achieving the three objective as depicted in situated in Uttarakhand includes parts of
Figure. There are 16 Biosphere Reserves in Chamoli, Almora, Pithoragarh and
India. Four Biosphere Reserves. Namely (i) Bageshwar districts. The major forest types
Nilgiri; (ii) Nanda Devi: (iii) Sunderbans; and of the reserve are temperate. A few important
(iv) Gulf of Mannar have been recognized by species are silver weed and orchids like
the UNESCO on World Network of latifolie and rhododendron. The biosphere
Biosphere Reserves. reserve has a rich fauna, for example the snow
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk deer,
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), snowcock, golden eagle and black eagle.
Major threats to the ecosystem are the collection of endangered plants for medicinal use,
forest fires and poaching.
List of Biosphere Reserves
Sl.No. Name of the Biosphere Total

Reserve Geographical Location (States)
Area (km2 )
1. Nilgiri 5,520 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley
and Struvant Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka)
2. Nanda Devi 2,236.74 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora districts (Uttar Pradesh) and part of
Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
3. Nokrek 820 Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
4. Manas 2,837 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and Darrang districts
(Assam)
5. Sunderbans 9,630 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West Bengal)
in
6. Gulf of Mannar 10,500 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu)
7. Great Nicobar 885 Southernmost Islands of the Andaman and Nicobar (A&N Islands)
8. Similipal 4,374 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)
9.
10.
11.
12.
Dibru Saikhowa
Dihang Dibang
Kanchenjunga
Pachman
765
5,111.5
2,619.92
4,926.28
p.
Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam)
Part of Siang and Debang valley in Arunachal Pradesh
Parts of North and West Sikkim
Parts of Betul. Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
re
13. Agasthya-malai 1,701 Agasthyamalai Hills in Kerala
14. Achanakmar- 3,835.51 Parts of Anupur and Dindori district of MP and parts of Bilaspur district of
Amarkantak Chhatisgarh
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Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve Heritiera fomes, a species valued for its

It is located in the swampy delta of the timber.
ar
river Ganga in West Bengal. It extends over Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
a vast area of 9,630 sq. km. and consists of The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
mangrove forests, swamps and forested covers an area of 105,000 hectares on the
Sm
islands. Sundarbans is the home of nearly 200 southeast coast of India. It is one of the
Royal Bengal tigers.The tangled mass of roots worlds richest regions from a marine
of mangrove trees provide safe homes for a biodiversity perspective. The biosphere
large number of species, from fish to shrimp. reserve comprises 21 islands with estuaries,
More than 170 birds species are known to beaches, forests of the near shore
inhabit these mangrove forests.Adapting environment, sea grasses, coral reefs, salt
itself to the saline and fresh water marshes and mangroves. Among the Gulfs
environment, the tigers at the park are good 3,600 plant and animal species are the globally
swimmers, and they hunt scarce preys such endangered sea cow (Dugong / dugon) and
as chital deer, barking deer, wild pig and six mangrove species, endemic to Peninsular
even macaques. In the Sunderbans, the India.
mangrove forests are characterized by
Geography
5 39
SOILS
Soil is the most important layer of the horizons is the rock which is also known as
earths crust. It is a valuable resource. the parent rock or the bedrock. Soil, which is
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and a complex and varied entity, has always
in
organic materials which develop on the drawn the attention of the scientists.
earths surface. The major factors affecting Classification of Soils
the formation of soil are relief, parent mate- India has varied relief features,
rial, climate, vegetation and other life-forms
and time. Besides these, human activities also
influence it to a large extent. Components of
the soil are mineral particles, humus, water
p.
landforms, climatic realms and vegetation
types. These have contributed in the
development of various types of soils in
re
India.
and air. The actual amount of each of these
depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are On the basis of genesis, colour,
deficient in one or more of these, while there composition and location, the soils of India
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are some others that have varied combina- have been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils,
tions. (ii) Black soils, (iii) Red and Yellow soils, (iv)
Laterite soils, (v) arid soils, (vi) Saline soils,
If we dig a pit on land and look at the
ar
(vii) Peaty soils, (viii) Forest soils.

soil, we find that it consists of three layers
which are called horizons. Horizon A is the ICAR has classified the soils of India into
topmost zone, where organic materials have the following order as per the USDA soil
Sm
taxonomy
got incorporated with the mineral matter,
nutrients and water, which are necessary for Sl.No. Order Area Percentage
the growth of plants. Horizon B is a (In Thousand
transition zone between the horizon A and Hectares)
horizon C, and contains matter derived (i) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
from below as well as from above. It has some (ii) Entisols 92131.71 28.08
organic matter in it, although the mineral (iii) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
matter is noticeably weathered. Horizon C (iv) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
(v) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
is composed of the loose parent material. This
(vi) Ultisols 8250.00 2.51
layer is the first stage in the soil formation (vii) Mollisols 1320.00 0.40
process and eventually forms the above two (viii) Others 9503.10 2.92
layers. This arrangement of layers is known Total 10 0
as the soil profile. Underneath these three
Source: Soils of India. National Bureau Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper
Publication Number 94 reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and
Alluvial Soils the north western part of the Deccan Plateau,
the black soil is very deep. These soils are
Alluvial soils are widespread in the
northern plains and the river valleys. These also known as the Regur Soil or the Black
Cotton Soil. The black soils are generally
soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area
clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell
of the country. They are depositional soils,
transported and deposited by rivers and and become sticky when wet and shrink
when dried. So, during the dry season, these
streams. Through a narrow corridor in
Rajasthan, They extend into the plains of soils develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs
a kind of self ploughing. Because of this
Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they are
character of slow absorption and loss of
in
found in deltas of the east coast and in the
river valleys. moisture, the black soil retains the moisture
for a very long time, which helps the crops,
The alluvial soils vary in nature from
especially; the rain fed ones, to sustain even
sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich
in potash but poor in phosphorous. In the
Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different
p.
during the dry season.
Chemically, the black soils are rich in
lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also
re
types of alluvial soils have developed, viz.
contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous,
Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new
alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, nitrogen and organic matter. The colour of
the soil ranges from deep black to grey.
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which enriches the soil by depositing fine

silts. Bhangar represents a system of older Red and Yellow Soil
alluvium, deposited away from the flood Red Soil develops on crystalline igneous
ar
plains. Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern
contain calcareous concretions (Kankars). and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
These soils are more loamy and clayey in the Along the piedmont zone of the Western
lower and middle Ganga plain and the Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red
Sm
Brahamputra valley. The sand content loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also
decreases from the west to east. found in parts of Odissa and Chattisgarh and
The colour of the alluvial soils varies in the southern parts of the middle Ganga
from the light grey to ash grey. Its shades plain. The soil develops a reddish colour due
depend on the depth of the deposition, the to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and
texture of the materials, and the time taken metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it
for attaining maturity. Alluvial soils are occurs in a hydrated form. The fine-grained
intensively cultivated. red and yellow soils are normally fertile,
Black Soil whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility. They are
Black soil covers most of the Deccan
generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and
Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra,
humus.
Soils 41
Laterite Soil the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration

Laterite has been derived from the Latin of water, and as such when irrigation is made
word Later which means brick. The laterite available, the soil moisture is readily available
soils develop in areas with high temperature for a sustainable plant growth. Arid soils are
and high rainfall. These are the result of characteristically developed in western
intense leaching due to tropical rains. With Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic and
rain, lime and silica are leached away, and topography. These soils are poor and contain
soils rich in iron oxide and aluminum little humus and organic matter.
compound are left behind. Humus content Saline Soils
of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that They are also known as Usara soils.
thrives well in high temperature. These soils Saline soils contain a larger proportion of
are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, sodium, potassium and magnesium, and
in
phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and thus, they are infertile, and do not support
potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not any vegetative growth. They have more
suitable for cultivation; however, application salts, largely because of dry climate and poor
of manures and fertilizers are required for
making the soils fertile for cultivation.
Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
p.
drainage. They occur in arid and semi arid
regions, and in waterlogged and swampy
areas. Their structure ranges from sandy to
re
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium.
crops like cashew nut. Saline soils are more widespread in western
Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in
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for use in house construction. These soils Sunderban areas of West Bengal. In the Rann
have mainly developed in the higher areas of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings
of the Peninsular plateau. The laterite soils salt particles and deposits there as a crust.
are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the
ar
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly occurrence of saline soils. In the areas of
areas of Odissa and Assam. intensive cultivation with excessive use of
irrigation, especially in areas of green
Sm
Arid Soils
revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are
Arid soils range from red to brown in
becoming saline. Excessive irrigation with
colour. They are generally sandy in structure
dry climatic conditions promotes capillary
and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt
action, which results in the deposition of salt
content is so high that common salt is obtained
on the top layer of the soil. In such areas,
by evaporating the saline water. Due to the
especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are
dry climate, high temperature and
advised to add gypsum to solve the problem
accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture
of salinity in the soil.
and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient and the
phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons Peaty Soils
of the soil are occupied by kankar layers They are found in the areas of heavy
because of the increasing calcium content rainfall and high humidity, where there is a
downwards. The Kankar layer formation in good growth of vegetation. Thus, large
quantity of dead organic matter accumulates rate of removal of fine particles from the
in these areas, and this gives a rich humus surface is the same as the rate of addition of
and organic content to the soil. Organic particles to the soil layer. Sometimes, such a
matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 balance is disturbed by natural or human
per cent. These soils are normally heavy and factors, leading to a greater rate of removal
black in colour. At many places, they are of soil. Human activities too are responsible
alkaline also. It occurs widely in the northern for soil erosion to a great extent. As the
part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal human population increases, the demand on
and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa the land also increases. Forest and other
and Tamil Nadu. natural vegetation is removed for human
Forest Soils settlement, for cultivation, for grazing animal
and for various other needs.
As the name suggests, forest soils are
in
formed in the forest areas where sufficient Wind and water are powerful agents of
rainfall is available. The soils vary in structure soil erosion because of their ability to remove
and texture depending on the mountain soil and transport it. Wind erosion is
significant in arid and semi-arid regions. In
environment where they are formed. They
are loamy and silty on valley sides and
coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the
p.
regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes,
erosion by running water is more significant.
Water erosion which is more serious and
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snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they
experience denudation, and are acidic with occurs extensively in different parts of India,
low humus content. The soils found in the takes place mainly in the form of sheet and
gully erosion. Sheet erosion takes place on
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lower valleys are fertile.

level lands after a heavy shower and the soil
Soil Degradation
removal is not easily noticeable. But it is
In a broad sense, soil degradation can harmful since it removes the finer and more
ar
be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when fertile top soil. Gully erosion is common steep
the nutritional status declines and depth of slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the
the soil goes down the erosion and misuse. agricultural lands into small fragments and
Sm
Soil degradation is the main factor leading make from them unfit for cultivation. A
to the depleting soil resource base in India. region with a large number of deep gullies
The degree of soil degradation varies from or ravines is called a badland topography.
place to place according to the topography, Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal
wind velocity and amount of the rainfall. basin. Besides this, they are also found in
Soil Erosion Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The country
The destruction of the soil cover is is losing about 8,000 hectare of land to
described as soil erosion. The soil forming ravines every year.
processes and the erosional processes of Deforestation is one of the major causes
running water and wind go on of soil erosion. Plants keep soils bound in
simultaneously. But generally, there is a locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion.
balance between these two processes. The They also add humus to the soil by shedding
Soils 43
leaves and twigs. Forests have been denuded should be made to protect cultivable lands
practically in most parts of India but their from encroachment by sand dunes through
effect on soil erosion are more in hilly parts developing shelter belts of trees and agro-
of the country. forestry. Lands not suitable for cultivation
A fairly large area of arable land in the should be converted into pastures for
irrigated zones of India is becoming saline grazing. Experiments have been made to
because of over irrigation. The salt lodged stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by
in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the Central Arid Zone Research Institute
the surface and destroys its fertility. Chemical (CAZRI). The Central Soil Conservation
fertilizers in the absence of organic manures Board, set up by the Government of India,
are also harmful to the soil. Unless the soil has prepared a number of plans for soil
gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and conservation in different parts of the country.
These plans are based on the climatic
in
reduce its fertility in the long run. This
problem is common in all the command areas conditions, configuration of land and the
of the river valley projects, which were the social behavior of people. Even these plans
first beneficiaries of the Green Revolution. are fragmental in nature. Integrated land use
According to estimates, about half of the total
land of India is under some degree of
degradation. Every year, India loses millions
p.
planning, therefore, seems to be the best
technique for proper soil conservation.
Water Resources
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of tones of soil and its nutrients to the agents Water is a cyclic resource with abundant
of its degradation, which adversely affects supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per
our national productivity. So, it is imperative
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cent of the earths surface is covered with it

to initiate immediate steps to reclaim and but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per
conserve soils. cent of the total water. In fact, a very small
Soil Conservation proportion of fresh water is effectively
ar
Contour bunding, Contour terracing, available for human use. The availability of
regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover fresh water varies over space and time.
cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation
Sm
Water Resources of India

are some of the remedial measures which are India accounts for about 2.45 per cent
often adopted to reduce soil erosion. of worlds surface areas, 4 per cent of the
Efforts should be made to prevent gully worlds water resources and about 16 per cent
erosion and control their formation. Finger of worlds population. The total water
gullies can be eliminated by terracing. In available from precipitation in the country in
bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability
may be reduced by constructing a series of from surface water and replenishable
check dams. Specially attention should be groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this
made to control headward extension of only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
gullies. This can be done by gully plugging, Thus, the total utilizable water resource in
terracing or by planting cover vegetation. the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts
Surface Water Resources about one-third of the total area in the coun-
There are four major sources of surface try, have 60 per cent of the total surface wa-
water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and ter resource. Much of the annual water flow
tanks. In the country, there are about 10,360 in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the
rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 Krishna, and the Kaveri has been harnessed,
km each. The mean annual flow in all the but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra
river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 and the Ganga basins.
cubic km. However, due to topographical, Groundwater Resources
hydrological and other constraints, only The total replenishable groundwater
about 690 cubic km (32 per cent) of the avail- resources in the country are about 432 km.
able surface water can be utilized. Water flow Table shows that the Ganga and the
in a river depends on size of its catchment Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent
area or river basin and rainfall within its
in
of the total replenishable groundwater re-
catchment area. Given that precipitation is sources. The level of groundwater utilization
relatively high in the catchment areas of the is relatively high in the river basins lying in
Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak riv- north-western region and parts of south In-
ers, these rivers, although account for only
p.
dia.
Basinwise Ground water Potential and Utilization in India (Cubic Km/Year)

re
S.No. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of
Ground water Resources Utilization (%) Groundwater
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1. Brahmani with Baltarni 4.05 8.45

2. Brahmaputra 26.55 3.37
3. Chambal Composite 7.19 40.09
ar
4. Kaveri 12.3 55.33

5. Ganga 170.99 33.52
6. Godavari 40.65 19.53
Sm
7. Indus 26.49 77.71

8. Krishna 26.41 30.39
9. Kuchchh and Saurashtra Including Luni 11.23 51.14
10. Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.68
11. Mahanadi 16.46 6.95
12. Meghna (Barak & Others) 8.52 3.94
13. Narmada 10.83 21.74
14. Northeast Composite 18.84 17.2
15. Pennar 4.93 36.6
16. Subarnarekha 1.82 9.57
17. Tapi 8.27 33.05
18. Western Ghat 17.69 22.88
Total 431.42 31.97
Soils 45
The groundwater utilization is very high Demand of Water for Irrigation

in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, In agriculture, water is mainly used for
and Tamil Nadu. However, there are States irrigation. Irrigation is needed because of
like Chhatisgarh, Orissa, Kerala, etc., which spatiotemporal variability in rainfall in the
utilize only a small proportion of their country. The large tracts of the country are
groundwater potentials. States like Gujarat, deficient in rainfall and are drought prone.
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and North-Western India and Deccan plateau
Maharashtra are utilizing their ground water constitute such areas. Winter and summer
resources at a moderate rate. If the present seasons are more or less dry in most part of
trend continues, the demands for water the country. Provisions of irrigation makes
would need the supplies. And such situation, multiple cropping possible. It has also been
will be detrimental to development, and can found that irrigated lands have higher
cause social upheaval and disruptions.
in
agricultural productivity than un-irrigated
Water Demand and Utilization India has land. Further, the high yielding varieties of
traditionally been an agrarian economy, and crops need regular moisture supply, which
about two-third of its population have been
dependent on agriculture. Hence,
development of irrigation to increase
agricultural production has been assigned a
p.
is made possible only by a developed
irrigation systems. In fact, this is why that
green revolution strategy of agriculture
development in the country has largely been
re
very high priority in the Five Year Plans, and successful in Punjab, Haryana and western
multipurpose river valleys projects like the Uttar Pradesh.
Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakund, Damodar, Valley, In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar
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Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net
Project, etc. have been taken up. In fact, Indias sown area is under irrigation. Wheat and rice
water demand at present is dominated by are grown mainly with the help of irrigation
ar
irrigational needs. in these states. Of the total net irrigated area

Agriculture accounts for most the sur- 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in
face and ground water utilization, it accounts Haryana are irrigated through wells and tube
Sm
for 89 per cent of the surface water and 92 wells. This shows that these states utilize
per cent of the groundwater utilization. While large proportion of their ground water
the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 potential which has resulted in ground water
per cent of the surface water utilization and depletion in these states. The share of area
5 per cent of the ground-water, the share of irrigated through wells and tube wells is also
domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in sur- very high in the states given in table.
face water utilization as compared to The over-use of ground water resources
groundwater. The share of agricultural sec- has led to decline in ground water table in
tor in total water utilization is much higher these states. In fact, over withdrawals in
than other sectors. However, is future, with some states like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra
development, the shares of industrial and has increased fluoride concentration in
domestic sectors in the country are likely to ground-water, and this practice has led to
increase. increase in concentration of arsenic in parts
of West Bengal and Bihar. The result is that in 1997, 251 polluting
Prevention of Water Pollution industries were located along the rivers and
Available water resources are lakes.
degrading rapidly. The major rivers of the The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to
country generally retain better water quality reduce pollution has also made marginal
in less densely populated upper stretches in impacts. There is a strong need to generate
hilly areas. In plans, river water is used public awareness about importance of water
intensively for irrigation, drinking, domestic and impacts of water pollution. The public
and industrial purposes. The drains carrying awareness and action can be very effective
agricultural (fertilizers and insecticides), in reducing the pollutants from agricultural
domestic (solid and liquid wastes), and activities, domestic and industrial discharges.
industrial effluents join the rivers. The Watershed Management
in
concentration of pollutants in rivers, Watershed management basically refers
especially remains very high during the to efficient management and conservation of
summer season when flow of water is low. surface and groundwater resources. It in-
The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution
Control Boards has been monitoring water
p.
volves prevention of runoff and storage and
recharge of groundwater through various
methods like percolation tanks, recharge
re
quality of national aquatic resources at 507 wells, etc. However, in broad sense water-
stations. The data obtained from these shed management includes conservation, re-
stations show that organic and bacterial generation and judicious use of all resources-
natural (like land, water, plants and animals)
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contamination continues to be the main source

of pollution in rivers. The Yamuna river is and human with in a watershed. Watershed
the most polluted river in the country management aims at bringing about balance
between natural resources on the one hand
ar
between Delhi and Etawah.

