Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116

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Resources, Conservation and Recycling

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Full length article

The European PVC cycle: In-use stock and ows

L. Ciacci a, , F. Passarini a,b , I. Vassura a,b
a
Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research Energy & Environment, University of Bologna, Rimini, Italy
b
Department of Industrial Chemistry Toso Montanari, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: More than any other material, plastic is likely the commodity that has changed and characterized every-
Received 31 March 2016 day life in the last 60 years. Although fairly young, the petrochemical industry has grown rapidly and
Received in revised form 3 August 2016 moved to a variety of products and applications that has become one of the biggest industries world-
Accepted 8 August 2016
wide. Notwithstanding such a presence in the modern society, plastics have been little analyzed from a
Available online 11 August 2016
material ow analysis perspective; low recycling rates and a strong reliance on primary material inputs
give plastic greatest potentials for closing material loops. With this aim, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) stocks
Keywords:
and ows in Europe are investigated historically to 2012. By volume, PVC is one the major thermoplas-
Thermoplastic
Industrial ecology tics used today and its employment in applications having relative long lifespans such as building and
Polymer recycling construction implies accumulation in anthropogenic reservoir as future sources of secondary material.
Material ow analysis The results show that about two thirds of the cumulative apparent consumption of PVC are still in use,
Building and construction reaching about 270 kg/capita at current levels. The remaining one third that came out of use has been
Urban mining mostly landlled, with only a minor fraction being recycled. Flow analysis shows that signicant margins
for improving material and energy recovery at end-of-life do exist for PVC if the recycling challenge is
timely and properly addressed in the coming years. Design for recycling, ban on plastic landlling, and
recycling targets with a focus on the recycled content in new products are keys for ensuring resource
efciency and the creation of an adequate recycling infrastructure across Europe.
2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The petrochemical industry is fairly young: it started to grow in

A growing interest in characterizing the metabolism of mod-
ern society has spurred industry and academia to understand how
material ows are used within and among economies and dynamics
behind the accumulation of product stocks in anthropogenic reser-
voirs. Ultimately, anthropogenic in-use stock represents a pool of
secondary material sources and provides perspectives for inves-
tigating long-term demand-supply patterns (Graedel and Lifset,
2016; Liu et al., 2013).
Industrialization, urbanization, and needs for improving human
wellbeing have determined an on-going development of technol-
ogy and progress in material manufacturing such that almost the
entire periodic table of elements is used in everyday products and
goods (Graedel et al., 2015a). The material voracity of modern soci-
ety is not limited to metal forms, but extends the demand to other
commodities, with petrochemicals from crude oil rening and nat-
ural gas processing being an example.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: luca.ciacci5@unibo.it (L. Ciacci).
the 1940s, but rapidly moved to a variety of forms and uses that
became one of the most important industries worldwide. Through
cracking and reforming processes, crude oil and natural gas are
converted to olens and aromatics that are key building blocks for
commodities as synthetic polymers and rubbers. These major prod-
ucts of petrochemical industry have such an extensive presence in
modern society that the XX century was given the name of plastic
age (Thompson et al., 2009).
The plastic industry in Europe counts more than 60,000 com-
panies including raw material producers, plastics converters and
manufacturers (PlasticsEurope, 2015), and with about 60 Mt in
2013 follows only China in the global plastics production rank. Five
countries (i.e., Germany, Italy, France, United Kingdom, and Spain)
concentrate about two thirds of plastics demand in the region. By
polymer type, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) represent about 60% of total plastic volume in Europe for
household goods, medical equipment, leisure products, and other
major applications (PlasticsEurope, 2015).
As known, plastics vary in quality and quantity, in morphology,
and end-uses. Two major classes of polymers are thermosets and
thermoplastics. Respect to other thermoplastics, PVC has unique
properties and great versatility that together with a relative low