Other severely polluted rivers are: the and society on the other. The success of wa-
tershed development largely depends upon
Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at
community participation.
Sm
Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the Cooum

(entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and The Central and State Governments
the Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga at have initiated many watershed development
Kanpur and Varanasi. Groundwater and management programmes in the coun-
try. Some of these are being implemented by
pollution has occurred due to high
nongovernmental organizations also. Haryali
concentrations of heavy/toxic metals,
is a watershed development project spon-
fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the
sored by the Central Government which aims
country.
at enabling the rural population to conserve
The legislative provisions such as the water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) afforestation. The Project is being executed
Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act by Gram Panchayats with peoples participa-
1986 have not been implemented effectively. tion.
Neeru-Meeru (Water and You)
Soils 47
programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Traditional rain water harvesting in rural
Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken areas is done by using surface storage bodies
up constructions of various water harvesting like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In
structures such as percolation tanks, dug out Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures
ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through locally known as Kund or Tanka (a covered
peoples participation. Tamil Nadu has made underground tank) are constructed near or
water harvesting structures in the houses in the house or village to store harvested
compulsory. No building can be constructed rainwater.
without making structures for water There is a wide scope to use rainwater
harvesting. harvesting technique to conserve water
Watershed development projects in resource. It can be done by harvesting
some areas have been successful in rainwater on rooftops and open spaces.
in
rejuvenating environment and economy. Harvesting rainwater also decreases the
However, are only a few success stories. In community dependence on groundwater for
majority of cases, the programme is still in domestic use. Besides bridging the demand
its nascent stage. There is a need to generate
awareness regarding benefits of watershed
development and management among people
in the country, and through this integrated
p.
supply gap, it can also save energy to pump
groundwater as recharge leads to rise in
groundwater. These days rainwater
harvesting is being taken up on massive scale
re
water resource management approach water in many states in the country. Urban areas
availability can be ensured on sustainable can specially benefit from rainwater
basis. harvesting as water demand has already
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Rainwater Harvesting outstripped supply in most of the cities and

Rain water harvesting is a method to towns.
Apart from the above mentioned
ar
capture and store rainwater for various uses.

It is also used to recharge groundwater aq- factors, the issue desalinization of water
uifers. It is a low cost and eco-friendly tech- particularly in coastal areas and brackish
nique for preserving every drop of water by water in arid and semi-arid areas, transfer
Sm
guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and of water from water surplus areas to water
wells. Rainwater harvesting increases water deficit areas through inter linking of rivers
availability, checks the declining ground wa- can be important remedies for solving water
ter table, improves the quality of problem in India (read more about inter
groundwater through dilution of contami- linking of rivers). However, the most
nants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil important issue from the point of view of
erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water individual users, household and communities
intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge is pricing of water.
aquifers. Highlights of
Rainwater harvesting has been practiced Indias National Water Policy, 2002
through various methods by different The National Water Policy 2002
communities in the country for a long time. stipulates water allocation priorities broadly
in the following order: drinking water; groundwater.

irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, Both surface and groundwater
industrial and other uses. The policy should be regularly monitored for
stipulates progressive new approaches to quality. A phased programme
water management. Key features include: should be undertaken for improving
Irrigation and multi-purpose projects water quality.
should invariably include drinking The efficiency of utilization in all the
water component, wherever there is diverse uses of water should be
no alternative source of drinking improved.
water. Awareness of water as a scarce
Providing drinking water to all resource should be fostered.
human beings and animals should be Conservation consciousness should
in
the first priority. be promoted through education,
Measures should be taken to limit regulation, incentives and
and regulate the exploitation of disincentives.
p.
re
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ar
Sm
Gist of NCERT
Indian Economy
ISBN: 9789351720256
Book Code: F22
Geography
6 49
LAND USE AND AGRICULTURE
Different types of lands are suited to urban), infrastructure (roads, canals,

different uses. Human beings thus, use land etc.), industries, shops, etc. are
as a resource for production as well as included in this category. An
in
residence and recreation. expansion in the secondary and
Land-use records maintained by land tertiary activities would lead to an
revenue department. The land use categories increase in this category of land-use.
add up to reporting area, which is somewhat
different from the geographical area. The
Survey of India is responsible for measuring
p.
(iii) Barren and Wastelands: The land
which may be classified as a
wasteland such as barren hilly
re
geographical area of administrative units in terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc.
India. The difference between the two normally cannot be brought under
concepts are that while the former changes cultivation with the available
somewhat depending on the estimates of the technology.
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land revenue records, the latter does not (iv) Area under Permanent pastures and
change and stays fixed as per Survey of India Grazing Lands: Most of this type
measurements.
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land is owned by the village

The land-use categories as maintained Panchayat or the Government.
in the Land Revenue are as follows: Only a small proportion of this land
(i) Forests: It is important to note that is privately owned. The land owned
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area under actual forest cover is by the village panchayat comes

different from area classified as under Common Property
forest. The latter is the area which Resources.
the Government has identified and (v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree
demarcated for forest growth. The Crops and Goves (Not included is
land revenue records are consistent Net sown Area): The land under
with the latter definition. Thus, there orchards and fruit trees are included
may be an increase in this category in this category. Much of this land is
without any increase in the actual privately owned.
forest cover. (vi) Culturable Waste-Land: Any land
(ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: which is left fallow (uncultivated) for
Land under settlements (rural and more than five years is included in
this category. It can be brought Secondly, since even the reporting area has
under cultivation after improving it been relatively constant over the years, a
through reclamation practices. decline in one category usually leads to an
(vii) Current Fallow: This is the land increase in some other category.
which is left without cultivation for Three categories have undergone
one or less than one agricultural year, increases, while four have registered
Fallowing is a cultural practice declines. Share of area under forest, are under
adopted for giving the land rest. The nonagricultural uses and current fallow lands
land recoups the lost fertility have shown an increase. The following
through natural processes. observations can be made about these
(viii) Fallow other than Current increases:
Fallow: This is also a cultivable land (i) The rate of increase is the highest in
in
which is left uncultivated for more case of area under non-agricultural
than five years, it would be uses. This is due to the changing
categorized as culturable wasteland. structure of Indian economy, which
(ix) Net Area Sown: The physical extent
of land on which crops are sown and
harvested is known as net sown
p. is increasingly depending on the
contribution from industrial and
services sectors and expansion of
related infrastructural facilities.
re
area.
Also, an expansion of area under
Land-use Changes in India
both urban and rural settlements has
Land-use in a region, to a large extent, added to the increase. Thus, the area
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is influenced by the nature of economic under non-agricultural uses is

activities carried out in the region. However, increasing at the expense of
while economic activities change over time, wastelands and agricultural land.
ar
land, like many other natural resources, is

(ii) The increase in the share under
fixed in terms of its area. At this stage, one
forest, as explained before, can be
needs to appreciate three types of changes
accounted for by increase in the
Sm
that an economy undergoes, which affect

demarcated area under forest rather
land-use.
than an actual increase in the forest
India has undergone major changes cover in the country.
within the economy over the past four or five
(iii) The increase in the current fallow
decades, and this has influenced the land-use
cannot be explained from
changes in the country, These changes
information pertaining to only two
between 1960-61 and 2002-03 have been
points. The trend of current fallow
shown in Fig. There are two points that you
fluctuates a great deal over years,
need to remember before you derive some
depending on the variability of
meaning from this figure. Firstly, the
rainfall and cropping cycles.
percentage shown in the figure have been
derived with respect to the reporting area. The four categories that have registered
a decline are barren and wasteland, culturable
Land use and Agriculture 51
wasteland, area under pastures and tree agriculture:

crops and net area sown. (i) Agriculture is a purely land based
The following explanations can be given activity unlike secondary and
for the declining trends: tertiary activities. In other words,
(i) As the pressure on land increased, contribution of land in agricultural
both from the agricultural and output is more compared to its
nonagricultural sectors, the contribution in the outputs in the
wastelands and culturable other sectors. Thus, lack of access to
wastelands have witnessed decline land is directly correlated with
over time. incidence of poverty in rural areas.
(ii) The decline in net area sown is a (ii) Quality of land has a direct bearing
recent phenomenon that started in on the productivity of agriculture,
in
the late nineties, before which it was which is not true for other activities.
registering a slow increase. There are (iii) In rural areas, aside from its value
indications that most of the decline as a productive factor, land
has occurred due to the increases in
area under nonagricultural use.
(Note: the expansion of building
p. ownership has a social value and
serves as a security for credit,
natural hazards or life contingencies,
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activity on agricultural land in your and also adds to the social status.
village and city). An estimation of the total stock of agri-
(iii) The decline in land under pastures cultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable
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and grazing lands can be explained land can be arrived at by adding up net sown
by pressure from agricultural land. area, all fallow lands and culturable waste-
Illegal encroachment due to land. It may be observed from Table that over
expansion of cultivation on common
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the years, there has been a marginal decline

pasture lands is largely responsible in the available total stock of cultivable land
for this decline. as a percentage to total reporting area. There
Agricultural Land Use in India has been a greater decline of cultivated land,
Sm
Land resource is more crucial to the in spite of a corresponding decline of culti-

livelihood of the people depending on vable wasteland.
Agricultural land-Use As a percentage of As a percentage to Total

Reporting Area Cultivated land
Categories 1960-61 2002-03 1960-61 2002-03
Culturable Wasteland 6.23 4.41 10.61 7.52
Fallow other than current fallow3.5 3.82 5.96 6.51
Current Fallow 3.73 7.03 6.35 11.98
Net Area Sown 45.26 43.41 77.08 73.99
Total Cultivable Land 58.72 58.67 100.00 100.00
Cropping Seasons in India: There are It is a slash and burn agriculture.

three distinct crop seasons in the northern Farmers clear a patch of land and produce
and interior parts of country, namely kharif, cereals and other food crops to sustain their
rabi and zaid. The kharif season largely family. When the soil fertility decreases, the
coincides with Southwest Monsoon under farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land
which the cultivation of tropical crops such for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil
possible. The rabi season begin with the onset through natural processes; land productivity
of winter in October-November and ends in in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
March-April. The low temperature does not use fertilizers or other modern
conditions during this season facilitate the inputs. It is known by different names in
cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops different parts of the country. It is jhumming
such as wheat, gram and mustard. Zaid is a in north-eastern states like Assam,
in
short duration summer cropping season Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou
beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of
cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, Chattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar
vegetables and fodder crops during this
season is done on irrigated lands. However,
this type of distinction in the cropping season
p.
Islands.
Jhumming: The slash and burn
agriculture is known as Milpa in Mexico and
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does not exist in southern parts of the Central America, Conuco in Venzuela, Roca
country. Here, the temperature is high enough in Brazil, Masole in Central Africa, Ladang
to grow tropical crops during any period in in Indonesia, Ray in Vietnam.
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the year provided the soil moisture is In India, this primitive form of
available. Therefore, in this region same crops cultivation is called Betwar or Dahiya in
can be grown thrice in an agricultural year Madhya Pradesh, Podu or Penda in
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provided there is sufficient soil moisture. Andhra Pradesh, Pama Dabi or Koman or
Primitive Subsistence Farming Bringa in Orissa, Kumari in Western Ghats,
Based upon the characteristics of Valre in South-Eastern Rajasthan, Khil in
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physical environment technology and socio- the Himalayan belt, Kuruwa in Jharkhand,
cultural practices following farming system and Jhumming in the North-Eastern region.
can be identified. Intensive Substance Farming
This type of farming is still practiced in This type of farming is practiced in areas
few pockets of India. Primitive subsistence of high population pressure on land. It is
agriculture is practiced on small patches of labour intensive farming, where high doses
land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used
dao and digging sticks, and family/ for obtaining higher production.
community labour. This type of farming Though the right of inheritance leading
depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of to the divion of land among successive
the soil and suitability of other environment generations has rendered land-holding size
conditions to the crops grown. uneconomical, the farmers continue to take
maximum output from the limited land in the input per unit area of cultivated land is higher
absence of alternative source of livelihood. than protective irrigation. Rainfed farming
Thus, there is enormous pressure on is further classified on the basis of adequacy
agricultural land. of soil moisture during cropping season into
Commercial Farming dry land and wetland farming. In India, the
The main characteristic of this type of dry land farming is largely confined to the
regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
farming is the use of higher doses of modern
These regions grow hardy and drought
inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV)
seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong,
gram and guar (fodder crops) and practice
pesticides in order to obtain higher
productivity. The degree of various measures of soil moisture
conservation and rain water harvesting. In
commercialization of agriculture varies from
wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of
in
one region to another. For example, rice is a
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but soil moisture requirement of plants during
rainy season. Such regions may face flood and
in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop. Plantation
soil erosion hazards. These areas grow
is also a type of commercial farming. In this
type of farming, a single crop is grown on a
large area. The plantation has an interface of
p.
various water intensive crops such as rice,
jute and sugarcane and practice aquaculture
in the fresh water bodies.
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agriculture and industry. Plantations cover
large tracts of land, using capital intensive Cropping Pattern
inputs, with the help of migrant laboures. All Food grains: The importance of food
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the produce is used as raw material in grains in Indian agricultural economy may
respective industries. be gauged from the fact these crops occupy
Types of Farming about two-third of total cropped area in the
country. Food grains are dominant crops in
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On the basis of main source of moisture

all parts of the country whether they have
for crops, the farming can be classified as
subsistence or commercial agricultural
irrigated and rainfed (barani). There is
economy. On the basis of the structure of
Sm
difference in the nature of irrigated farming

grain the food grains are classified as cereals
as well based on objective of irrigation, i.e.
and pulses.
protective or productive. The objective of
protective irrigation is to protect the crops Cereals: The cereals occupy about 54 per
from adverse of soil moisture deficiency cent of total cropped area in India. The
which often means that irrigation acts as a country produces about 11 per cent cereals
supplementary source of water over and of the world and ranks third in production
above the rainfall. The strategy of this kind after China and U.S.A. India produces a
of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to variety of cereals, which are classified as fine
maximum possible area. Productive irrigation grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar,
is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture maize, ragi) etc. Account of important cereals
in the cropping season to achieve high has been given in the following paragraphs.
productivity. In such irrigation the water Rice: Rice is a staple food for the
overwhelming majority of population in Wheat: Wheat is the second most

India. Though, it is considered to be a crop important cereal crop in India after rice. India
of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 produces about 12 per cent of total wheat
varieties which are grown in different agro- production of world. It is primarily a crop of
climatic regions. These are successfully grown temperate zone. Hence, its cultivation in India
from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and is done during winter i.e. rabi season. About
from humid areas in eastern India to dry but 85 per cent of total area under this crop is
irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western concentrated in north and central regions of
U.P. and northern Rajasthan. In southern the country i.e. Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa
states and West Bengal the climatic Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude.
conditions allow the cultivation of two or Being a rabi crop, it is mostly grown under
three crops of rice in an agricultural year. In irrigated conditions. But it is rainfed crop in
West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice Himalayan highlands and parts of Malwa
in
called aus, aman and boro. But in plateau in Madhya Pradesh. About 14 per
Himalayas and northwestern parts of the cent of the total cropped area in the country
country, it is grown as a Kharif crop during is under wheat cultivation. Uttar Pradesh,
southwest Monsoon season.
India contributes 22 per cent of rice
production in the world and ranks second
p.
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh are five leading wheat producing
states. The yield level of wheat is very high
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after China. About one-fourth of the total (above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjab and
cropped area in the country is under rice Haryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan
cultivation. West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar and Bihar have moderate yields. The states
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Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu like Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and
were five leading rice producing states in the Jammu and Kashmir growing wheat under
country in 2002-03. The yield level of rice is rainfed conditions have low yield.
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high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh, Jowar: The coarse cereals together
West Bengal and Kerala. In the first four of occupy about 16.50 per cent of total cropped
these states almost the entire land under rice area in the country. Among these, jowar or
Sm
cultivation is irrigated. Punjab and Haryana sorghum alone accounts for about 5.3 per cent
are not traditional rice growing areas. Rice of total cropped area. It is main food crop in
cultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab semi-arid areas of central and southern India.
and Haryana was introduced in 1970s Maharashtra alone produces more than half
following the Green Revolution. Generally of the total jowar production of the country.
improved varieties of seed, relatively high Other leading producer states of jowar are
usage of fertilizers and pesticides and lower Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra
levels of susceptibility of the crop to pests Pradesh. It is sown in both Kharif and rabi
due to dry climatic conditions are responsible seasons in southern states. But it is a Kharif
for higher yield of rice in this region. The crop in northern India where it is mostly
yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas grown as a fodder crop. South of Vindhyachal
of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa. it is a rainfed crop and its yield level is very
low in this region.
Bajra: Bajra is sown in hot and dry lands of Deccan and central plateaus and
climatic conditions in northwestern and northwestern parts of the country. Pulses
western parts of the country. It is a hardy occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped
crop which resists frequent dry spells and area in the country. Being the rainfed crops
drought in this region. It is cultivated alone of dry lands, the yields of pulses are low and
as well as part of mixed cropping. This coarse fluctuate from year to year. Grain and tur
cereal occupies about 5.2 per cent of total are the main pulses cultivated in India.
cropped area in the country. Leading Grain: Grain is cultivated in subtropical
producers of bajra are the states of areas. It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, during rabi season in central, western and
Rajasthan and Haryana. Being a rainfed crop, northwestern parts of the country. Just one
the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan or two light showers or irrigations are
and fluctuates a lot from year to year. Yield
in
required to grow this crop successfully. It has
of this crop has increased during recent years been displaced from the cropping pattern by
in Haryana and Gujarat due to introduction wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern
of drought resistant varieties and expansion Rajasthan following the green revolution. At
of irrigation under it.
Maize: Maize is a food as well as fodder
crop grown under semi-arid climatic
p.
present, grain covers only about 2.8 per cent
of the total cropped area in the country.
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
re
conditions and over inferior soils. This crop Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan
occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total are the main producers of this pulse crop. The
cropped area. Maize cultivation is not yield of this crop continues to be low and
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concentrated in any specific region. It is sown fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated
all over India except eastern and north- areas.
eastern regions. The leading producers of Tur (Arhar): Tus is the second important
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maize are the states of Madhya Pradesh, pulse crop in the country. It is also known as
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and red grain or pigeon pea. It is cultivated over
Uttar Pradesh. Yield level of maize is higher marginal lands and under rainfed conditions
Sm
than other coarse cereals. It is high in in the dry areas of central and southern states
southern states and declines towards central of the country. This crop occupies only about
parts. 2 per cent of total cropped area of India.
Pulses: Pulses are a very important Maharashtra alone contributed about one-
ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich third of the total production of tur. Other
sources of proteins. These are legume crops leading producer states are Uttar Pradesh,
which increase the natural fertility of soils Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Per
through nitrogen fixation. India is a leading hectare output of this crop is very low and
producer of pulses and accounts for about its performance is inconsistent.
one-fifth of the total production of pulses in Oilseeds: The oilseeds are produced for
the world. The cultivation of pulses in the extracting edible oils. Dry lands of Malwa
country is largely concentrated in the dry plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra sunflowere are other important oilseeds
Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are oilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostly grown
growing regions of India. These crops in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. These
together occupy about 14 per cent of total two states together produce about 90 per cent
cropped area in the country. Groundnut, of total output of soyabean in the country.
rapeseed and mustard, soyabean and Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in
sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining
in India. areas of Maharashtra. It is a minor crop in
Groundnut: India produces about 17 northern parts of the country where its yield
per cent the total of groundnut production is high due to irrigation.
in the world. It is largely a rainfed kharif crop Fibre Crops: These crops provide us
of dry lands. But in southern India, it is fibre for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and a
in
cultivated during rabi season as well. It number of other items. Cotton and jute are
covers about 3.6 per cent of total cropped two main fibre crops grown in India.
area in the country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Cotton: Cotton is a tropical crop grown
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra
are the leading producers. Yield of
groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil
Nadu where it is partly irrigated. But its yield
p.
in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the
country. India lost a large proportion of
cotton growing area to Pakistan during
partition. However, its acreage has increased
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is low in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. considerably during the last 50 years. India
Rapeseed and Mustard: Rapeseed and grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as
mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, well as long staple (American) cotton called
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sarson, toria and taramira. These are narma in north-western parts of the
subtropical crops cultivated during rabi country. Cotton requires clear sky during
season in north-western and central parts of flowering stage.
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India. These are frost sensitive crops and India ranks fourth in the world in the
their yields fluctuate from year to year. But production of cotton after China. U.S.A. and
with the expansion of irrigation and Pakistan and accounts for about 8.3 per cent
Sm
improvement in seed technology; their yields of production of cotton in the world. Cotton
have improved and stabilized to some extend. occupies about 4.7 per cent of total cropped
About two-third of the cultivated area under area in the country. There are three cotton
these crops is irrigated. These oilseeds growing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana
together occupy only 2.5 per cent of total and northern Rajasthan in north-west,
cropped area in the country. Rajasthan Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west and
contributes about one-third production while plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
other leading producers are Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu in South. Leading producers of
Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. this crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
Yields of these crops are comparatively high Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Per hectare
in Haryana and Rajasthan. output of cotton is high under irrigated
Other Oilseeds: Soyabean and conditions in north-western region of the
country. Its yield is very low in Maharashtra Tea: Tea is a plantation crop used as
where it is grown under rainfed conditions. beverage. Black tea leaves are fermented
Jute: Jute is used for making coarse whereas green tea leaves are unfermented.
cloth, bags, sacks and decorative items. It is Tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea
a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining leaves are unfermented. Tea leaves have rich
eastern parts of the country. India lost large content of caffeine and tannin. It is an
jute growing areas to East Pakistan indigenous crop of hills in northern China. It
(Bangladesh) during partition. At present, is grown over undulating topography of hilly
India produces about three-fifth of jute areas and well drained soils in humid and
production of the world. West Bengal sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics. In India,
accounts for about three-fourth of the tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra
production in the country. Bihar and Assam valley of Assam which still is a major tea
growing area in the country. Later on, its
in
are other jute growing areas. Being
concentrated only in a few states, this crop plantation was introduced in the sub-
accounts for only about 0.5 per cent total Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjeeling,
cropped area in the country. Jalpaiguri and Cooch districts). Tea is also
Other Crops: Sugarcane, tea and coffee
are other important crops grown in India.
p.
cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and
Cardamom hills in Western Ghats. India is a
leading producer of tea and accounts for
re
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is a crop of
tropical areas. Under rainfed conditions, it about 28 per cent of total production in the
is cultivated in sub-humid and humid world. Indias share in the international
climates. But it is largely an irrigated crop in market of tea has declined substantially. At
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India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation present, it ranks third among tea exporting
is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh. countries in the world after Sri Lanka and
Sugarcane growing area in western India is China. Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent
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spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat. In of the total cropped area and contributes
southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated more than half of total production of tea in
tracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra the country. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu
Sm
Pradesh. are the other leading producers of tea.

India is the second largest producer of Coffee: Coffee is a tropical plantation
sugarcane after Brazil. It accounts for about crop. Its seeds are roasted, ground and are
23 per cent of the world production of used for preparing a beverage. There are
sugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per cent three varieties of coffee i.e. Arabica, robusta
of total cropped are in the country. Uttar and liberica. India mostly grows superior
Pradesh produces about two-fifth of quality coffee, Arabica, which is in great
sugarcane of the country. Maharashtra, demand in great demand in International
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh market. But India produces only about 4.3
are other leading producers of this crop per cent coffee of the world and ranks sixth
where yield level of sugarcane is high. Its after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia
yield is low in northern India. and Mexico. Coffee is cultivated in the
highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, overcome this problem, Intensive

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and
accounts for more than two third of total Intensive Agricultural Area Programme
production of coffee in the country. (IAAP) were launched. But two consecutive
Agricultural Development in India: droughts during mid-1960s resulted in food
Agriculture continues to be an important crisis in the country. Consequently, the food
sector Indian economy. In 2001 about 53 per grains were imported from other countries.
cent population of the country was dependent New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico)
on it. The importance of agricultural sector and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding
in India can be gauged from the fact that varieties (HYVs) were available for
about 57 per cent of its land is devoted to cultivation by mid-1960s. India took
crop cultivation, whereas, in the world, the advantage of this and introduced package
in
corresponding share is only about 12 per cent. technology comprising HYVs, along with
In spite of this, there is tremendous pressure chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of
on agricultural land in India, which is Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh,
reflected from the fact that the land-human Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Assured supply
ratio in the country is only 0.31 ha which is
almost of that of the world as a whole (0.59
ha). Despite various constrains, Indian
p.
of soil moisture through irrigation was a
basic pre-requisite for the success of this new
agricultural technology. This strategy of
re
agriculture has marched a long way since agricultural development paid dividends
Independence. instantly and increased the food grains
Strategy of Development: Indian production at very fast rate. This spurt of
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agricultural economy was largely subsistence agricultural growth came to be known as

in nature before Independence It had dismal Green Revolution.
performance in the first half of twentieth This also gave fillip to the development
ar
century. This period witnessed severe of a large number of agro-inputs, agro-

droughts and famines. During portion about processing industries and small-scale indus-
one-third of the irrigated land in undivided tries. This strategy of agricultural develop-
Sm
India went to Pakistan. This reduced the ment made the country self-reliant in food
proportion of irrigated area in Independent grain production. But green revolution was
India. After Independence, the immediate initially confined to irrigated areas only. This
goal of the Government was to increase food led to regional disparities in agricultural de-
grains production by (i) switching over from velopment in the country till the seventies,
cash crops to food crops; (ii) intensification after which the technology spread to the East-
of cropping over already cultivated land; and ern and Central parts of the country.
(iii) increasing cultivated area by bringing The Planning Commission of India
cultivable and fallow land under plough. focused its attention on the problems of
Initially, this strategy helped in increasing agriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. It
food grains production. But agricultural initiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 to
production stagnated during late 1950s. To induce regionally balanced agricultural
development in the country. It also
emphasized the need for diversification of 1950-51 to 2000-01. Over these 50

agriculture and harnessing of resources for years, are irrigated more than once
development of dairy farming, poultry, in an agricultural year has increased
horticulture, livestock rearing and from 1.71 to 20.46 million ha.
aquaculture. Modern agricultural technology has
Initiation of the policy of liberalization diffused very fast in various areas
and free market economy in 1990s is likely of the country. Consumption of
to influence the course of development of chemical fertilizers has increased by
Indian agriculture. Lack of development of 15 times since mid-sixties. In 2001-
rural infrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies 02, per hectare consumption of
and price support, and impediments in chemical fertilizers in India was 91
availing of the rural credits may lead to inter- kg which was equal to its average
in
regional and inter-personal disparities in consumption in the world (90 kg).
rural areas. But in the irrigated areas of Punjab
Growth of and Haryana, the consumption of
Agricultural Output and Technology chemical fertilizers per unit area is
There has been a significant increase in
agricultural output and improvement in
p. three to four times higher than that
of the national average. Since the
high yielding varieties are highly
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technology during the last fifty years.
Production and yield of many crops susceptible to pests and diseases, the
such as rice and wheat has increased use of pesticides has increased
significantly since 1960s.
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at an impressive rate. Among the

other crops, the production of Problems of Indian Agriculture: Yet,
sugarcane, oilseeds and cotton has there are some problems which are common
and range from physical constraints to
ar
also increased appreciably. India

ranks first in the production of institutional hindrances. A detailed
pulses, tea, jute, cattle and milk. It is discussion on these problems follows:
Dependence on Erratic Monsoon:
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the second largest producer of rice,

wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and Irrigation covers and about 33 per cent of the
vegetables. cultivated area in India. The crop production
Expansion of irrigation has played a in rest of the cultivated land directly depends
very crucial role in enhancing on rainfall.
agricultural output in the country. It Low productivity: The yield of the
provided basis for introduction of crops in the country is low in comparison to
modern agricultural technology such the international level. The vast rainfed areas
as high yielding varieties of seeds, of the country, particularly drylands which
chemical fertilizers, pesticides and mostly grow coarse cereals, pulses and
farm machinery. The net irrigated oilseeds have very low yields.
area in the country has increased Constraints of Financial Resources and
from 20.85 million ha over the period Indebtedness: The inputs of modern
agriculture are very expensive. Crop failures Lack of Commercialization: Most of the
and low returns from agriculture have forced small and marginal farmers grow food grains,
them to fall in the trap of indebtedness. which are meant for their own family
Lack of Land Reforms: After consumption. Modernization and
independence, land reforms were accorded commercialization of agriculture have
priority, but these reforms were not however, taken place in the irrigated areas.
implemented effectively due to lack of strong Vast Under-employment: In these
political will. areas, there is a seasonal unemployment
Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of ranging from 4 to 8 months. Even in the
Landholding: There are a large number of cropping season work is not available
marginal and small farmers in the country. throughout, as agricultural operations are not
More than 60 per cent of the ownership labour intensive.
in
holdings have a size smaller than one (ha). Degradation of Cultivable Land: One
Furthermore, about 40 per cent of the farmers of the serious problems that arises out of
have operational holding size smaller than faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural
0.5 hectare (ha). The average size of land
holding is shrinking further under increasing
population pressure.
p.
development is degradation of land
resources.
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Gist of NCERT
General Science
ISBN: 9789351720188
Book Code: F20
Geography
7 61
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
India is endowed with a rich variety of of deposition, accumulation and

mineral resources due to its varied geological concentration in horizontal strata.
structure. Bulk of the valuable minerals are Coal and some forms of iron ore
in
products of pre-Paleozoic age mainly have been concentrated as a result
associated with metamorphic and igneous of long periods under great heat
rocks of the peninsular India. The vast alluvial and pressure. Another group of
plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals sedimentary minerals include
of economic use.
The mineral resources provide the coun-
p. gypsum. Potash salt and sodium salt.
These are formed as a reulst of
evaporation especially in arid
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try with the necessary base for industrial
development. The availability of various regions.
types of mineral and energy resources in the (iii) Another mode of formation
country. involves the decomposition of
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Mode of Occurrence of Minerals surface rocks, and the removal of

Minerals generally occur in these forms: soluble constituents, leaving a
residual mass of weathered material
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(i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks

minerals may occur in the cracks, containing ores. Bauxite is formed
crevices, faults or joints. The smaller this way.
(iv) Certain minerals may occur as
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occurrences are called veins and the

larger are called lodes. In most alluvial deposits in sands of valley
cases, they are formed when floors and the base of hills. These
minerals in liquid/molten and deposits are called placer deposits
gaseous forms are forced upward and generally contain minerals,
through cavities towards the earths which are not corroded by water.
surface. They cool and solidify as Gold, silver, tin and platinum are
they rise. Major metallic minerals most important among such
like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. minerals.
are obtained from veins and lodes. (v) The ocean waters contain vast
(ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of quantities of minerals, but most of
minerals occur in beds or layers. these are too widely diffused to be
They have been formed as a result of economic significance. However,
common salt, magnesium and resources occur to the east of a line linking
bromine are largely derived from Mangalore and Kanpur.
ocean waters. The ocean beds, too, Minerals are generally concentrated in
are rich in manganese nodules. three broad belts in India. There may be
Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most of the some sporadic occurrence here and there in
minerals in India are nationalized and their isolated pockets. These belts are:
extraction is possible only after obtaining due The North-Eastern Plateau Region. This
permission from the government? But in most of belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa
the tribal areas of the north-east India, minerals are Plateau, West Bengal and parts of
owned by individuals or communities. In Chhattsgarh.
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron
ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal mining in
The South-Western Plateau Region:
Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and
in
in the form of a long narrow tunnel, known as Rat contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
hole mining. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.
Agencies It also contains high grade iron ore,
Involved in the exploration of minerals
In India, systematic surveying,
prospecting and exploration for minerals is
p.
manganese and limestone. This belt packs in
coal deposits except naively lignite.
This belt does not have as diversified
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undertaken by the Geological Survey of India mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
(GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium,
(ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.
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Ltd. (MECL), National Mineral Development The North-Western Region: This belt
Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part
Mines (IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. of Gujarat and minerals are associated with
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(BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), Dharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc have
National Aluminum Company Ltd. (NALCO) been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in
and the Departments of Mining and Geology building stones i.e. sandstone, granite,
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in various states. marble. Gypsum and Fullers earth deposits

are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone
Distribution of Minerals in India
provide raw materials for cement industry.
Most of the metallic minerals in India Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits.
occur in the peninsular plateau region in the Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources
old crystalline rocks. Over 97 percent of coal of salt.
reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar,
The Himalayan belt is another mineral
Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum
belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and
reserves are located in the sedimentary basins
tungsten are known to occur. They occur on
of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-
both the eastern and western parts. Assam
shore region in the Arabian. New reserves
valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides oil
have been located in the Krishna-Goadavari
resources are also found in off-shore-areas
and Kaveri basins. Most of the major mineral
near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
Mineral and Energy Resources 63
Ferrous Mineral: Ferrous minerals such districts. The districts of Chandrapur,

as iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc., Bhandara and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
provide a strong base for the development Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnool, Cuddapah
of metallurgical industries. Our country is and Anantapur districts of Andhra Pradesh,
well-placed in respect of ferrous minerals Salem and Nilgiris- districts of Tamil Nadu
both in reserves and production. are other iron mining regions. Goa has also
Iron Ore: India is endowed with fairly emerged as an important producer of iron
abundant resources of iron ore. It has the ore.
largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. The two Manganese: Manganese is an important
main types of ore found in our country are raw material for smelting of iron ore and also
hematite and magnetite. It has great demand used for manufacturing Ferro alloys.
in international market due to its superior Manganese deposits are found in almost all
in
quality. The iron ore mines occur in close geological formations; however, it is mainly
proximity to the coal fields in the north- associated with Dharwar system.
eastern plateau region of the country which Orissa is the leading producer of
adds to their advantage.
The total reserves of iron ore in the
country were about 20 billion tones in the
p.
Manganese. Major mines in Orissa are located
in the central part of the iron ore belt of India,
particularly in Bonai, Keudujhar, Sundergarh,
year 2004-05. About 95 per cent of total Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
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reserves of iron ore is located in the States of Karnataka is another major producer
Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and here the mines are located in Dharwar,
Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Bellary, Belgaum, North Canara,
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Orissa, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chitradurg and
in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. The Tumkur. Maharashtra is also an important
important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, producer of manganese which is mined in
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Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu Nagpur Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts. The

(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similar disadvantage to these mines is that they are
hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest located far from steel plants. The manganese
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iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in
plants are located around them. Most of the Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and
important mines such as Noamundi and Gua Jhabua districts districts. Andhra Pradesh,
are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi Goa, and Jharkhand are other minor
Singhbhum districts. This belt further extends producers of manganese.
to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, Non-Ferrous Minerals: India is poorly
Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of with non-ferrous metallic minerals except
iron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron bauxite.
ore deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area of Bauxite: Bauxite is the ore which is used
Bellary district, Baba Budan hills and in manufacturing of aluminum. Bauxite is
Kudremukh in Chikmagalur district and parts found mainly in tertiary deposits and is
of Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur associated with laterite rocks occurring
extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges Mica: Mica is mainly used in the
of peninsular India and also in the coastal electrical and electronic industries. It can be
tracts of the country. split into very thin sheets which are tough
Orissa happens to be the largest and flexible. Mica in India is produced in
producer of Bauxite. Kalahandi and Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan
Sambalpur are the leading producers. The followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and
other two areas which have been increasing Madhya Pradesh. In Jharkhand high quality
their production are Bolangir and Koraput. mica is obtained in a belt extending over a
The patlands of Jharkhand in Lohardaga have distance of about 150 km, in length and about
rich deposits. Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau.
Pradesh and Maharashtra are other major In Andhra Pradesh. Nellore district produces
producers. Bhavnagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat the best quality mica. In Rajasthan mica belt
extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to
in
have the major deposits. Chhattisgarh has
bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau while Bhilwara and around Udaipur. Mica deposits
Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in M.P. have also occur in Mysore and Hassan districts of
important deposits of bauxite. Kolaba, Thane, Karnataka, Coimbatore. Tiruchirapalli,
Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in
Maharashtra are important producers. Tamil
Nadu. Karanataka and Goa are minor
p.
Madurai and Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu,
Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal.
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producers of bauxite. Energy Resources: Mineral fuels are
Copper: Copper is an indispensable essential for generation of power, required
metal in the electrical industry for making by agriculture, industry, transport and other
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wires, electric motors, transformers and sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels like
generators. It is alloyable. Malleable and coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as
ductile. It is also mixed with gold to provide fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the
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strength to jewellery. conventional sources of energy. These

The Copper deposits mainly occur in conventional sources are exhaustible
Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat resources.
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district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu Coal: Coal is a one of the important
and Alwar districts in Rajasthan. minerals which is mainly used in the
Minor producers of Copper are generation of thermal power and smelting
Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra of iron ore. Coal occurs in rock sequences
Pradesh), Chitradurg and hasan districts mainly of two geological ages, namely
(Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Gondwana and tertiary deposits.
Nadu). Lignite is a low grade brown coal,
Non-metallic Minerals: Among the which is soft with high moisture content. The
non-metallic minerals produced in India, mica principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in
is the important one. The other minerals Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of
extracted for local consumption are limestone, electricity. Coal that has been buried deep
dolomite and phosphate. and subjected to increased temperatures is
bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal numerous by-products are processed in
in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high petrochemical industries such as fertilizer,
grade bituminous coal which has a special synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline,
value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.
Anthracite is the highest quality hard Most of the petroleum occurrences in
coal. About 80 per cent of the coal deposits India are associated with anticlines and fault
in India is of bituminous type and is of non- traps in the rock formations of the tertiary
coking grade. The most important age. In regions of folding, anticlines or
Gondwana coal fields of India are located in domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the
Damodar Valley. crest of the up fold. The oil bearing layer is a
They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt porous limestone or sandstone through
and the important coal fields in this region which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from
in
are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, rising or sinking by intervening non-porous
Karanpura. layers.
Jharia is the largest coal field followed Petroleum is also found in fault traps
by Raniganj. The other river valleys
associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi
and Sone. The most important coal mining
p.
between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas,
being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
About 63 per cent of Indias petroleum
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centres are Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent
of Singrauli coal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.
Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary
in Orissa, Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee and
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rocks of the tertiary period. Oil exploration

Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni and and production was systematically taken up
Pandur in Andhra Pradesh. after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission
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Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal was set up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in
Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is Assam was the only oil producing region but
extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, the scenario has changed after 1956. In recent
Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, years, new oil deposits have been found at
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Jaipur and Nazira in upper Assam, Namchik- the extreme western and eastern parts of the
Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot country. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and
(Jammu and Kashmir). Besides, the brown Moran are important oil producing areas. The
coal or lignite occur in the coastal areas of major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar,
Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Gujarat and Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and
Jammu and Kashmir. Lunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off
Petroleum: Crude petroleum consists of Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and
hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states production commenced in 1976. Oil and
varying in chemical composition, colour and natural gas have been found in exploratory
specific gravity. It is an essential source of wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin
energy for all internal combustion engines in on the east coast.
automobiles, railways and aircraft. Its Oil extracted from the well is crude oil
and contains many impurities. It cannot be projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra),

used directly. It needs to be refined. There Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan),
are two types of refineries in India: (a) field Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar
based and (b) market based. Digboi is an Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara
example of field based and Barauni is an (Gujarat).
example of market based refinery. Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
Natural Gas: The Gas Authority of India Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum,
Limited was set up in 1984 as a public sector natural gas and nuclear energy use
undertaking to transport and market natural exhaustible raw materials. Sustainable energy
gas. It is obtained alongwith oil in all the oil resources are only the renewable energy
fields but exclusive reserves have been sources like solar, wind, hydro-geothermal
located along the eastern coast as well as and biomass. These energy sources are more
in
(Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh), equitably distributed and environmental
Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in friendly. The non-conventional energy
Gujarat and Maharashtra. sources will provide more sustained, eco-
friendly cheaper energy after the initial cost
Nuclear Energy Resources: Nuclear
energy as a viable source in recent times.
Important minerals used for the generation
p.
is taken care of.
Solar Energy: Sun rays tapped in
of nuclear energy are uranium and thorium. photovoltaic cells can be converted into
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Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar energy, known as solar energy. The two
rocks. Geographically, uranium ores are effective processes considered to be very
known to occur in several locations along the effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaics
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Singbhum Copper belt. It is also found in and solar thermal technology. Solar thermal
Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of technology has some relative advantages over
Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh, all other non-renewable energy sources. It is
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Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu cost competitive, environment friendly and
district of Himachal Pradesh. Thorium is easy to construct. Solar energy is 7 per cent
mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite more effective than coal or oil based plants
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in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala and 10 per cent more effective than nuclear
and Tamil Nadu. Worlds richest monazite plants. It is generally used more in appliances
deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc. The
districts of Kerala, near Vishakhapatnam in western part of India has greater potential
Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta for the development of solar energy in
in Orissa. Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Atomic Energy Commission was Wind Energy: Wind energy is
established in 1948, progress could be made absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source
only after the establishment of the Atomic of energy. The mechanism of energy
Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which conversion from blowing wind is simple. The
was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is
Centre in 1967. The important nuclear power converted into electrical energy. The
permanent wind systems such the trade Geothermal Energy: When the magma
winds, westerlys and seasonal wind like from the interior of earth, comes out on the
monsoon have been used as source of surface, tremendous heat is released. This
energy. Besides these, local winds, land and heat energy can successfully be tapped and
sea breezes can also be used to produce converted to electrical energy. Apart from
electricity. this, the hot water that gushes out through
India, already has started generating the gyser well is also used in the generation
wind energy. It has an ambitious programme of thermal energy. It is popularly known as
to install 250 wind-driven turbines with a Geothermal energy. This energy is now
total capacity of 45 megawatts, spread over considered to be one of the key energy
12 suitable locations, specially in coastal ar- sources which can be developed as an
eas. According to the estimation by Ministry alternate source. The hot springs and geysers
of Power, India will be able to produce 3,000 are being used since medieval period.
in
megawatts of electric from this source. The The first successful (1890) attempt to tap
Ministry of non-conventional sources of en- the underground heat was made in the city
ergy is developing wind energy in India to of Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot water
lessen the burden of oil import bill. The coun-
trys potential of wind power generation ex-
ceeds 50,000 megawatts; of which one fourth
p.
pipe network was built to give heat to the
surrounding buildings. This plant is still
working.
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can be easily harnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Bio-energy: Bio-energy refers to energy
Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable con-
derived from biological products which
ditions for wind energy exist. Wind power
includes agricultural residues, municipal,
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plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the

industrial and other wastes.
largest in Asia. Another, wind power plant
is located at Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu. Establishment of iron and steel industry
in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on
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Tidal and Wave Energy: Ocean currents

decision to develop backward tribal areas of
are the store-house of infinite energy. Since
the country. At present, government of India
the beginning of seventeenth and eighteenth
provides lots of incentives to industries
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century, persistent efforts were made to

locating in backward area.
create a more efficient energy system from
the ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current. Major Industries
Large tidal waves are known to occur The iron and steel industry is basic to
along the west coast of India. Hence, India the industrial development of any country.
has great potential for the development of The cotton textile Industry is one of our
tidal energy along the coasts but so far these traditional industries. The sugar Industry is
have not yet been utilized. based on local raw materials which prospered
In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides even in the British period.
ideal conditions for utilizing tidal energy. A The Iron and Steel Industry
900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up The development of the iron and steel
here by the National Hydropower industry opened the doors to rapid industrial
Corporation.
development in India. Almost all sectors of under IISCO are located very close to
the Indian industry depend heavily on the Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj), Jharia,
iron and steel industry for their basic and Ramgarh. Iron ore comes from
infrastructure. Singhbhum in Jharkhand. Water is obtained
The other raw materials besides iron ore from the Barakar River, a tributary of the
and coking coal, essential for iron and steel Damodar. All the plants are located along the
industry are limestone, dolomite, manganese Kolkata-Asansol railway line. Unfortunately,
and fire clay. All these raw materials are gross steel production from IISCO fell considerably
(weight losing), therefore, the best location in 1972-73 and the plants were taken over by
for the iron and steel plants is near the source the government.
of raw materials. In India, there is a crescent Visvesvaraiya
shaped region comprising parts of Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)
in
Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand The third integrated steel plant, the
and western West Bengal, which is extremely Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially
rich in high grade iron ore, good quality called the Mysore Iron and Steel Works, is
coking coal and other supplementing raw
materials.
The Indian iron and steel industry
p.
located close to an iron ore producing area
of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills.
Limestone and manganese are also locally
consists of large integrated steel plants as well
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available. But this region has no coal. At the
as mini steel mills. It also includes secondary beginning, charcoal obtained by burning
producers, rolling mills and ancillary wood from nearby forests was used as fuel
industries. till 1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were
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Integrated Steel Plants installed which use hydroelectricity from the

TISCO: The Tata Iron and Steel plant Jog Falls-hydel power project. The Bhadravati
river supplies water to the plant. This plant
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lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway

line and about 240 km away from Kolkata, produces specialized steels and alloys.
which is the nearest port for the export of After independence, during the Second
Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new inte-
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steel. The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai

provide water to the plant. The iron ore for grated steel plants were set up with foreign
the plant is obtained from Noamundi and collaboration: Rourkela in Orissa, Bhilai in
Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.
mines in Orissa. Coking coal comes from These were public sector plants under
Jharia and West Bokaro coalfields. Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was
IISCO: The Indian Iron and Steel
created to manage these plants.
Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at
Hirapur and later on another at Kulti. In 1937, Rourkela Steel Plant
the Steel corporation of Bengal was The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in
constituted in association with IISCO and set 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Orissa in
up another iron and steel producing unit at collaboration with Germany. The plant was
Burnpur (West Bengal). All the three plants located on the basis of proximity to raw
materials, thus, minimizing the cost of Damodar Valley Corporation.

transporting weight losing raw material. This Other Steel Plants: New steel plants
plant has a unique locational advantage, as it which were set up in the Fourth Plan period
receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron are away from the main raw material sources.
ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. The All the three plants are located in South India.
Hirakud project supplies power for the The Vizag Steel Plant, in Vishakhapatnam in
electric furnaces and water is obtained from Andhra Pradesh is the first port based plant
the Koel and Sankh rivers. which started operating in 1992. Its port
Bhilai Steel Plant location is of advantage.
The Bhilai Steel Plant was established The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hospet in
with Russian collaboration in Durg District Karnataka was developed using indigenous
of Chhattisgarh and started production in technology. This uses local iron ore and
in
1959. The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara limestone. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil
mine, coal comes from Korba and Kargali coal Nadu was commissioned in 1982.
fields. The water comes from the Apart from these major steel plants,
Tanduladam and the power from the Korba
Thermal Power Station. This plant also lies
on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. The
p.
there are more than 206 units located in
different parts of country. Most of these use
scrap iron as their main raw material, and
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bulk of the steel produced goes to the process it in electric furnaces.
Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam. The Cotton Textile Industry
Durgapur Steel Plant: Durgapur Steel In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was
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Plant, in West Bengal, was set up in established in Mumbai. This city had several
collaboration with the government of the advantages as a cotton textile manufacturing
United Kingdom and started production in centre. It was very close to the cotton
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1962. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia producing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
coal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi. Raw cotton used to be brought to Mumbai
Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi port to be transported to England. Therefore,
railway route. Hydel power and water is
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cotton was available in Mumbai city itself,

obtained from the Damodar Valley Moreover, Mumbai even then was the
Corporation (DVC). financial centre and the capital needed to
Bokaro Steel Plant: This steel plant was start an industry was available there. As a
set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian large town, providing employment
collaboration. This plant was set up on the opportunities attracted labour in large
principle of transportation cost minimization numbers. Hence, cheap and abundant labour
by creating Bokaro-Rourkela combine. It too was available locally. The machinery
receives iron ore from the Rourkela region required for a cotton textile mill could be
and the wagons on return take coal to directly imported from England.
Rourkela. Other raw materials come to Subsequently, two more mills, the Shahpur
Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km. Mill and the Calico Mill were established in
Water and Hydel power is supplied by the Ahmedabad. By 1947, the number of mills in
India went up to 423 but the scenario changed Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the second half
after partition, and this industry suffered a of the nineteenth century, the cotton textile
major recession. This was due to the fact that industry expanded very rapidly. The number
the most of the good quality cotton growing of units increased dramatically. The Swadeshi
areas had gone to West Pakistan and India movement gave a major impetus to the
was left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent industry as there was a call for boycotting
of the cotton producing area. all British made goods in favour of Indian
After Independence, this industry goods. After 1921, with the development of
gradually recovered and eventually the railway network other cotton textile
flourished. In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of centres expanded rapidly. In southern India,
which, 192 mills were in the public sector and mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai
151 mills in the cooperative sector. The largest and Bangalore. In central India, Nagpur,
Indore, Solapur and Vadodra became cotton
in
number, that is, 1,439 mills were in the private
sector. textile centres. Cotton textile mills were set
The cotton textile industry in India can up at Kanpur based on local investment. Mills
were also set up at Kolkata due to its port
be broadly divided into two sectors, the
organized sector and the decentralized
sector. The decentralized sector includes
p.
facilities. The development of hydro-
electricity also favoured the location of the
cotton textile mills away from the cotton
cloth produced in handlooms (including
re
Khadi) and power looms. The production of producing areas. The rapid development of
the organized sector has drastically fallen this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of
from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth century the abundant availability of hydel power for
tP
to only about 6 per cent in 2000. At present, the mills. Lower labour costs at centres like
the power looms on the decentralized sector Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore
produce more than 59 per cent and the hand and Tirunelveli also caused industries to be
ar
loom sector produces about 19 per cent of all located away from cotton producing areas.
cotton cloth produced in the country. Thus, the cotton textile industry is
Cotton is a pure raw material which located in almost every state in India, where
Sm
does not lose weight in the manufacturing one or more of the locational factors have
process, so other factors, like, power to drive been favourable. The importance of raw
the looms, labour, capital or market may materials has given way to market or to a
determine the location of the industry. At cheaper local labour force or it may be the
present the trend is to locate the industry at availability of power.
or close to markets, as it is the market that Presently, the major centres of the cotton
decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi,
Also the market for the finished produces is Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and
extremely variable, therefore, it becomes Ujjain. All these centres are the traditional
important to locate the mills close to the centres and are located close to the cotton
market. producing regions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and
After the first mills were set up in Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton producing
states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, is located in the cotton producing Telengana
Karnataka, and Punjab are the other region, where most of the mills are spinning
important cotton textile producers. mills producing yarn. The important centres
Tamil Nadu has the largest number of are Hyderabad, Secundrabad, Warangal and
mills and most of them produce yarn rather Guntur.
than cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as the In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest
most important centre with nearly half the centre. Some of the other important centres
mills located there. Chennai, Madurai, are Modinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra
Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, and Lucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton
Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other mills are located in the Hugli region. Howrah,
important centres. In Karnataka, the cotton Serampur, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the
textile industry has developed in the cotton important centres. Production of cotton cloth
in
producing areas in the north-eastern part of increased almost five times from 1950-51 to
the state. Davangere, Hubli, Bellary, Mysore 1999-2000. Cotton textile has been facing
and Bangalore are important centres. In tough competition from synthetic cloth.
Andhra Pradesh, the cotton textile industry
p.
re
tP
ar
Sm
INDIAN POLITY
For
Civil Services
Preliminary Examinations
ISBN: 9789381362310
Book Code: A14, ` 350
72
8
Gist of NCERT
SUGAR INDUSTRY
The sugar industry is the second most Maharashtra has emerged as a leading
important agro-based industry in the sugar producer in the country and produces
country. India is the largest producer of both more than one-third of the total production
in
sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes of the sugar in the country. There are 119
about 8 per cent of the total sugar production sugar mills in the state in a narrow belt
in the world. Besides, khandasari and gur or extending from Manmad in the north to
jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane. Kolhapur in the south. There are 87 mills in
This industry provides employment for more
than 4 lakh persons directly and a large
p.
the cooperative sector.
Uttar Pradesh is the second largest
number of farmers indirectly. Sugar industry
re
producer of sugar. The sugar factories are
is a seasonal industry because of the concentrated in two belts- the Ganga-Yamuna
seasonality of raw materials. doab and the taria region. The major sugar
Development of the industry on mod- producing centres in the Ganga- Yamuna
tP
ern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,
mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshehr
mills were started in other parts of Bihar and districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti,
ar
Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important
in operation producing 11.34 lakh tones of sugar producing districts in the Tarai region.
sugar. The number of sugar factories rose to In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are
Sm
506 and production to 176,99 lakh tones in located in Coimbatore, Vellore,

2000-01. Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and
Location of the Sugar Industry Tiruchchirappalli districts. Belgaum, Bellary,
Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and Chitradurg
ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 districts are the major producers in
to 12 per cent depending on its variety. Its Karnataka. The industry is distributed in the
sucrose content begins to dry during haulage coastal regions i.e. East Godawari, West
after it has been harvested from the field. Godavari, Vishakhapatnam districts and
Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon Nizamabad, and Medak districts of
its being crushed within 24 hours of its Telangana alongwith Chittoor district of
harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located Rayalseema.
within the cane producing regions. The other States which produce sugar
Sugar Industry 73
are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL),
and Gujarat. Saran, Champaran, a public sector undertaking. It is responsible
Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya for the manufacture and distribution of the
are the important sugarcane producing dis- various petrochemicals like polymers,
tricts in Bihar. The relative significance of chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates.
Punjab has declined, although Gurdaspur, Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited
Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and Amrtisar are (PCL), a joint venture of the Government of
major sugar producers. In Haryana, sugar India and Weavers Cooperative Societies. It
factories are located in Yamuna Nagar, produces polyester filament yarn and nylon
Rohtak, Hissar and Faridabad districts. Sugar chips at its two plants located at Vadodara
industry is comparatively new in Gujarat. and Naldhari in Gujarat. Third is the Central
Sugar mills are located in the cane growing Institute of Plastic Engineering and
tracts of Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Technology (CIPET), involved in imparting
in
Valsad and Bhavnagar districts. training in petrochemical industry.
Petrochemical Industries Polymers are made from ethylene and
This group of industries has been propylene. These materials are obtained in
growing very fast in India. A variety of
products come under this category of
industries. In 1960s, demand for organic
p.
the process of refining crude oil. Polymers
are used as raw materials in the plastic
industry. Among polymers, polyethylene is
re
chemicals increased so fast that it became a widely used thermoplastic. Plastic is first
difficult to meet this demand. At that time. covered into sheets, power, resin and pellets,
Petroleum refining industry expanded and then used in manufacturing plastic
tP
rapidly. Many items are derived from crude products. Plastic products are preferred
petroleum, which provide raw materials for because of their strength, water and chemical
many new industries; these are collectively resistance and low prices. Production of
ar
known as petrochemical industries. This plastic polymers started in India in the late
group of industries is divided into four sub- fifties and the early sixties using other organic
groups; (i) polymers, (ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) chemicals. The National Organic Chemicals
Sm
elastomers, and (iv) surfactant intermediate. Industries Limited (NOCIL), established in

Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical private sector in 1961, started the first
industries. Cracker units are also located in naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai.
Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar, Later, several other companies were formed.
Gandhinagar, and Hajira (Gujarat), The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni,
Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra are major
(West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam (Andha producers of plastic materials.
Pradesh). About 75 per cent of these units are in
Three organizations are working in the small scale sector. The industry also uses
petrochemical sector under the administrative recycled plastics, which constitutes about 30
control of the Department of Chemicals and per cent of the total production.
Petrochemicals. First is the Indian Synthetic fibres are widely used in the
manufacturing of fabrics because of their quality certification. A majority of the

inherent strength, durability, wash ability, multinational companies operating in the area
and resistance to shrinkage. Industries of information technology have either
manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are software development centres or research
located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar, development centres in India. However, in
Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic the hardware development sector, India is
staple fibre is manufactured at Kota and yet to make any remarkable achievements.
Vadodara. A major impact of this growth has been
Though plastics have becomes on employment creation, which is almost
inseparable items in our daily use and they doubled every year.
have affected our life style. But due to its Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization
non-biodegradable quality it has emerged as (LPG) and Industrial Development in India
in
the greatest threat to our environment. The new Industrial Policy was
Hence, use of plastic is being discouraged in announced in 1991. The major objectives of
different states of India. this policy were to build on the gains already
Knowledge based Industries
The advancement in information
technology has had a profound influence on
p.
made, correct the distortions or weaknesses
that have crept in, maintain a sustained
growth in productivity and gainful
re
the countrys economy. The Information employment and attain international
Technology (IT) revolution opened up new competitiveness.
possibilities of economic and social Within this policy, measures initiated
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transformation. The IT and IT enabled are: (1) abolition of industrial licensing, (2)
business process outsourcing (ITESBPO) free entry to foreign (technology, (3) foreign
services continue to be on a robust growth investment policy, (4) access to capital
ar
path. Indian software industry has emerged market, (5) open trade, (6) abolition of
as one of the fastest growing sectors in the phased manufacturing programme, and (7)
economy. Exports of the Indian software and liberalized industrial location programme.
services sector were Rs. 78,230 crore in 2004-
Sm
The policy has three main dimensions:

05 which is approximately 30-32 per cent privatization and globalization.
increase from the previous year. The software The industrial licensing system has been
industry has surpassed electronic hardware abolished for all except six industries related
production. The Indian government has to security, strategic or environmental
created a number of software parks in the concerns. At the same time, the number of
country. industries reserved for public sector since
The IT software and services industry 1956 have been reduced from 17 to 4.
account for almost 2 per cent of Indias GDP. Industries related to atomic energy
Indias software industry has achieved a substances specified in the schedule of the
remarkable distinction for providing quality Department of Atomic Energy as well as
products. A large number of Indian software Railways have remained under the public
companies have acquired international sector. The government also have decided
Sugar Industry 75
to offer a part of the shareholdings in the Globalization means integrating the

public enterprises to financial institutions, economy of the country with the world
general public and workers. The threshold economy. Under this process, goods and
limits of assets have been scrapped and no services along with capital, labour and
industry required prior approval for resources can move freely from one nation
investing in the delicensed sector. They only to another. The thrust of globalization has
need to submit a memorandum in the been to increase the domestic and external
prescribed format. competition through extensive application of
In the new industrial policy, Foreign market mechanism and facilitating dynamic
Direct Investment (FDI) has been seen as a relationship with the foreign investors and
supplement to the domestic investment for suppliers of technology. In Indian context,
achieving a higher level of economic this implies: (1) opening of the economy to
foreign direct investment by providing
in
development. FDI benefits the domestic
industry as well as the consumers by facilities to foreign companies to invest in
providing technological upgradation, access different fields of economies activity in India;
to global managerial skills and practices, (2) removing restrictions and obstacles to the
optimum use of natural and human
resources, etc. Keeping all this in mind,
foreign investment has been liberalized and
p.
entry of multinational companies in India; (3)
allowing Indian companies to enter into
foreign collaboration in India and also
re
the government has permitted access to an encouraging them to set up joint ventures
automic route for Foreign Direct Investment. abroad; (4) carrying out massive import
The government has also announced changes liberalization programs by switching over
tP
in the industrial location policies. Industries from quantitative restrictions to tariffs in the
are discouraged in or very close to large cities first place and then bringing down the level
due to environmental reasons. of import duties considerably; and (5) instead
ar
The industrial policy has been of a set of export in incentives, opting for
liberalized to attract private investor both exchange rate adjustments for promoting
domestic and multinationals. New sectors export.
Sm
like, mining, telecommunication, highway Industrial Region and Districts

construction and management have been Major Industrial Regions (8)
thrown open to private companies. In spite
1. Mumbai-Pune Region,
of all these concessions, Foreign Direct
Investment has not been up to the expectation. 2. Hugli Region,
There has been a big gap between approved 3. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region,
and actual foreign direct investment, even 4. Gujarat Region,
though the numbers of foreign collaborations 5. Chotanagpur Region,
are increasing. Larger parts of this investment 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region,
have gone to domestic appliances, finance,
7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region and
services, electronics and electrical equipment,
and food and dairy products. 8. Kollam-Tiruvantapuram Region.
Minor Industrial Regions (13) wider. Major share of both domestic