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.08.008
0921-3449/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116
price boosted its use and diffusion. This resin was rst polymerized
during the second half of the XIX century and since its mass-
produced manufacturing (circa 1920s) (PlasticsEurope, 2016), PVC
has constituted a synthetic substitute for natural rubber. During
the World War II, PVC production increased strongly thanks to
water resistant features and non-ammable electrical properties.
Better quality of PVC compared to caoutchouc was also exploited
in the music industry for reducing the thickness of vinyl discs (or
simply known as vinyls) and allowed the long-playing recording,
which decreased the rotation speed from 78 to 331/3 revolutions per
minute. In fact, PVC is still used today for vinyls with no substitute
thanks to high quality for music records and relative low cost. More
recently, the range of applications has become wider consequently
to novel manufacturing routes that have increased its durability
and made PVC an essential material for building and construction.
In addition, in light of criticality issues due to potential supply risk
and restriction, PVC has been identied has a primary substitute
with good performance for replacing copper in plumbing (Graedel
et al., 2015b).
Due to its rigidity at normal temperature, PVC cannot be used
alone, but it is always mixed with additives including plasticiz-
ers, heat stabilizers, llers, pigments, lubricants, and other agents
to enable PVC manufacturing and to improve its physical and
mechanical properties. Rigid, unplasticized PVC has a total addi-
tives content less than 10% on weight (Fischer et al., 2014), but
much higher concentrations can be found in exible PVC prod-
ucts (Stringer et al., 2000; Whiteld and Associates, 2008). Intrinsic
PVC instability is due to its subjection to heat, which causes self-
accelerating dehydrochlorination reactions. Inorganic and organic
salts of metals as calcium, zinc, lead, and tin have been historically
used as stabilizers for heat and UV-light degradation or for prevent-
ing oxidation at air. Due to harmful effects related with potential
release of toxic metals and their accumulation in the human body,
the EU has phased out the use of cadmium stabilizers in PVC man-
ufacturing. A voluntary commitment, named Vynil 2010, by the
European Stabiliser Producers Association and the European Plas-
tics Converters Association aimed at replacing lead stabilizer used
in PVC by 2015 (PVCplus, 2012). Bans to toxic metals have increased
attention to stabilizers containing calcium and zinc and to novel
metal-free systems.
Concerns have been raised also on the use of additives to
increase plasticity to PVC products. The most common plasticiz-
ers are standard phthalates (i.e., esters of phthalic anhydride with
C8 C10 alcohols, representing more than 85% of world plasticizers
production), of which 90% is annually used in PVC manufacturing
(EVCM, 2016). The greatest concern related to the use of phtha-
lates is due to endocrine modulation and alleged disruption to
the human health, particularly to toxic effect to reproduction and
fertility. The EU has limited the use of short-chained and low
molecular weight phthalates such as bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
(DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), and
benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), as substance or as constituents of
preparations, at concentrations of greater than 0.1% by mass of the
plasticized material and banned their use in toys and baby arti-
cles (Directive 2005/84/EC); such a restriction has been recently
extended to all electrical and electronic equipment (Commission
Delegated Directive (EU) 2015/863). The replacement of DEHP, DBP,
DIBP, and BBP with other plasticizers will be likely enhanced by
the inclusion of the four phthalates within the REACH regulation as
substances of very high concern (ECHA, 2016).
High molecular weight and long-chained phthalates (e.g.,
diisononyl phthalate (DINP), diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP), and di-
(n-octyl) phthalate (DNOP)) may be used at limited concentrations
in toys and baby articles which children do not place in their mouths
(Directive 2005/84/EC). The European Chemicals Agencys risk
assessment indicated that no unacceptable risk has been character-
109
ized for the use of DINP and DIDP in current consumer applications
(ECHA, 2010a,b). Consequently to EU regulations and health con-
cerns, plasticizers derived from adipic acid, therephtalates, and
phthalate-free additives have increased their economic importance
and their employment in new PVC formulation.
Material Flow Analysis (MFA) has been applied extensively to
characterize anthropogenic material cycles. Major interest has been
oriented to metals due to their wide use in the society and mar-
ket value. Dynamic and standard MFA studies quantied in-use
stock for most base metals, specialty metals, and rare earths with
different scope (Chen and Graedel, 2012; Ciacci et al., 2013; Du
and Graedel, 2011; Glser et al., 2013; Izard and Mller, 2010;
Kral et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2011; Meylan and Reck, 2016; Pauliuk
et al., 2013). Additional studies focused on materials other than
metals including construction minerals and biomass (Hashimoto
et al., 2007; Krausmann et al., 2009). Notwithstanding their exten-
sive presence in the contemporary society, low recycling rates,
and the related environmental implications, plastics, and partic-
ularly PVC, have been little investigated from an MFA perspective.
Tukker et al. (1996) performed a detailed substance ow analy-
sis for PVC and related emissions in Sweden (Tukker et al., 1996);
the results were later employed to estimate outows of PVC waste
as function of delaying mechanism of stock in the same country
(Kleijn et al., 2000). Patel et al. (1998) analyzed plastics streams in
Germany and estimated resulting long-term production, consump-
tion, and waste generation patterns (Patel et al., 1998); Nakamura
et al. (2009) applied input-output tables for characterizing Japanese
PVC industry and provided a summary of MFA studies on plastics
to 2000 (Nakamura et al., 2009). A dynamic MFA was applied to
quantify the U.S. polyethylene terephthalate cycle by (Kuczenski
and Geyer, 2010); Zhou et al. (2013) analyzed the Chinese indus-
trial metabolism of PVC and provided insights for future waste
generation (Zhou et al., 2013). Bogucka et al. (2008) applied MFA
to support multi-resin waste management in Poland and Austria
(Bogucka et al., 2008); similarly, Van Eygen et al. (2015) proposed
an in-depth analysis of plastics ows and stocks in Austria for 2010
(Van Eygen et al., 2015). Bellstedt (2015) determined PVC stock
in civil infrastructure in Amsterdam as case study to support the
development of a circular economy (Bellstedt, 2015).
In this work, MFA is applied to quantify European ows and
stocks of PVC historically to 2012. We expect the results provide sig-
nicant insights for the European PVC industry, including estimates
of potentials for PVC recycling and performance indicators such as
recovery rate, end-of-life recycling rate, and annual additions to
stock. On a broader perspective, the results will contribute to the
international Industrial Ecology community by enlarging the num-
ber of material cycles investigated and increasing the knowledge
about the metabolism of modern society.
2. Methodology
MFA applies the mass conservation to balance for inows and
outows from each stage of a materials life cycle. Similarly to met-
als, the life cycle of PVC can be divided into four main phases,
including production, manufacturing and processing into nished
goods, use, and waste management. A major distinction with met-
als (with the exception of those having anthropogenic origin, e.g.,
technetium) is that plastics are produced articially. Thus, system
boundaries for the anthropogenic PVC cycle are set to include ows
and process dealing with a dened and uniform composition of
this material. In other words, system boundaries begin with resin