1. Ambala-Amritsar, investment as well as foreign direct
2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, investment went to already developed states.
For example, out of the total proposed
3. Indore-Dewas-Ujjain,
investment by the industrial entrepreneurs
4. Jaipur-Ajmer, during 1991-2000 nearly one fourth (23 per
5. Molhapur-South Kannada, cent) was for industrially developed
6. Northern Malabar, Maharashtra, 17 per cent for Gujarat, 7 per
7. Middle Malabar, cent for Andhra Pradesh, and about 6 per
8. Adilabad-Nizamabad, cent for Tamil Nadu while Uttar Pradesh, the
state with the largest population has only 8
9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur,
per cent. In spite of several concessions, seven
10. Bhojpur-Munger, north-eastern states could get less than 1 per
in
11. Durg-Raipur, cent of the proposed investment. In fact,
12. Bilaspur-Korba, and economically weaker states could not
13. Brahmaputra valley. compete with the developed states in open
Industrial Districts (15)
1. Kanpur,
p.
market in attracting industrial investment
proposals and hence they are likely to suffer
from these processes.
re
2. Hyderabad, Industrial Regions in India
3. Agra,
Industries are not evenly distributed in
4. Nagpur,
tP
the country. They tend to concentrate on

5. Gwalior, certain locations because of the favourable
6. Bhopal, locations factors.
ar
7. Lucknow, Several indices are used to identify the

clustering of industries, important among
8. Jalpaiguri,
them are: (i) the number of industrial units,
9. Cuttak, (ii) number of industrial workers, (iii)
Sm
10. Gorakhpur, quantum of power used for industrial

11. Aligarh, purposes, (iv) total industrial output, and (v)
12. Kota, value added by manufacturing etc.
13. Purnia, Major industrial regions of the country
are given below in some details.
14. Jabalpur, and
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region
15. Bareilly.
It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune
A breakup of foreign collaboration
and in adjoining districts of Nasik and
approval reveals that the major share went
Solapur. Besides, industrial development has
to core, priority sectors while infrastructural
been rapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara,
sector was untouched. Further, gap between
Sangli and Jalgaon districts. Development of
developed and developing states has become
this region started with the location of cotton
Sugar Industry 77
textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, with coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron
cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau,
the location of cotton textile industry. contributed to the industrial development of
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided the region. Cheap labour available from
impetus to the growth of Mumbai port. thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar
Machineries were imported through this port. Pradesh and Orissa also contributed to its
Hydro-electricity was developed in the development. Kolkata, being the capital city
Western Ghat region to meet requirements of British India (1773-1911), attracted the
of this industry. British capital. The establishment of first jute
With the development of cotton textile mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of
industry, chemical industry also developed. modern industrial clustering in this region.
Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field The major concentration of jute industry
in
and erection of nuclear energy plants added is at Howrah and Bhatapara. The partition
additional pull to this region. of the country in 1947 adversely affected this
Besides, engineering goods, petroleum industrial region. Cotton textile industry also
grew along with jute industry, paper,
refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic
and plastic goods, drugs, fertilizers, electrical,
shipbuilding, electronics, software, transport
p.
engineering, textile machinery, electrical,
chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertilizer and
petrochemical industries have also developed
equipments and food industries also
re
developed. Important industrial centres are within this region. Factory of the Hindustan
Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Motors Limited at Konnagar and diesel
Pune, Pimpri, Nasik, Manmad, Solapur, engine factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks
tP
Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli. of this region. Location of petroleum refinery
Hugli Industrial Region at Haldia has facilitated the development of
a variety of industries. Important, industrial
ar
Located along the Hugli river, this

centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora,
region extends from Bansberia in the north
Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Nahati,
to Birlanagar in the south for a distance of
Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur,
Sm
about 100 km. Industries also have developed

Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia,
in Mednipur in the west. Kolkata- Howrah
Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
from the nucleus of this industrial region.
However, industrial growth of this region
Historical, geographical, economic and
has slowed down in comparison to other
political factor have contributed much to its
regions. Decline of the jute industry is one of
development. It developed with the opening
the reasons.
of river port on Hugli. Kolkata, emerged as
a leading centre of the country, Later, Kolkata Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region
was connected with interior parts by railway This region witnessed most rapid
lines and road routes. Development of tea industrial growth in post-Independence
plantations in Assam and northern hills of period. Till 1960, industries were confined
West Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier to Bangalore, Salem and Madurai districts but
and jute later coupled with the opening of now they have spread over all the districts
of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram. Since, this The industrial structure is now
region is away from the coalfields, its diversified. Besides, textiles (cotton, silk and
development is dependent on the Pykara synthetic fabrics) and petrochemical
hydroelectric plant, which was built in 1932. industries, other industries are heavy and
Cotton textile industry was the first to take basic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel
roots due to the presence of cotton growing engines, textile machinery, engineering,
areas. Along with cotton mills, loom industry pharmaceuticals. Dyes, pesticides, sugar,
spread very rapidly. Several heavy dairy products and food processing. Recently,
engineering industries converged at largest petroleum refinery has been set up at
Bangalore. Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, Jamnagar. Important industrial centres of this
telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are region are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch,
industrial landmarks of this region. Important Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,
industries are textiles rail wagons, diesel Rajkot, Valsad and Jamnagar.
in
engines, radio, light engineering goods, Chotanagpur Region
rubber goods, medicines, aluminum, sugar,
This region extends over Jharkhand,
cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film,
cigarette, match box, leather goods, etc.
Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel
plant at Salem and fertilizer plants are recent
p.
northern Orissa and western West Bengal
and is known for the heavy metallurgical
industries. This region owes its development
re
to the discovery of coal in the Damodar
developments.
Valley and metallic and non-metallic in
Gujarat Industrial Region Jharkhand and northern Orissa. Proximity of
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The nucleus of this region lies between coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated
Ahmedabad and Vadodara but this region the location of heavy industries in this region.
extends upto Valsad and Surat in the south Six large integrated iron and steel plants at
and to Jamnagar in the west. Development Jamshedpur, Burnpur-Kulti, Durgapur,
ar
of this region is also associated with the Bokaro and Rourkela are located within this
location of the cotton textile industry since region. To meet the power requirement,
1860s. This region became an important textile thermal and hydroelectric plants have been
Sm
region with the decline of the cotton textile constructed in the Damodar Valley. Densely
industry at Mumbai. populated surrounding regions provide
Located in cotton growing area, this cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast
region has double advantage of the proximity market for its industries. Heavy engineering,
of raw materials as well as of market. The machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper,
discovery of oil fields led to the establishment locomotives and heavy electrical are some of
of petrochemical industries around the important industries in this region.
Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar. The Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad,
port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur,
this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol and
provided raw materials to a host of Dalmianagar.
petrochemical industries.
Sugar Industry 79
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region Besides, there are cotton, woolen and syn-

This industrial region extends from thetic fabrics, hosiery, sugar, cement, machine
Vishakhapatnam district to Kurnool and tools, tractor, cycle, agricultural implements,
Prakasam districts in the south. Industrial chemical and vanaspati industries which have
development of this region hinges upon developed on large scale. Software industry
Vishakhapatnam and districts in the south. is a recent addition. To the south lies the
Industrial development of this region hinges Agra-Mathura industrial area which
upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam specializes in glass leather goods. Mathura
ports and developed agriculture and rich with an oil refinery is a petrochemical
complex. Among industrial centres, mention
reserves of minerals in their inter lands.
be made Gurgaon, Delhi, Shahdara,
Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide
Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad,
energy. Ship building industry was started
Ambala, Agra and Mathura.
in
at Vishakhapatnam in 1941. Petroleum
refinery based on imported petroleum Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region
facilitated the growth of several The industrial region is spread over
Tiruvanantapuram, Kollam, Alwaye,
petrochemical industries. Sugar, textile, jute,
paper, fertilizer, cement, aluminum and light
engineering are principal industries of this
p.
Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts. Planta-
tion agriculture and hydropower provide
industrial base to this region. Located far
region. One lead-zinc smelter is functioning
re
in Guntur district. Iron and steel plant at away from the mineral belt of the country,
Vishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore. agricultural products processing and market
Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijaynagar, oriented light industries predominate the
tP
Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool are region.

important industrial centres. Among them, cotton textile, sugar, rub-
Gurgaon-Delhi-Merrut Region ber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertilizer and
ar
fish-based industries are important. Food

Industries located in this region have processing, paper, coconut coir products,
shown very fast growth in the recent past. aluminum and cement industries are also sig-
Sm
This region is located far away from the min- nificant. Location of petroleum refinery at
eral and power resources, and therefore, the Kochi has added a vista of new industries to
industries are light and market-oriented. this region. Important of petroleum centres
Electronics, light engineering and electrical are Kollam, Tiruvanantapuram, Alluva,
goods are major industries of this region. Kochi, Alappuzha, and Punalur.
80
9
Gist of NCERT
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
The use of transport and communication Central Government are known as the
depends upon our need to move things from National Highways. These roads are meant
place of their availability to the place of their for inter-state transport and movement of
in
use. defence men and material in strategic areas.
Land Transport These also connect the state capitals, major
cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc.
Road Transport: India has one of the
The length of the National Highways has
largest road networks in the world with a
total length of 33.1 lakh km (2005). About 85
per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of
p.
increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 65,769
km in 2005. The National Highways
constitute only two per cent of the total road
re
freight traffic are carried by roads every
length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic.
year. Road transport is relatively suitable for
shorter distance travel. The National Highways Authority of
India (NHAI) was operationalized in 1995.
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Road transport in modern sense was

It is an autonomous body under the Ministry
very limited in India before World War-II.
of Surface Transport. It is entrusted with the
The first serious attempt was made in 1943
responsibility of development, maintenance
ar
when Nagpur Plan was drawn. This plan

and operation of National Highways. This is
could not be implemented due to lack of
also the apex body to improve the quality of
coordination among the princely states and
the roads designated as National Highways.
Sm
British India. After Independence, twenty-

year road plan (1961) was introduced to Indian Road Network (2005)
improve the conditions of roads in India. Sl. Road Length in %of
However, roads continue to concentrate in No. Category Km
and around urban centres. Rural and remote total
areas had the least connectivity by road. road
For the purpose of construction and length
maintenance, roads are classified as National 1. National Highways 65,769 2
Highways (NH), State Highways (SH), Major 2. State Highways 1,28,000 4
District Roads and Rural Roads. 3. Major District Roads 4,70,000 14
National Highways: The main roads 4. Rural Rods 2,65,000 80
which are constructed and maintained by the Total 33,13,769 100
Transport and Communication 81
State Highways: These are constructed in high altitude mountainous terrain joining
and maintained by state governments. They Chandigarh with Manali (Himachal Pradesh)
join the state capitals with district and Leh (Ladakh). This road runs at an
headquarters and other important towns. average altitude of 4,270 metres above the
These roads are connected to the National mean sea level.
Highways. These constitute 4 per cent of total This organization has completed over
road length in the country. 40,450 km of roads by March 2005. Apart
In order to consolidate his empire from the construction and maintenance of
Shershah Suri built the road from Indus Valley roads in strategically sensitive areas, the BRO
(Pakistan) to Soner Valley in Bangal. This was also undertakes snow clearance in high
coordinating Kolkata to Peshawar later on altitude areas. The international highways are
named as Grand Trunk Road during the meant to promote the harmonious
in
British period. In the present time it has been relationship with the neighbouring countries
divided into two part between Amritsar to by providing effective links with India.
Kolkata. (a) National Highway (NH-I) from The distribution of roads is not uniform
Delhi to Amritsar. (b) National Highway
(NH-2) Delhi to Kolkata.
District Roads: These roads are the
p.
in the country. Density of roads (length of
roads per 100 square km of area) varies from
only 10.48 km in Jammu and Kashmir to
connecting link between District 387.24 km in Kerala with a national average
re
Headquarters and the other important nodes of 75.42 km. The density of road is high in
in the district. They account for 14 per cent most of the northern states and major
of the total road length of the country. southern states. It is low in the Himalayan
tP
Rural Roads region, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Why

These roads are vital for providing links does this variation occur? Nature of terrain
and the level of economic development are
ar
in the rural areas. About 80 per cent of the

total road length in India are categorized as the main determinants of density of roads.
Construction of roads is easy and cheaper in
rural roads. There is regional variation in the
the plain areas while it is difficult and costly
Sm
density of rural because these are influenced

in hilly and plateau areas. Therefore, not only
by the nature of the terrain.
the density but also the quality of roads is
Other Roads
relatively better in plains as compared to
Other roads include Border Roads and roads in high altitude areas, rainy and
International Highways. The Border Road forested regions.
Organization (BRO) was established in May National Highways Development Projects
1960 for accelerating economic development
NHAI has taken up some major projects
and strengthening defence preparedness
in the country under different phases:
through rapid and coordinated improvement
of strategically important roads along the Golden Quadrilateral: It comprises
northern and north-eastern boundary of the construction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, high
country. It is a premier multifaceted density traffic corridor, to connect Indias
construction agency. It has constructed roads four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-
Chennai-Kolkata. With the construction of the hill states, north eastern states, central
Golden Quadrilateral, the time-distance and parts of India and Rajasthan.
cost of movement among the mega cities of Rural Roads:These roads received
India will be considerably minimized. special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
North-South and East-West Corridors: Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme
North-South corridor aims at connecting special provisions are made so that every
Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir and village in the country is linked to a major
Kaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including town in the country by an all season
Kochi-Salempur) with 4,076 km long road. motorable road.
The East-West Corridor has been planned to Konkan Railway:Konkan Railway was
connect Silchar in Assam with the port town a great achievement of Indian railway in
of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km of 1998. It is 760 km long track extending from
in
road length. Roha in Karnataka to Mangalore. This
Rail Transport railway crosses 146 rivers, 2000 bridges and
Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, 91 tunnels, has longest tunnels of the Asia
when a line was constructed from Bombay
to Thane covering a distance of 34 km.
Indian Railways is the largest
p.
having 6.5 km in length. It is joint enterprise
of Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra
government.
re
government undertaking in the country. The Indian Railways Zone
length of Indian Railways network is 63,221 Railway Zone Headquarters
km. Its very large size puts lots of pressure
Central Mumbai CST
tP
on a centralized railway management system.

Eastern Kolkata
Thus, in India, the railway system has been
divided into sixteen zones. Table shows the East Central Hajipur
East Coast Bhubaneshwar
ar
zone-wise performance of Indian Railways.

Areas around towns, raw material Northern New Delhi
producing areas and of plantations and other North Central Allahabad
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commercial crops, hill stations and North Eastern Gorakhpur

cantonment towns were well-connected by North East Frontier Maligaon
railways from the British colonial era. These (Guwahati)
were mostly developed for the exploitation North Western Jaipur
of resources. After the Independence of the Southern Chennai
country, railway routes have been extended South Central Secundrabad
to other areas too. The most significant South Eastern Kolkata
development has been the development of South East Central Bilaspur
Konkan Railway along the western coast
South Western Hubli
providing a direct link between Mumbai and
Western Mumbai
Mangalore. Railway continuous to remain the
main means of transport for the masses. (Church Gate)
Railway network is relatively less dense in West Central Jabalpur
Water Transport famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race

Waterways is an important mode of (VALLANKALI) is also held in the
transport for both passenger and cargo traffic backwaters.
in India. It is the cheapest means of transport National Highway-7 is the longest and
and is most suitable for carrying heavy and traverses 2,369 km between Varanasi and
bulky material. It is a fuel-efficient and eco- Kanyakumari via Jabalpur, Nagpur,
friendly mode of transport. The water Hyderabad, Bangalore and Madurai. Delhi
transport is of two types-(a) inland and Mumbai are connected by National
waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways. Highway-8, while National Highway-15
Inland Waterways covers most of Rajasthan.
It was the chief mode of transport Oceanic Routes
before the advent of railways. It, however, India has a vast coastline of approximate
in
faced tough competition from road and 7,517 km, including islands. Twelve major and
railway transport. Moreover, diversion of 185 minor ports provide infrastructural
river water for irrigation purposes made support to these routes. Oceanic routes play
them non navigable in large parts of their
courses. India has 14,500 km of navigable
waterways, contributing about 1% to the
p.
an important role in the transport sector of
Indias economy. Approximately 95 per cent
of Indias foreign trade by volume and 70
re
countrys transportation. It comprises rivers, per cent by value moves through ocean
canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. At present, routes. Apart from international trade, these
3,700 km of major rivers are navigable by also used for the purpose of transportation
tP
mechanized flat bottom vessels, out of which between the islands and the rest of the
only 2,000 km are actually used. Similarly, country.
out of 4,300 km of the network of navigable Air Transportation
ar
canal, only 900 km is navigable by mechanized Air Transport is the fastest means of
vessels. movement from one place to the other. It has
For the development, maintenance and reduced distances by minimizing the travel
Sm
regulation of national waterways in the time. It is very essential for a vast country
country, the Inland Waterways Authority like India, where distances are large and the
was set up in 1986. The authority has declared terrain and climatic conditions are diverse.
three inland waterways as National Air transport in India made a beginning
Waterways as given in the table. in 1911 when airmail operation commenced
Inland Waterways Authority has also over a little distance of 10 km between
identified ten other inland waterways, which Allahabad and Naini. But its real development
could be upgraded. The backwaters (Kadal) took place in post-Independent period. The
of Kerala has special significance in Inland Airport Authority of India is responsible for
Waterway. Apart from providing cheap providing safe, efficient air traffic and
means of transport, they are also attracting aeronautical communication services in the
large number of tourists in Kerala. The Indian Air Space. The authority manages 126
airports including 11 international, 86 In addition, Pawan Hans Limited mainly

domestic and 29 civil enclaves at defence air provides helicopter services to petroleum
fields. sector and for tourism.
The air transport in India is managed Oil and Gas Pipelines: Pipelines are the
by two corporations, Air India and Indian most convenient and efficient mode of
Airlines after nationalization. Now many transporting liquids and gasses over long
private companies have also started distances. Even solids can also be transported
passenger services. by pipelines after converting them into
History of Indian Airlines slurry. Oil India Limited (OIL) under the
administrative set up of the Ministry of
1911 - Air transport in India was
launched between Allahabad and Petroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in the
exploration, production and transportation
Naini.
in
of crude oil and natural gas. It was
1947 - Air transport was provided by
incorporated in 1959 as a company. Asias
four major companies namely
first cross country pipeline covering a
Indian National Airways. Tata
distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL
1951
Sons Limited, Air Services of
India and Deccan Airways.
- Four more companies joined the
p.
from Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam to
Barauni refinery to Bihar. It was further
extended up to Kanpur in 1966. Another
re
services, Bharat Airways, extensive network of pipeline has been
Himalayan Aviation Limited, constructed in the western region of India of
Airways India and Kalinga which Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High-
tP
Airlines. Koyali and Hazira-Vijapur-Jagdishpur (HVJ)

1953 - Air transport was nationalized are most important. Recently, a 1256 km long
and two Corporations. Air India pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with
ar
International and Indian Airlines Mathura (U.P.) has been constructed. It

were formed. Now Indian supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab
Airlines is known as Indian. (Jalandhar) via Mathura. OIL is in the process
Sm
Air India: Air India provides of constructing of 660 km long pipeline from
International Air Services for both passengers Numaligarh to Siliguri.
and cargo traffic. It connects all the continents Communication Networks: Human
of the world through its services. In 2005, it beings have evolved different methods of
carried 12.2 million passengers and 4.8 lakh communication over time. In earlier times,
metric tonnes of cargo. About 52 per cent of the messages were delivered by beating the
the total air traffic was handled only at drum or hollow tree trunks, giving
Mumbai and Delhi airports. In 2005, domestic indications through smoke or fire or with the
movement involved 24.3 million passengers help of fast runners. Horses, camels, dogs,
and 20 lakh metric tonnes of cargo. Pawan birds and other animals were also used to
Hans is the helicopter service operating in send messages. Initially, the means of
hilly areas and is widely used by tourists in communication were also the means of
north-eastern sector.
transportation. Invention of post office, Mass Communication System

telegraph, printing press, telephone, satellite, Radio: Radio broadcasting started in
etc. has made the communication much faster India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay.
and easier. Development in the field of science Since then, it gained immense popularity and
and technology has significantly contributed changed the socio cultural the life of people.
in bringing about revolution in the field of Within no time, it made a place in every
communication. household of the country. Government took
People use different modes of this opportunity and brought this popular
communication to convey the messages. On mode of communication under its control in
the basis of scale and quality, the mode of 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System.
communication can be divided into following It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and
categories: to Akashwani in 1957.
in
Personal Communication System: All India Radio broadcasts a variety of
Among all the personal communication sys- programmes related to information,
tem internet is the most effective and ad- education and entertainment. Special news
vanced one. It is widely used in urban areas.
It enables the user to establish direct contact
through e-mail to get access to the world of
knowledge and information. It is increasingly
p.
bulletins are also broadcast at specific
occasions like session of parliament and state
legislatures.
re
Television (T.V.): Television
used for e-commerce and carrying out money broadcasting has emerged as the most
transactions. The internet is like a huge cen- effective audio-visual medium for
tral warehouse of data, with detailed infor-
tP
disseminating information and educating

mation on various items. The network
masses. Initially, the T.V. services were
through internet and e-mail provides an ef-
limited only to the National Capital where it
ficient access to information at a compara-
began in 1959. After 1972, several other
ar
tively low cost. It enables us with the basic

centres became operational. In 1976, TV was
facilities of direct communication.
delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got
Three types of Indian Railway on the
a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD).
Sm
basis of breadth of Rails

After INSAT-IA (National Television- DD1)
1. Broad guage- distance --- two rails became operational, Common National
1.616 mts total length of Broad Programmes (CNP) were started for the
guage in India. entire network and its services were
2. Meter guage- Distance between two extended to the backward and remote rural
rail in one meter. Total length of areas.
meter ganage in India is 13,290 km, Satellite Communication: Satellites are
account 21.02% of total length of mode of communication in themselves as well
country. as they regulate the use of other means of
3. Narrow gauge- Distance between communication. However, use of satellite in
two rail is 0.762 mts/0.610 mts. Total getting a continuous and synoptic view of
length is 3,124 km, accounts 4,49% larger area has made satellite communication
of total length.
very vital for the country, due to the International Trade

economic and strategic reasons. Satellite The exchange of goods among people,
images can be used for the weather forecast, states and countries is referred to as trade.
monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance The market is the place where such exchanges
of border areas, etc. On the basis of take place. Trade between two countries is
configuration and purposes, satellite system called international trade. It may take place
in India can be grouped into two: Indian through sea, air or land routes. While local
National Satellite System (INSAT) and Indian trade is carried in cities, towns and villages,
Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS). state level trade is carried between two or
The INSAT, which was established in more states. Advancement of international
1983, is a multipurpose satellite system for trade of a country is an index to its economic
telecommunication, meteorological prosperity. It is, therefore, considered the
economic barometer for a country.
in
observation and for various other data and
programmes. As the resources are space bound, no
country can survive without international
The IRS satellite system became
trade. Export and import are the components
operational with the launching of IRS-IA in
March 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia. India
has also developed her own Launching
p.
of trade. The balance of trade of a country is
the difference between its export and import.
When the value of export exceeds the value
re
Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). of imports, it is called a favourable balance
These satellites collect data in several spectral of trade. On the contrary, if the value of
bands and transmit them to the ground imports exceeds the value of exports, it is
tP
stations for various uses. The National termed as unvfavourable balance of trade.
Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at India has trade relations with all the
Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition major trading blocks and all geographical
ar
of data and its processing. These are very regions of the world. Among the
useful in the management of natural commodities of export, whose share has been
resources. increasing over the last few year till 2004-05
Sm
are agriculture and allied products (2.53 per

Region Imports
cent), ores and minerals (9.12 per cent), gems
2003-04 2004-05
and jewellery (26.75 per cent) and chemical
West Europe 85,88 1,08,71 and allied products (24.45 per cent),
East Europe 43 85 engineering goods (35.63 per cent) and
CIS and Baltic states 5,79 8,32 petroleum products (86.12 per cent).
Asia and Oceania 1,24,76 1,70,28 Table: IndiasMajor Trading Partners
Africa 14,69 16,80 Percentage share in total trade
America 31,82 40,20 (Export + Import)
Latin American Countries 5,35 8,55
Country 2000-01 2003-04
Source : India 2006
U.S.A. 13.0 10.3
U.K. 5.7 3.7
Belgium 4.6 3.7 reduction in import duties, de-licensing and

Germany 3.9 3.5 change from process to product patents.
Japan 3.8 2.7 Asia and Oceania accounted for 47.41
Switzerland 3.8 3.3 per cent of Indias export followed by West
Hong Kong 3.7 2.8 Europe (23.80 per cent) and America (20.42).
Similarly, Indias imports were highest from
U.A.E. 3.4 6.2
Asia and Oceania (35.40 per cent) followed
China 2.5 6.4
by West Europe (22.60 per cent) and America
Singapore 2.5 3.4 (8.36 per cent) in 2004-05.
Malaysia 1.9 1.7 The U.S.A. is Indias largest trading
Total 48.6 47.7 partner and the most trading partner and the
Source : Economic Survey 2005-06 most important destination of Indias export.
in
Other countries in order of significance
The commodities imported to India include the U.K., Belgium, Germany, Japan,
include petroleum and petroleum products Switzerland, Hong Kong, the U.A.E., China,
(41.87 per cent), pearls and precious stones
(29.26 per cent), inorganic chemicals (29.39
per cent), coal, coke and briquettes (94.17 per
cent), machinery (12.56 per cent). Bulk
p.
Singapore and Malaysia.
Most of Indias foreign trade is carried
through sea and air routes. However, a small
re
portion is also carried through land route to
imports as a group registered a growth neighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan,
accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports. Bangladesh and Pakistan.
This group includes fertilizers (67.01 per
tP
Ports
cent), cereals (25.23 per cent), edible oils (7.94
per cent) and newsprint (5.51 per cent). Today Indian ports are handling large
International trade has under gone a sea volumes of domestic as well as overseas
ar
change in the last fifteen years. Exchange of trade. Most of the ports are equipped with
commodities and goods have been modern infrastructure. Previously the
superseded by the exchange of information development and modernization was the
Sm
and knowledge. India has emerged as a responsibility of the government agencies,

software giant at the international level and but considering the increase in function and
it is earning large foreign exchange through need to bring these ports at par with the
the export of information technology. international ports, private entrepreneurs
have been invited for the modernization of
Direction of Trade
ports in India. The capacity of Indian ports
India has trade relations with most of increased from 20 million tonnes of cargo
the countries and major trading blocks of the handling in 1951 to more than 500 million
world. tonnes at present.
India aims to double its share in the Kandla Port situated at the head of Gulf
international trade within the next five years. of Kuchchh has been developed as a major
It has already started adopting suitable port to cater to the needs of western and
measures such as import liberalization, north western parts of the country and also
to reduce the pressure at Mumbai port. The yarn, granite stone, molasses, etc. Karnataka
port is specially designed to receive large is the major hinterland for this port.
quantities of petroleum and petroleum Kochchi Port situated at the head of
products and fertilizer. The offshore terminal Vembanad Kayal, popularly known as the
at Vadinar has been developed to reduce the Queen of the Arabian Sea, is also a natural
pressure at Kandla port. harbor. This port has an advantageous
Demarcation of the boundary of the location being close to the Suez-Colombo
hinterland would be difficult as it is not fixed route. It caters to the needs of Kerala,
over space. In most of the cases, hinterland southern- Karnataka and south western Tamil
of one port may overlap with that of the Nadu.
other. Kolkata Port is located on the Hulgi
Mumbai is a natural harbor and the river, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal.
in
biggest port of the country. The port is Like the Mumbai port, this port was also
situated closer to the general routes from the developed by the British. Kolkata had the
countries of Middle East, Mediterranean initial advantage of being the capital of British
countries, North Africa, North America and
Europe where the major share of countrys
overseas trade is carried out. The port is 20
p.
India. The port has lost its significance
considerably on account of the diversion of
exports to the other ports such as
km long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and its satellite
re
and has the countrys largest oil terminal. port, Haldia.
M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P. and parts Kolkata port is also confronted with the
of Rajasthan constitute the main hinterlands problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli
tP
of Mumbai ports. river which provides a link to the sea. Its

Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva hinterland covers U.P, Bihar, Jharkhand,
was developed as a satellite port to relieve West Bengal, Sikkim and the north-eastern
ar
the pressure at the Mumbai port. It is the states. Apart from this, it also extends ports
largest container port in India. facilities to our neighbouring land-locked
Marmagao Port, situated at the entrance countries such as Nepal and Bhutan.
Sm
of the Zuari estuary, is a natural harbor in Haldia Port is located 105 km

Goa. It gained significance after its downstream from Kolkata. It has been
remodeling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports constructed to reduce the congestion at
to Japan. Construction of Konkan railway has Kolkata port. It handles bulk cargo like iron
considerably extended the hinterland of this ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and
port. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra fertilizers, jute, jute products, cotton and
constitutes its hinterland. cotton yarn, etc.
New Mangalore Port is located in the Paradwip Port is situated in the
state of Karnataka and caters to the needs of Mahanadi delta, about 100 km from Cuttack.
the export of iron-ore and iron-concentrates. It has the deepest harbor specially suited to
It also handles fertilizers, petroleum handle very large vessels. It has been
products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, developed mainly to handle large-scale
export of iron-ore. Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Foreign tourists arrivals in the country
Jharkhand are the parts of its hinterland. witnessed an increase of 23.5 per cent during
Visakhapatnam Port in Andhra Pradesh the year 2004 as against the year 2003, thus
is a land-locked harbor, connected to the sea contributing Rs. 21,828 crore of foreign
by a channel cut through solid rock and sand. exchange. Over 2.6 million foreign tourists
An outer harbor has been developed for visit India every year. More than 15 million
handling iron-ore, petroleum and general people are directly engaged in the tourism
cargo. Andhra Pradesh is the main hinterland industry. Tourism also promotes national
for this port. integration, provides support to local
Chennai Port is one of the oldest ports handicrafts and cultural pursuits. It also helps
on the eastern coast. It is an artificial harbor in the development of international
built in 1859. It is not much suitable for large understanding about our culture and
heritage. Foreign tourists visit India for
in
ships because of the shallow waters near the
coast. Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are its heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure
hinterland. Ennore, a newly developed port tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism
and business tourism.
in Tamil Nadu, has been constructed 25 km
north of Chennai to relieve the pressure at
Chennai port. Tuticorin Port was also
p. Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and
temple towns of south India are important
destinations of foreign tourists in India.
developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai
re
port. It deals with a variety of cargo including There is vast potential of tourism
coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, development in the north-eastern states and
chemical and petroleum products. the interior parts of Himalayas, but due to
tP
Tourism as a Trade strategic reasons these have not been

encouraged so far. However, there lies a
Tourism in India has grown
bright future ahead for this upcoming
ar
substantially over the last three decades.

industry.
Sm
GEOGRAPHY
For
Civil Services
ISBN: 9789381362303
90
10
Gist of NCERT
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
Our Solar system consists of eight years, it is 8.311 minutes of a year. Out of the
planets. The nine planet 2003 UB313 has also eight planets, mercury, venus, earth and mars
been recently sighted. The nebula from which are called as the inner planets as the lie
in
our Solar system is supposed to have been between the sun and the belt of asteroids the
formed, started its collapse and core other five planets are called the outer planets.
formation some time 5-5.6 billion ago and the Alternatively, the first four are called
planets formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are
Our solar system consists of the sun (the star),
8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller
p.
made up of rock and metals, and have
relatively high densities. The rest five are
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge called Jovian or Gas Giant planets. Jovian
re
quantity of dust-grains and gases. means Jupiter-like. Most of them are much
A light year is a measure of distance and larger than the terrestrial planets and have
not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,00 thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and
tP
km/second. Considering this, the distances hydrogen. All the planets were formed in the
the light will travel in one year is taken to be same period sometime about 4.6 billion years
one light year. This equals to 9.461x1012 km. ago. Some data regarding our solar system
ar
The mean distance between the sun and the are given in the box below.
earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light
Sm
The Solar System
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Distance 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058
Density 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66
Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88
Satellites 0 0 1 2 16 about 18 about 17 8
* Distance from the sun is astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is
149,598,000 km = 1
@ Density in gm / cm3
# Radius : Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1
Our Solar System 91
The Moon impact or what is described as the big splat.

The moon is the only natural satellite of A body of the size of one to three times that
the earth. Like the origin of the earth, there of mars collided into the earth sometime
have been attempts to explain how the moon shortly after the earth was formed. It blasted
was formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin a large part of the earth into space. This
suggested that initially, the earth and the portion of blasted material then continued
moon formed a single rapidly rotating body. to orbit the earth and eventually formed into
The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
body and eventually it broke. It was also Development of Lithosphere
suggested that the material forming the moon The earth was mostly in a volatile state
was separated from what we have at present during its primordial stage. Due to gradual
the depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean. increase in density the temperature inside has
in
However, the present scientists do not accept increased. As a result the material inside
either of the explanations. It is now generally started getting separated depending on their
believed that the formation of moon, as a densities. This allowed heavier materials (like
satellite of the earth, is an outcome of giant
Geological Time Scale

p. iron) to sink towards
the centre of the
earth and the lighter
re
Eons Era Period Epoch Are/Years Life/Major Extents ones to move
Quaternary Holocene 0 - 10.000 Modern Man
Plestocene 10.000-2 million Home Saptens towards the surface.
Catnozoic Tertiary Pitocene 2 -5 million Early Human Ancestor With passage of time
tP
(From 65 Miocene 5 - 24 million Ape : Flowering Plants

million years and Trees it cooled further and
to the
present
Oligocene
Eocene
24 - 37 Ma
37 - 68 million
Anthropoid Ape
Rabbits and Hare
solidified and
times) Palaeocene 57 - 65 million Small Mammals: condensed into a
Rats - Mice
smaller size. This
ar
Mesozoic Cretaceous 65 - 144 million Extinction of Dinosaurs

65-245 Jurassic 144-208 million Age of Dinosaurs later led to the
million Triassic 208 - 245 million Frogs and turtles
Mammals development of the
outer surface in the
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Permtan 245 - 286 million Repttle dominate-replace

amphibtans
Carboniferous 286-360 million First Reptiles: form of a crust.
Palaeozotc
245-570 Devonian 360-408 million
Vertebrates: Coal beds
Amphibtans
During the
million Stlurtan 408-438 million First trace of life on land: formation of the
Plants
Ordovtctan 438-505 million first Fish moon, due to the
Cambrtan 505-570 million No terrestrial Life:
Marine Invertebrate giant impact, the
Proterozoic 570-2,500 million earth was further
Soft-bodied arthropods
Archean 2,500-3,800 million heated up. It is
Pre
Blue green Algae:
Untcellular bacteria
through the process
Cambratan 3,800-4,800 million Oceans and Continents of differentiation
Hadean 570 million form-Ocean and
-4,800 - Atmosphere are rich in that the earth
million Carbon dioxide
forming material got
Origin of 5,000 million Origin of
the sun separated into
different layers. Starting from the surface to hot magma in the interior of the earth. When
the central parts, we have layers like the crust, magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and
mantle, outer core and inner core. From the a systematic series of minerals are formed in
crust to the core, the density of the material seq-uence to solidify so as to form rocks.
increases. Minerals such as coal, petro-leum and
Minerals & Rocks natu-ral gas are orga-nic substances found in
The earth is composed of various kinds solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
of elements. These elements are in solid form Besides these main minerals, other
in the outer layer of the earth and in hot and minerals like chlorite, calcite, magne-tic,
molten form in the interior. About 98 per cent haematite, bauxite and barite are also present
of the total crust of the earth is composed of in some quantities in the rocks.
eight elements like oxygen, silicon, The Major Elements of the Earths Crust
in
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium
Sl. No. Elements By Weight (%)
and magnesium, and the rest is constituted
by titanium hydrogen, phosphorus, 1. Oxygen 46.60
manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and other
elements.
These substances are recognized as
p.
2.
3.
4.
Silicon
Aluminum
Iron
27.72
8.13
5.00
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minerals. Thus, a mineral is a naturally 5. Calcium 3.63
occurring inorganic substance, having an 6. Sodium 2.83
orderly atomic structure and a definite
7. Potassium 2.59
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chemical composition and physical properties.

8. Magnesium 2.09
A mineral is composed of two or more
elements. But, sometimes single element 9. Others 1.41
Metallic Minerals
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minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold,

graphite etc. are found. These minerals contain metal content
The elements in the earths crust are and can be sub-divided into three types:
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rarely found exclusively but are usually (i) Precious metals: gold, silver,
combined with other elements to make platinum etc.
various substances. (ii) Ferrous metals: iron and other
Though the number of elements making metals often mixed with iron to form
up the lithosphere are limited they are various kinds of steel.
combined in many different ways to make (iii) Non-ferrous metals: include metals
up many varieties of minerals. There are at like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminum
least 2,000 minerals that have been named etc.
and identified in the earth crust; but almost
Hardness- relative resistance being
all the commonly occurring ones are related
scratched; ten minerals are selected to
to six major mineral groups that are known
measure the degree of hardness from 1-10.
as major rock forming minerals.
They are: 1. talc; 2. Gypsum; 3. calcite; 4.
The basic source of all minerals is the
Our Solar System 93
fluorite; 5. apatite; 6. felspar; 7. quartz; 8. solid form it is igneous rock. The process of
topaz; 9. corundum; 10. Diamond. Compared cooling and solidification can happen in the
to this for example, a fingernail is 2.5 and earths crust or on the surface of the earth.
glass or knife blade is 5.5. Igneous rocks are classified based on
Non-Metallic Minerals texture. Texture depends upon size and
These minerals do not contain metal arrangement of grains or other physical
content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are conditions of the materials. If molten material
examples of non-metallic minerals. Cement is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral
is a mixture of non-metallic minerals. grains may be very large. Sudden cooling (at
the surface) results in small and smooth
Rocks
grains. Intermediate conditions of cooling
The earths crust is composed for rocks. would result in intermediate sizes of grains
A rock is an aggregate of one or more
in
making up igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro,
minerals. Rock may be hard or soft and in pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccias and tuff
varied colours. For example, granite is hard, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and
quartzite can be milky white. Rocks do not
have definite composition of mineral
constituents. Feldspar and quartz are the
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Sedimentary Rocks
The word sedimentary is derived from
the Latin word sedimentum, which means
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most common minerals found in rocks. settling. Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and
As there is a close relation between rocks metamorphic) of the earths surface are
exposed to denudational agents, and are
and landforms, rocks and soils, a geographer
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requires basic knowledge of rocks. There are broken up into various sizes of fragments.
Such fragments are transported by different
many different kinds of rocks which are
grouped under three families on the basis of exogenous agencies and deposited. These
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their mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous deposits through compaction turn into rocks.
This process is called lithification. In many
Rocks- solidified from magma and lava; (ii)
Sedimentary Rocks- the result of deposition sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits
retain their characteristics even after
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of fragments of rocks by exogenous

lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers
processes; (iii) Metamorphic Rocks- formed
of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like
out of existing rocks undergoing
sandstone, shale etc.
recrystallisation.
Depending upon the mode of formation,
Igneous Rocks
sedimentary rocks are into three major
As igneous rocks form out of magma groups: (i) mechanically formed- sandstone,
and lava from the interior of the earth, they conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are
are known as primary rocks. The igneous examples; (ii) organically formed- geyserites,
rocks (Ignis- in Latin means Fire) are formed chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples;
when magma cools and solidifies. You (iii) chemically formed- chert, limestone,
already know that magma is. When magma halite, potash etc. are some examples.
in its upward movement cools and turns into
Metamorphic Rocks of 12 km. This and many deep drilling projects