PVC production and end with end-of-life treatment of PVC waste.
Material ows to incineration, waste to energy plants, or to landi-
l are not disaggregated further as PVC undergoes processes that
change the chemical structure of the material of interest. The scope
110 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116
of the study is Europe, according to the EU-27 denition at 2012.
As the analysis is carried out backwards fairly before the EU was
established, the countries belonging to the EU-27 are consistently
investigated back to 1960. All ows are expressed in resin content;
additives commonly supplemented to PVC are not included in the
analysis.
PVC is produced from vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) that is, in
turn, industrially prepared by two main reactions: thermal cracking
of 1,2-dichloroethane, which is the most important industrial route
of VCM production (Fischer et al., 2014; Dreher et al., 2014), and
hydrochlorination of acetylene. Building blocks of VCM are chlo-
rine (57%), obtained by electrolysis from a solution of brine, and
ethylene (43%) that is mainly produced from crude oil rening
and further cracking steps. The following polymerization of VCM
to PVC can follow three different processes: suspension, which
provides more than 80% of world PVC, emulsion (12%), and mass
(or bulk process, 5%). Generally, PVC production plants can vary
from stand-alone PVC plants to fully integrated plants, with various
intermediate levels of integration. Common reaction yields of VCM
polymerization in the suspension process are 9798%; the unre-
acted monomer is recovered by stripping and, after a liquefying
step, reused in later polymerizations (Fischer et al., 2014).
Manufacturing and processing stages focus on the creation of
semi-nished (or semis) products and nished products, respec-
tively. Various manufacturing processes are used, e.g. extrusion,
calendering, injection molding, and other manufacturing processes.
Outows from these processes have been grouped into ve macro-
categories including pipes and ttings, tubes and proles, lms
and sheets, wires and cables, and other semis goods. Data on PVC
resin demand in Western Europe from 1960 to 2012 have been
obtained from PlasticsEurope statistics (Sevenster, 2016). Histori-
cal rst-uses shares have been used to compute annual PVC inows
to manufacturing processes (see Table S1 in Supplementary infor-
mation).
In some cases, semis products can be used standing alone (e.g.,
pipes and ttings); in some other, they are incorporated into com-
plex products such as cars and electronics (e.g., wires and cables).
A clear distinction between either ways of use is not always possi-
ble, although each semis category can be linked to major end-use
sector. For instance, tubes, proles, pipes, and ttings are mostly
used in building and construction as much as window frames from
extrusion, and decorative laminating lms and sheets (e.g., ooring,
door protection, roong sheets) from calendering. Other PVC prod-
ucts nd application in packaging and containers. Piping and ducts
are used for power and telecommunications; insulation cables and
sheathing are employed for power supplies, appliances, and auto-
motive. The transportation industry uses PVC also for underbody
coating and interior decoration. Blood and urine bags, surgical
gloves, and transfusion tubing are examples of PVC uses in the
medical sector. Home and leisure products include footwear, tents,
garden hoses, inatables, toys, tablecloths, and similar goods. Mar-
ket shares distribution is derived from PlasticsEurope (Sevenster,
2016) data and VEC statistics (VEC, 2016), (see Fig. S1 in Supple-
mentary information).
The United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN
COMTRADE, 2016) was used to quantify net-exports of semi-
nished and nished products containing PVC, according to the
1996 Harmonized System. About seventy commodity codes have
been selected and mass-based PVC percent ranges have been
applied to compute trade ows in terms of PVC content (see Table
S2 in Supplementary information).
PVC polymers and co-polymers are produced generally from
primary input. PVC from secondary sources is recycled in the pro-
cessing stage where PVC products are manufactured. Pre-consumer
and post-consumer wastes are two main sources of secondary
PVC. Pre-consumer waste results from production and processing
trimmings and off-cuts: thanks to cleanness and quality of PVC,
these ows are generally recycled internally at high recycling rates
(Sevenster, 2016). Post-consumer waste is the largest source of sec-
ondary PVC and it is generated when products are discarded at the
end of their life. In these products, PVC is often dispersed in low con-
centrations and requires large efforts to remove pollutants before
further processing. In some cases, PVC products remain uncollected
and are never recovered, with water pipes left underground being
an example.
To estimate the amount of PVC waste and products containing
PVC discarded at end-of-life a top-down approach is used (Harper
et al., 2006). This approach considers the annual ows into use by
end-use and applies lifespan distribution models to estimate when
a given product in use reaches obsolescence and enters the waste
management stage. The annual difference between the amount into
use and the amount out of use represents the net-addition (or net-
subtraction) to the urban reservoirs or in-use stock. Performing the
calculation for each year of investigation provides a measure of
the magnitude of PVC accumulated in use and available for future
recovery and recycling. Average lifespan and standard deviation
assumed in the study are reported in Table S3 in Supplementary
information.
When discarded, PVC waste and PVC-containing end-of-life
products can undergo different fate depending on the waste man-
agement system. Generally, separate collection systems do exist for
specic type of waste such as packaging waste and waste electrical
and electronic equipment (WEEE), but a univocal correspondence
between end-use sectors and major waste categories is not always
clear to determine. Each waste category is modeled distinguish-
ing between collection for recovery (which may include either
material recycling or energy recovery) and collection for disposal
through landlling or incineration (PlasticsEurope, 2013). End-of-
life collection rates, recovery rates for each waste category, and
information on the European municipal waste management by
treatment method were derived from Eurostat statistics (2015a,b,c)
and expert elicitation (Sevenster, 2016).
3. Results & discussion
3.1. PVC ow analysis
Fig. 1 displays the cumulative European life cycle of PVC from
1960 to 2012. PVC production has increased constantly over time
until 2008, when the worldwide nancial crisis has likely slowed
down the European demand; the production quantity in 2012 was
comparable to middle 1980s levels (Fig. 2). Despite a decrease in
the domestic production, import and export of PVC polymers and
co-polymers keep increasing almost linearly. Flow analysis shows
that Europe is historically a net-exporter of unwrought PVC forms
(15 Tg), (Fig. 2; for more detail see Fig. S2a in Supplementary infor-
mation).
Total PVC production has input mainly extrusion and calen-
dering manufacturing processes. Injection molding products has
slightly increased over time but still remain marginal in terms of
magnitude of ows. A feature as a net-exporter characterizes trade
ows of European PVC semis too (Fig. 2; for more detail see Fig.
S2b in Supplementary information). In rst approximation, mass
contents of PVC in traded ows are assumed constant over time:
despite changes cannot be excluded, this assumption has marginal
effects as net-traded ows are not signicant compared to domestic
production and consumption ows.
About two thirds of PVC input has supplied rigid PVC man-
ufacturing. Film and sheets production was the larger rst-use
sector, before proles and pipes production increased in recent
years. The majority of these semi-nished and nished products
 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116 111