The word metamorphic means change have provided large volume of information
of form. These rocks form under the action through the analysis of materials collected at
of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) different depths.
changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks Volcanic eruption forms another source
are forced down to lower levels by tectonic of obtaining direct information. As and when
processes or when molten magma rising the molten material (magma) is thrown onto
through the crust comes in contact with the the surface of the earth, during volcanic
crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are eruption it becomes available for laboratory
subjected to great amounts of pressure by analysis. However, it is difficult to ascertain
overlying rocks. Metamorphism is a process the depth of the source of such magma.
by which already consolidated rocks undergo Indirect Sources
in
recrystallisation and reorganization of Analysis of properties of matter
materials within original rocks. indirectly provides information about the
Interior of the Earth interior. We know through the mining
The earths radius is 6,370 km. No one
can reach the center of the earth and make
observations or collect samples of material.
p.
activity that temperature and pressure
increase with the increasing distance from the
surface towards the interior in deeper depths.
re
Under such conditions, you may wonder Another source of information are the
how scientists tell us about the earths interior meteors that at time reach the earth. The
and the type of materials that exist at such other indirect sources include gravitation,
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depths. Most of our knowledge about the magnetic field, and seismic activity.
interior of the earth is largely based on Earthquake
estimates and inferences. Yet, a part of the The study of seismic waves provides a
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information is obtained through direct complete picture of the layered interior. An

observations and analysis of materials. earthquake in simple words in shaking of the
Direct Sources earth. This is a natural event. It is caused due
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The most easily available solid earth to release of energy, which generates waves
material is surface rock or the rocks we get that ravel in all directions.
from mining areas. Gold mines in South Africa Why does the earth shake?
are as deep as 3-4 km. Going beyond this The release of energy occurs along a
depth is not possible as it is very hot at this fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal
depth. Besides mining, scientists have taken rocks. Rocks along a fault tend to move in
up a number of projects to penetrate deeper opposite directions. As the overlying rock
depths to explore the conditions in the crustal strata press them, the friction locks them
portions. Scientists world over are working together. However, their tendency to move
on two major projects such as Deep Ocean apart at some point of time overcomes the
Drilling Project and integrated Ocean friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed
Drilling Project. The deepest drill at Kola, and eventually, they slide past one another
in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a depth
Our Solar System 95
abruptly. This causes a release of energy, and materials. S-waves arrive at the surface with
the energy waves travel in all directions. The some time lag.
point where the energy is released is called These are called secondary waves. An
the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it important fact about S-waves is that they can
is called the hypocenter. The energy waves travel only through solid materials. This
travelling in different directions reach the characteristic of the S-waves is quite
surface. The point on the surface, nearest to important.
the focus, is called epicenter. It is the first It has helped scientists to understand
one to experience the waves. It is a point the structure of the interior of the earth.
directly above the focus. Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas
Earthquake Waves refraction makes waves move in different
All natural earthquakes take place in the directions. The variations in the direction of
in
lithosphere. It is sufficient to note here that waves are inferred with the help of their
the lithosphere refers to the portion of depth record on seismograph. The surface waves
up to 200 km from the surface of the earth. are the last to report on seismograph. These
An instrument called seismograph records
the waves reaching the surface. Note that the
curve shows three distinct sections each
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waves are more destructive. They cause
displacement of rocks, and hence, the
collapse of structures occurs.
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representing different types of wave Propagation of Earthquake Waves
patterns. Earthquake waves are basically of Different types of earthquake waves
two types- body waves and surface waves. travel in different manners. As they move or
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Body waves are generated due to the release propagate, they cause vibration in the body
of energy at the focus and move in all of the rocks through which they pass. P-
directions travelling through the body of the waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the
earth. Hence, the name body waves. The
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wave.
body waves interact with the surface rocks This exerts pressure on the material in
and generate new set of waves called surface the direction of the propagation. As a result,
waves. These waves move along the surface.
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it creates density differences in the material

The velocity of waves changes as they travel leading to stretching and squeezing of the
through materials with different densities. material. Other three waves vibrate perpen-
The denser the material, the higher is the dicular to the direction of propagation. The
velocity. Their direction also changes as they direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpen-
reflect or refract when coming across dicular to the wave direction in the vertical
materials with different densities. plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests
There are two types of body waves. in the material through which they pass. Sur-
They are called P and S-waves. P-waves move face waves are considered to be the most
faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. damaging waves.
These are also called primary waves. The Emergence of Shadow Zone
P-waves are similar to sound waves. They Earthquake waves get recorded in
travel through gaseous, liquid and solid seismographs located at far off locations.
However, there exist some specific areas Structure of the Earth

where the waves are not reported. Such a The Crust
zone is called the shadow zone. The study
It is the outermost solid part of the
of different events reveals that for each
earth. It is brittle in nature. The thickness of
earthquake, there exists an altogether
the crust varies under the oceanic and
different shadow zone.
continental areas. Oceanic crust is thinner as
It was observed that seismographs lo- compared to the continental crust. The mean
cated at any distance within 105 from the thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas
epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P and
that of the continental is around 30 km. The
S-waves. However, the seismographs located
continental crust is thicker in the areas of
beyond 145 from epicenter, record the ar-
major mountain systems. It is as much as 70
rival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves.
km thick in the Himalayan region.
Thus, a zone between 105 and 145 from
in
epicenter was identified as the shadow zone It is made up of heavier rocks having
for both the types of waves. The entire zone density of 3 g/cm3. This type of rock found
beyond 105 does not receive S-waves. The in the oceanic crust is basalt. The mean
shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than
that of the P-waves. The shadow zone of P-
waves appears as a band around the earth
p.
density of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/
cm3.
The Mantle
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between 105 and 145 away from the The portion of the interior beyond the
epicenter. The shadow zone of S-waves is not crust s called the mantle. The mantle extends
only larger in extent but it is also a little over from Mohos discontinuity to a depth of 2,900
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40 per cent of the earth surface. km. The upper portion of the mantle is called
Measuring Earthquakes asthenosphere. The word astheno means
The earthquake events are scaled either weak. It is considered to be extending upto
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according to the magnitude or intensity of 400 km. It is the main source of magma that
the shock. The magnitude scale is known as finds its way to the surface during volcanic
the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to eruptions. It has s density higher than the
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the energy released during the quake. The crusts (3.4 g/cm3). The crust and the
magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, uppermost part of the mantle are called
0-10. The intensity scale is named after lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200
Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The inten- km. The lower mantle extends beyond the
sity scale takes into account the visible dam- asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
age caused by the event. The range of inten- The Core
sity scale is from 1-12.
As indicated earlier, the earthquake
Though the actual quake activity lasts
wave velocities helped in understanding the
for a few seconds, its effects are devastating existence of the core of the earth. The core
provided the magnitude of the quake is more mantle boundary is located at the depth of
than 5 on the Richter scale. 2,900 km. The outer core is in liquid state
while the inner core is in solid state. The
desnity of material at the mantle core bound-
Our Solar System 97
ary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of explosive if somehow water gets into the
the earth at 6,300 km. the density value is vent; otherwise, they are characterized by
around 13 g/cm3. The core is made up of very low-explosivity. The upcoming lava moves
heavy material mostly constituted by nickel in the form of a fountain and throws out the
and iron. It is sometimes referred to as the cone at the top of the vent and develops into
knife layer. cinder cone.
Volcanoes and Volcanic landforms Composite Volcanoes
A volcano is a place where gases, ashes These volcanoes are characterized by
and/or molten rock material- lava- escape to eruptions of cooler and mokre viscous lavas
the ground. A volcano is called an active than basalt. These volcanoes often result in
volcano if the materials mentioned are being explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large
released or have been released out in the quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes
in
recent past. The layer below the solid crust find their way to the ground. This material
is mantle. It has higher density than that of accumulates in the vicinity of the vent
the crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone openings leading to formation of layers, and
called asthenosphere. It is from this that the
molten rock materials find their way to the
surface. The material in the upper mantle
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this makes the mounts appear as composite
volcanoes.
Caldera
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portion is called magma. Once it starts These are the most explosive of the
moving towards the crust or it reaches the earths volcanoes. They are usually so explo-
surface, it is referred to as lava. The material sive that when they erupt they tend to col-
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that reaches the ground includes lava flows, lapse on themselves rather than building any
pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and tall structure. The collapsed depressions are
dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates
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sulphur compounds and minor amounts of that the magma chamber supplying the lava
chlorine, hydrogen and argon. is not only huge but is also in close vicinity.
Volcanoes Flood Basalt Provinces
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Volcanoes are classified on the basis of These volcanoes outpour highly fluid
nature of eruption and the form developed lava that flows for long distances. Some parts
at the surface. Major types of volcanoes are of the world are covered by thousands of
as follows: sq. km. of thick basalt lava flows. There can
Shield Volcanoes be a series of flows with some flows attaining
thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows
Barring the basalt flows, the shield
may extend for hundreds of km. The Deccan
volcanoes the largest of all the volcanoes on
Traps from India, presently covering most
the earth, The Hawaiian volcanoes are the
of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much large
most famous examples. These volcanoes are
flood basalt province. It is believed that
mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that
initially the trap formations covered a much
is very fluid when erupted. For this reason,
larger area than the present. Mid-Ocean
these volcanoes are not steep. They become
Ridge Volcanoes: These volcanoes occur in
the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid- the surface. The Karnataka plateau is spotted
ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of
stretches through all the ocean basins. The these, now exfoliated, are examples of
central portion of this ridge experiences laccoliths or batholiths.
frequent eruptions. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
Volcanic Landforms As and when the lava moves upwards,
Intrusive Forms: The lava that is a portion of the same may tend to move in a
released during volcanic eruptions on cooling horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak
develops into igneous rocks. The cooling may plane. It may get rested in different forms.
take place either on reaching the surface or In case it develops into a saucer shape,
also while the lava is still in the crustal concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
portion. Depending on the location of the A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is
in
cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are found at the base of synclines or at the top of
classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the anticline in folded igneous country. Such
surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the wavy materials have a definite conduit to
crust). The lava that cools within the crustal
portions assumes different forms. These
forms are called intrusive forms.
p.
source beneath in the form of magma
chambers (subsequently developed as
batholiths). These are called the phacoliths.
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Batholiths: A large body of magmatic The near horizontal bodies of the
material that cools in the deeper depth of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
crust develops in the form of large domes. depending on the thickness of the material.
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They appear on the surface only after the The thinner ones are called sheets while the
denudational processes remove the overlying thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
materials. They cover large areas, and at Dykes: When the lava makes its way
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times, assume depth that may be several km. through cracks and the fissures developed
These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular
cooled portion of magma chambers. to the ground. It gets cooled in the same
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Laccoliths: These are large dome- position to develop a wall-like structure. Such
shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and structures are called dykes. These are the
connected by a pipe-like conduit from below. most commonly found intrusive forms in the
It resembles the surface volcanic domes of western Maharashtra area. These are
composite volcano, only these are located at considered the feeders for the eruptions that
deeper depths. It can be regarded as the led to the development of the Deccan traps.
localized source of lava that finds its way to
Geography
11 99
LAND FORMS
After weathering processes have had In the middle stages, streams cut their beds
their actions on the earth materials making slower, and lateral erosion of valley sides
up the surface of the earth, the geomorphic becomes severe. Gradually, the valley sides
in
agents like running water, ground water, are reduced to lower and lower slopes. The
wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. divides between drainage basins are likewise
Erosion causes changes on the surface of the lowered until they are almost completely
earth. Deposition follows erosion and flattened leaving finally, a lowland of faint
because of deposition too, changes occur on
the surface of the earth.
p.
relief with some low resistant remnants called
monad nocks standing out here and there.
A landmass passes through stages of This type of plain forming as a result of stream
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development somewhat comparable to the erosion is called a peneplain (an almost plain).
stages of life- youth, mature and old age. The characteristics of each of the stages of
landscapes developing in running water
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Running Water
regimes may be summarized as follows:
In humid regions, which receive heavy
rainfall running water is considered the most Youth
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important of the geomorphic agents in Streams are few during this stage with
bringing about the degradation of the land poor integration and flow over original
surface. There are two components of running slopes showing shallow V-shaped valleys
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water. One is overland flow in general land with no floodplains or with very narrow
surface as a sheet. Another is linear flow as floodplains along trunk streams. Streams
streams and rivers in valleys. Most of the divides are broad and flat with marshes,
erosional landforms made by running water swamp and lakes. Meanders if present
are associated with vigorous and youthful develop over these broad upland surfaces.
rivers flowing along gradients. With time, These meanders may eventually entrench
stream channels over steep gradients turn themselves into the uplands. Waterfalls and
gentler due to continued erosion, and as a rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies
consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating are exposed.
active deposition. Mature
In the early stages, down-cutting During this stage streams are plenty
dominates during which irregularities such with good integration. The valleys are still
as waterfalls and cascades will be removed. V-shaped but deep; trunk streams are broad
enough to have wider floodplains within aided by the abrasion of rock fragments. Such
which streams may flow in meanders con- large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls
fined within the valley. The flat and broad are called plunge pools. These pools also help
inter stream areas and swamps and marshes in the deepening of valleys. Waterfalls are
of youth disappear and the stream divides also transitory like any other landform and
turn sharp. Waterfalls and rapids disappear. will recede gradually and bring the floor of
Old the valley above waterfalls to the level below.
Smaller tributaries during old age are Incised or Entrenched Meanders
few with gentle gradients. Streams meander But very deep and wide meanders
freely over vast floodplains showing natural found cut in hard rocks. Such meanders are
levees, oxbow lakes, etc. Divides are broad called incised or entrenched meanders.
and flat with lakes, swamps and marshes. River Terraces
in
Most of the landscape is at or slightly above
River terraces are surfaces marking old
sea level.
valley floor or floodplain levels. River
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS terraces are basically products of erosion as
Vallyes
Valleys start as small and narrow rills;
the rills will gradually develop into long and
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they result due to vertical erosion by the
stream into its own depositional floodplain.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
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wide gullies; the gullies will further deepen, Alluvial Fans
widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys.
Alluvial fans are formed when streams
Depending upon dimensions and shape,
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flowing from higher levels break into foot

many types of valleys like V-shaped valley,
slope plains of low gradient. Alluvial fans in
gorge, canyon, etc. can be recognized. A
humid areas show normally low cones with
gorge is a deep valley with very steep to
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gentle slope from head to toe and they appear

straight sides and a canyon is characterized
as high cones with steep slope in arid and
by steep step-like side slopes and may be as
semi-arid climates.
deep as a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in
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width at its top as well as its bottom. In Deltas

contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop
its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of at a different location. The load carried by
gorge. Valley types depend upon the type the rivers is dumped and spread into the sea.
and structure of rocks in which they form. It this load is not carried away far into the
For example, canyons commonly form in sea or distributed along the coast, it spreads
horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and and accumulates as a low cone.
gorges form in hard rocks. Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars
Potholes and Pluge Pools Floodplain is a major landform of river
Over the rocky beds of hill-streams deposition. The flood plains in a delta are
more or less circular depressions called called delta plains.
potholes form because of stream erosion Natural levees are found along the
Land Forms 101
banks of large rivers. They are low, linear islands of sand, gravel and pebbles develop
and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along on the floor of the channel and the water
the banks of rivers, quite often cut into flow is divided into multiple threads. These
individual mounds. During flooding as the thread-like streams of water rejoin and
water spills over the bank, the velocity of the subdivide repeatedly to give a typical braided
water comes down and large sized and high pattern.
specific gravity materials get dumped in the Groundwater
immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They
Here the interest is not on groundwater
are nearer the banks and slope gently away as a resource. Our focus is on the work of
from the river. The levee deposits are coarser
groundwater in the erosion of landmasses
than the deposits spread by flood waters and evolution of landforms. The surface
away from the river. When rivers shift
water percolates well when the rocks are
laterally, a series of natural levees can form.
in
permeable, thinly bedded and highly jointed
Point bars are also known as meander and cracked. After vertically going down to
bars. They are found on the convex side of some depth, the water under the ground
meanders of large rivers and are sediments
deposited in a linear fashion by flowing
waters along the bank.
p.
flows horizontally through the bedding
planes, joints or through the materials
themselves. It is this downward and
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Meanders horizontal movement of water which causes
In large flood and delta plains, rivers the rocks to erode. Physical or mechanical
rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like removal of materials by moving groundwater
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channel patterns called meanders develop is insignificant in developing landforms. That

over flood and delta plains. is why; the results of the work of
As meanders grow into deep loops, the groundwater cannot be seen in all types of
rocks. But in rocks like limestone or
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same may get cut-off due to erosion at the

inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes. dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the
Braided Channels: When rivers carry surface water as well as groundwater
through the chemical process of solution and
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coarse material, there can be selective

deposition of coarser materials causing precipitation deposition develop varieties of
formation of a central bar which diverts the landforms. These two processes of solution
flow towards the banks; and this flow and precipitation are active in limestones or
increases lateral erosion on the banks. As the dolomites occurring either exclusively or
valley widens, the water column is reduced inter-bedded with other rocks. Any
and more and more materials get deposited limestone or dolomite region showing typical
as islands and lateral bars developing a landforms produced by the action of
number of separate channels of water flow. groundwater through the processes of
Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are solution and deposition is called Karst
essential for the formation of braided pattern. topography after the typical topography
Or, alternatively, when discharge is less and developed in limestone rocks of Karst region
load is more in the valley, channel bars and in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.
The karst topography is also alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones,

characterized be erosional and depositional quartzites) with limestones or dolomites in
landforms. Indian subcontinent is full of between or in areas where limestones are
example of glaciers. It can be seen in dense, massive and occurring as thick beds,
mountainous area of Uttaranchal, Himachal cave formation is prominent.
Pradesh, Jammu Kashmir. The source of Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars:
Bhagirathi river is Gangotri glacier called Stalactites hang as icicles of different
Gaumukh. The source of Alakananda river diameters. Normally they are broad at their
is Alkapuri glacier. Where Alakhanda joins bases and taper towards the free ends
Bhagirathi at Devprayag it ows nomenclature showing up in variety of forms. Stalagmites
as The Ganga. rise up from the floor of the caves. In fact,
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS stalagmites form due to dripping water from
in
Pools, Sinkholes, the surface or through the thin pipe, of the
Lapies and Limestone Pavements stalactite, immediately below it. Stalagmites
may take the shape of a column, a disc, with
Small to medium sized round to sub-
either a smooth, rounded bulging end or a
rounded shallow depressions called swallow
holes form on the surface of limestones
through solution. It might collapse leaving a
p.
miniature crater like depression. The
stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to
give rise to columns and pillars of different
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large hole opening into a cave or a void below
diameters.
(collapse sinks). The term do line is
sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks. Glaciers
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Solution sinks are more common than collapse Masses of ice moving as sheets over the
sinks. Quite often the surface run-off simply land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier
goes down swallow and sink holes and flow if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains
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as underground streams and re-emerge at a at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows

distance downstream through a cave down the slopes of mountains in broad
opening. When sink holes and do-lines join trough-like valleys (mountain and valley
glaciers) are called glaciers. The movement
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together because of slumping of materials

along their margins or due to roof collapse of glaciers is slow unlike water flow. The
of caves, long, narrow to wide tranches movement could be a few centimeters to a
called valley sinks or Uvalas form. Gradually, few meters a day or even less or more.
most of the surface of the limestone is eaten Glaciers move basically because of the force
away by these pits and trenches, leaving it of gravity.
extremely irregular with a maze of points, We have many glaciers in our country
grooves and ridges or lapis. Especially, these moving down the slopes and valleys in
ridges or lapis form due to differential Himalayas. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal,
solution activity along parallel to sub-parallel Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir,
joints. The lapie field may eventually turn into are places to see some of them. River
somewhat smooth limestone pavements. Bhagirathi is basically fed by melt waters
Caves: In areas where there are from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the
Land Forms 103
Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier glaciers cut head ward until their cirques
feeds waters to Alakananda river. Rivers meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided
Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make river peaks called horns form. The divides between
Ganga near Deoprayag. cirque side walls or head walls get narrow
Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of progressive erosion and turn into
because of friction caused by sheer weight serrated or saw- toothed ridges sometimes
of the ice. The material plucked from the land referred to as artes with very sharp crest
by glaciers (usually large-sized angular and a zigzag outline.
blocks and fragments) get dragged along the Glacial Valleys/Troughs
floors or sides of the valleys and cause great Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-
damage through abrasion and plucking. shaped with broad floors and relatively
Glaciers can cause significant damage to even smooth, and steep sides. The valleys may
in
un-weathered rocks and can reduce high contain littered debris or debris shaped as
mountains into low hills and plains. moraines with swampy appearance. There
As glaciers continue to move, debris may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or
gets removed, divides get lowered and
eventually the slope is reduced to such an
extent that glaciers will stop moving leaving
p.
formed by debris within the valleys. There
can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one
or both sides of the main glacial valleys are
only a mass of low hills and vast outwash quite often truncated to give them an appear-
re
plains along with other depositional features. ance like triangular facets. Very deep glacial
The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and troughs filled with sea water and making up
the highest peak in the Himalayas, Everest shorelines (in high latitudes) are called
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are in fact horns formed through headword fjords/fiords.

erosion of radiating cirques. Depositional Landforms
Erosional Landforms
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The unasserted coarse and fine debris

Cirque: The cirques quite often are dropped by the melting glaciers is called
found at the heads of glacial valleys. The glacial till.
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accumulated ice cuts these cirques while Moraines: They are long ridges of de-
moving down the mountain tops. They are posits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with long ridges of debris deposited at the end
very steep concave to vertically dropping (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form
high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys.
of water can be seen quite often within the The moraine in the centre of the glacial val-
cirques after the glacier disappears. Such ley flanked by lateral moraines is called me-
lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes. There dial moraine.
can be two or more cirques one leading into Eskers
another down below in a stepped sequence. When glaciers melt in summer, the water
Horns and Serrated Ridges flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down
Horns form through head ward erosion along the margins or even moves through
of the cirque walls. It three or more radiating holes in the ice. These waters accumulate
beneath the glacier and flow like streams in are accomplished by waves. When waves
a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow break, the water is thrown with great force
over the ground (not in a valley cut in the onto the shore, and simultaneously, there is
ground) with ice forming its banks. Very a great churning of sediments on the sea
coarse materials like boulders and blocks bottom. Constant impact of breaking waves
along with some minor fractions of rock drastically affects the coasts. Storm waves
debris carried into this stream settle in the and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching
valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the changes in a short period of time than normal
ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge breaking waves. As wave environment
called esker. changes, the intensity of the force of breaking
Outwash Plains waves changes.
The plains at the foot of the glacial Other than the action of waves, the
in
mountains or beyond the limits of continental coastal landforms depend upon (i) the
ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial configuration of land and sea floor; (ii)
deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans whether the coast is advancing (emerging)
seaward or retreating (submerging)
which may join to form outwash plains of
gravel, silt, sand and clay.
Drumlins
p.
landward. Assuming sea level to be constant,
two types of coasts are considered to explain
the concept of coastal landforms: (i) high,
re
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge- rocky coasts (submerged coasts); (ii) low,
like features composed mainly of glacial till smooth and gently sloping sedimentary
with some masses of gravel and sand. The coasts (emerged coasts).
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long axes of drumlins are parallel to the

High Rocky Coasts
direction of ice movement. They may
measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers
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in height. One end of the drumlins facing the appear to have been drowned with highly
glacier called the stoss end is blunter and irregular coastline. The coastline appears
steeper than the other end called tail. The highly indented with extension of water into
the land where glacial valleys (fjords) are
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drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris

beneath heavily loaded ice through fissures present. The hill sides drop off sharply into
in the glacier. The stoss end gets blunted due the water. Shores do not show any
to pushing by moving ice. Drumlins give an depositional landforms initially. Erosion
indication of glacier movement. features dominate.
Waves and Currents Along with rocky coasts, waves break
with great force against the land shaping the
Coastal processes are the most dynamic hill sides into cliffs. With constant pounding
and hence most destructive. by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-
Some of the changes along the coast take cut platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
place very fast. At one place, there can be gradually minimize the irregularities along
erosion in one season and deposition in the shore. The materials which fall off, and
another. Most of the changes along the coast removed from the sea cliffs, gradually break
Land Forms 105
into smaller fragments and roll to roundness, Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
will get deposited in the offshore. After a changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
considerable period of cliff development and Large rivers which bring lots of sediments
retreat when coastline turns somewhat build deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
smooth, with the addition of some more Erosional Landforms
material to this deposit in the offshore, a Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
wave-built terrace would develop in front of
Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
wave-cut terrace. As the erosion along the
usually found where erosion is the dominant
coast takes place a good supply material shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
becomes available to long shore currents and
and may range from a few m to 30 m or even
waves to deposit them as beaches along the more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be
shore and as bars (long ridges of sand and/
a flat or gently sloping platform covered by
or shingle parallel to the coast) in the near
in
rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind.
shore zone. Bars are submerged features and Such platforms occurring at elevations above
when bars show up above water, they are
the average height of waves is called a wave-
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get
keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a
spit. When barrier bars and spits form at the
mouth of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms.
p.
cut terrace. The lashing of waves against the
base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
smashed against the cliff along with lashing
re
waves create hollows and these hollows get
The lagoons would gradually get filled up
widened and deepened to form sea caves.
by sediments from the land giving rise to a The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs
coastal plain.
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recede further inland. Retreat of the cliff may

Low sedimentary coasts leave some remnants of rock standing
Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers isolated as small islands just off the shore.
appear to extend their length by building Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts
ar
coastal plains and deltas. The coastline of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks. Like all
appears smooth with occasional incursions of other features, sea stacks are also temporary
water in the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. and eventually coastal hills and cliffs will
Sm
The land slopes gently into the water. disappear because of wave erosion giving rise
Marshes and swamps may abound along the to narrow coastal plains, and with onrush of
coasts. Depositional features dominate. deposits from over the land behind may get
When waves break over a gently sloping covered up by alluvium or may get covered
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get up by shingle or sand to form a wide beach.
churned and move readily building bars, Depositional landforms
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons Beaches and Dunes
would eventually turn into a swamp which
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. Beaches are characteristic of shorelines
The maintenance of these depositional that are dominated by deposition, but may
features depends upon the steady supply of occur as patches along even the rugged
materials. shores. Most of the sediment making up the
beaches comes from land carried by the lifting and removal of dust and smaller
streams and rivers or from wave erosion. particles from the surface of rocks. In the
Beaches are temporary features. The sandy transportation process sand and silt act as
beach which appears so permanent may be effective tools to abrade the land surface. The
reduced to a very narrow strip of coarse impact is simply sheer force of momentum
pebbles in some other season. Most of the which occurs when sand is blown into or
beaches are made up of sand sized materials. against a rock surface. It is similar to
Beaches called shingle beaches contain sandblasting operation. The wind action
excessively small pebbles and even cobbles. creates a number of interesting erosional and
Just behind the beach, the sands lifted depositional features in the deserts.
and winnowed from over the beach surfaces Erosional Landforms
will be deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes Pediments and Pedi plains
in
forming long ridges parallel to the coastline
Landscape evolution in deserts is
are very common along low sedimentary
coasts. primarily concerned with the formation and
extension of pediments. Gently inclined rocky
Bars, Barriers and Spits
A ridge of sand and shingle formed in
the sea in the off-shore zone (from the
p.
floors close to the mountains at their foot with
or without a thin cover of debris, are called
pediments. Such rocky floors from through
re
position of low tide waterline to seaward) the erosion of mountain front through a
lying approximately parallel to the coast is combination of lateral erosion by streams and
called an off-shore bar. An off-shore bar sheet flooding.
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which is exposed due to further addition of Erosion starts along the steep margins
sand is termed a barrier bar. The off-shore of the landmass or the steep sides of the
bars and barriers commonly from across the tectonically controlled steep incision features
ar
mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay. over the landmass. Once, pediments are
Sometimes such bars get keyed up to one end formed with a steep wash slope followed by
of the bay when they are called spits. Spits cliff or free face above it, the steep wash slope
may also develop attached to headlands/hills.
Sm
and free face retreat backwards. This method

The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of
the bay gradually extend leaving only a small slopes through back wasting.
opening of the bay into the sea and the bay
So, through parallel retreat of slopes, the
will eventually develop into a lagoon. The pediments extend backwards at the expense
lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment
of mountain front, and gradually, the
coming from the land or from the beach itself mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg
(aided by wind) and a broad and wide
which is a remnant of the mountain. Thats
coastal plain may develop replacing a lagoon. how the high relief in desert areas is reduced
Winds to low featureless plains called Pedi plains.
Wind is one of the two dominant agents Playas: Plains are by far the most
in hot deserts. Winds cause deflation, prominent landforms in the deserts. In basins
abrasion and impact. Deflation includes with mountains and hills around and along,
Land Forms 107
the drainages towards the center of the basin transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
and due to gradual deposition of sediment When the wind slows or begins to die down,
from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms depending upon sizes of grains and their
at the centre of the basin. In times of sufficient critical velocities, the grains will begin to
water, this plain is covered up by a shallow settle.
water body. So, in depositional landforms made by
Such types of shallow lakes are called wind, good sorting of grains can be found.
as playas where water is retained only for Since wind is there everywhere and wherever
short duration due to evaporation and quite there is good source of sand and with
often the playas contain good deposition of constant wind directions, depositional
salts. The playa plain covered up by salts is features in arid regions can develop
called alkali flats. anywhere.
in
Deflation Hollows and Caves Sand Dunes
Weathered mantle from over the rocks Dry hot deserts are good places for sand
or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune
movement of wind currents in one direction.
This process may create shallow depressions
called deflation hollows. Deflation also cre-
p.
formation are equally important. There can
be a great variety of dune forms.
Barchans
re
ates numerous small pits or cavities over rock
Crescent shaped dunes called barchans
surfaces.
with the points or wings directed away from
The rock faces suffer impact and abra-
wind direction i.e., downwind, form where
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sion of wind-borne sand and first shallow

the wind direction is constant and moderate
depressions called blow outs are created, and
and where the original surface over which
some of the blow outs become deeper and
sand is moving is almost uniform. Parabolic
wider fit to be called caves.
ar
dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
covered with vegetation. That means
susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion
parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with
are worn out quickly leaving some remnants
Sm
wind direction being the same. Seif is similar

of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the
to barchans with a small differences. Seif has
shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and
only one wing or point. This happens when
a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.
there is shift in wind conditions. The long
Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a
wings of seifs can grow very long and high.
table top and quite often, the remnants stand
Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand
out like pedestals.
is poor and wind direction is constant. They
Depositional Landforms appear as long ridges of considerable length
Wind is a good sorting agent. but low in height. Transverse dunes are
Depending upon the velocity of wind, aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
different sizes of grains are moved along the These dunes form when the wind direction
floors by rolling or saltation and carried in is constant and the source of sand is an
suspension and in this process of elongated feature at right angles to the wind
direction. They may be very long and low in individual characteristics. Most of the dunes
height. When sand is plenty, quite often, the in the deserts shift and a few of them will
regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their get stabilized especially near human
habitations.
in
p.
re
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ar
Sm
GENERAL SCIENCE
For
Civil Services
ISBN: 9789381362327
Geography
12 109
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Composition and Structure of Atmosphere Krypto Kr 0.001

Atmosphere is a mixture of different Xenon Xe 0.00009
gases and it envelopes the earth all round. It Hydrogen H2 0.00005
in
contains life-giving gases like oxygen for
Gases: Carbon dioxide is
humans and animals and carbon dioxide for
meteorologically a very important gas as it
plants. The air is an integral part of the earths
is transparent to the incoming solar radiation
mass and 99 per cent of the total mass of the
atmosphere is confined to the height of 32
km from the earths surface. The air is
p.
but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial
radiation. It absorbs a part of terrestrial
radiation and reflects back some part of it
re
colourless and odourless and can be felt only
towards the earths surface. It is largely
when it blows as wind.
responsible for the green house effect. The
Composition of the Atmosphere volume of other gases is constant but the
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The atmosphere is composed of gases, volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in
water vapour and dust particles. Table shows the past few decades mainly because of the
details of various gases in the air, particularly burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased
ar
in the lower atmosphere. The proportion of the temperature of the air. Ozone is another
gases changes in the higher layers of the important component of the atmosphere
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will found between 10 and 50 km above the
Sm
be almost in negligible quantity at the height earths surface and acts as a filter and absorbs
of 120 kin. Similarly, carbon dioxide and the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun
water vapour are found only up to 90 km and prevents them from reaching the surface
from the surface of the earth. of the earth.
Constituent Formula Percentage Water Vapour: Water vapour is also a
by Volume variable gas in the atmosphere, which de-
creases with altitude. In the warm and wet
Nitrogen N2 78.08
tropics, it may account for four percent of
Oxygen O2 20.95
the air by volume, while in the dry and cold
Argon Ar 0.93 areas of desert and polar regions, it may be
Carbond dioxideCo2 0.93 less than one percent of the air. Water va-
Neon Ne 0.002 pour also decreases from the equator, to-
Helium He 0.0005 wards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the
insolation from the sun and preserves the this layer decreases at the rate of 1C for
earths radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blan- every 165m of height. This is the most
ket allowing the earth neither to become too important layer for all biological activity.
cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contrib- The zone separating the tropsophere
utes to the stability and instability in the air. from stratosphere is known as the
Dust Particles: Atmosphere has a tropopause. The air temperature at the
sufficient capacity to keep small solid tropopause is about minus 80C over the
particles, which may originate from different equator and about minus 45C over the poles.
sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke- The temperature here is nearly constant, and
soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated hence, it is called the tropopause. The strato-
particles of meteors. Dust particles are sphere is found above the tropopause and
generally concentrated in the lower layers of extends up to a height of 50 km. One impor-
the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents tant feature of the stratosphere is that it con-
in
may transport them to great heights. The tains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ul-
higher concentration of dust particles is found traviolet radiation and shields life on the earth
in subtropical and temperate regions due to from intense, harmful form of energy.
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and
polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as
hygroscopic nuclei around which water
p. The mesosphere lies above the
stratosphere, which extends up to a height-
of 80 km. In this layer, once again,
re
vapour condenses to produce clouds. temperature starts decreasing with the
Structure of the Atmosphere increase in altitude and reaches up to minus
100C at the height of 80 km. The upper limit
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The atmosphere consists of different

of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
layers with varying density and temperature.
The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400
Density is highest near the surface of the earth
km above the mesopause. It contains
and decreases with increasing altitude. The
ar
electrically charged particles known as ions,

column of atmosphere is divided into five
and hence, it is known as ionosphere. Radio
different layers depending upon the
waves transmitted from the earth are
temperature condition. They are:
Sm
reflected back to the earth by this layer.

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
Temperature here starts increasing with
ionosphere and exosphere.
height. The uppermost layer of the
The troposphere is the lowermost layer atmosphere above the ionosphere is known
of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13
as the exosphere. This is the highest layer but
km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km very little is known about it. Whatever
near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. contents are there, these are extremely
Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at rarefied in this layer, and it gradually merges
the equator because heat is transported to with the outer space. Although all layers of
great heights by strong convectional currents. the atmosphere must be exercising influence
This layer contains dust particles and water on us, geographers are concerned with the
vapour. All changes in climate and weather first two layers of the atmosphere.
take place in this layer. The temperature in
Composition and Structure of Atmosphere 111
Water in the Atmosphere: The air Evaporation and Condensation

contains water vapour. It varies from zero The amount of water vapour in the
to four percent by volume of the atmosphere atmosphere is added or withdrawn due to
and plays an important, role in the weather evaporation and condensation respectively.
phenomena. Water is present in the Evaporation is a process by which water is
atmosphere in three forms namely transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
gaseous, liquid and solid. The moisture in the Heat is the main cause for evaporation. The
atmosphere is derived from water bodies temperature at which the water starts
through evaporation and from plants through evaporating is referred to as the latent heat
transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous of vapourisation.Increase in temperature
exchange of water between the atmosphere, increases water absorption and retention
the oceans and the continents through the capacity of the given parcel of air. Similarly,
processes of evaporation, transpiration;
in
if the moisture content is low, air has a
condensation and precipitation. potentiality of absorbing and retaining
Water vapour present in the air is moisture. Movement of air replaces the
known as humidity. It is express
equantitatively in different ways. The actual
amount of the water vapour present in the
atmosphere is known as the absolute
p.
saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.
Hence, the greater the movement of air, the
greater is the evaporation.
re
The transformation of water vapour into
humidity. It is the weight of water vapour water is called condensation. Condensation
per unit volume of air and is expressed in is caused b the loss of heat. When moist air is
terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
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of the air to hold water vapor depends to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess
entirely on its temperature. The absolute water vapour condenses into liquid form. If
humidity differs from place to place on the it directly condenses into solid form, it is
ar
surface of the earth. The percentage of known as sublimation. In free air,

moisture present in the atmosphere as condensation results from cooling around
compared to its full capacity at a given very small particles termed as hygroscopic
Sm
temperature is known as the relative condensation nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke

humidity. With the change of air temperature, and salt from the ocean are particularly good
the capacity to retain moisture increases or nuclei because they absorb water.
decreases and the relative humidity is also Condensation also takes place when the moist
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least air comes in contact with some colder object
over the continents.The air containing and it may also take place when the
moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is close to the dew point.
temperature is said to be saturated. It means Condensation, therefore, depends upon the
that the air at the given temperature Is amount of cooling and the relative humidity
incapable of holding any additional amount of the air. Condensation is influenced by the
of moisture at that stage. The temperature at volume of air, temperature, pressure and
which saturation occurs in a given sample of humidity.
air is known as dew point.

The Gist of NCERT Geography

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The Northeastern Plateau ............................................................................................................. 9

The Islands ............................................................................................................................... 10

Important Drainage Patterns ....................................................................................................... 12

Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season .............................................................................. 20

Tropical Thorn Forests .............................................................................................................. 32

Forest cover in India .................................................................................................................. 34

Cropping Pattern ....................................................................................................................... 53

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals ................................................................................................ 61

Major Industries ........................................................................................................................ 67

Industrial Regions in India ......................................................................................................... 76

Direction of Trade ...................................................................................................................... 87

11. OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 90

Minerals & Rocks ...................................................................................................................... 92

Horns and Serrated Ridges ........................................................................................................ 103

Eskers ...................................................................................................................................... 103

High Rocky Coasts ................................................................................................................... 104

2,933 km. What is the reason for this

2 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

and thrust plains. These mountains are

northern borders of India. These mountain

The formation of Himalaya & north eastern

(Indian subcontinents Australia, South Africa,

4 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local

landscape. The landscape of Himalayas is a m specially attracted to the British colonial

Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of

and the Ganga. Tributaries of the Indus

this region include the Yamuna and the

6 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

mountains from all sides. Mzoram which is

seen in the northeast, in the form of Shillong

8 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and

the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills

Chotanagpur plateau. wood fossils park at Aakal and marine

limestone and uranium. This area receives

The Indian Desert

10 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, The Islands

tributaries is called a drainage basin. The

12 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

as trellis. of Sind near lower Punjab during the

the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m into Pakistan.

After flowing in the northwest direction

14 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi

in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The

project. right bank tributaries are the Subansiri,

16 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

river system. It is also called the Dakshin

Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the

is 1,465 km long with a catchment area

rivers of Gujarat. The Shetruniji is one such

village in Rajkot district. The Dhadhar rises

18 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

(a) Factors related to Location and Relief

India in east-west direction. This, northern

the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone.

20 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

to shed their moisture within the Ghats.

Altitude : Temperature decreases with Surface pressure and winds: In winter

22 Gist of NCERT (Geography)