Fig. 1. Aggregate model for the European PVC cycle (19602012); values are in Tg. VCM: vinyl chloride monomer; S-PVC: suspension PVC; E-PVC: emulsion PVC; B-PVC:
bulk PVC.

Fig. 2. Annual PVC ow into use and net-import of PVC polymer and co-polymer forms, semi-nished goods, and nished goods. Negative values represent net-export.

nd application in the building and construction sector. Building
and construction include also a considerable fraction of wires and
cables for insulating, of which the remaining part is accounted in
electrical and electronic equipment. Packaging is the second largest
end-use market of PVC: despite a decrease in PVC bottle production
over time, this sector demands annually more than 400 Gg PVC in
Europe. The remaining PVC supplies home and leisure products,
medical equipment, and the transportation sector. Particularly,
the employment of polymers and similar light materials in vehi-
cle manufacturing is expected to increase in the coming years in
response to reduce greenhouse gas emissions during vehicles use
(GHK/BIOIS, 2006; Passarini et al., 2012). As for semis products,
net-traded ows of nished products are less relevant in mag-
nitude compared to the domestic production. However, between
the end of 1990s and the beginning of 2000s, European import of
PVC-containing goods has surpassed exports and the import rate
is increasing faster: in 2012, total import of nished goods has
112 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116
Fig. 3. Annual per-capita PVC waste generated in Europe, 19602012.
almost doubled total exports (Fig. 2; for more detail see Fig. S2c
in Supplementary information).
The total ow into use amounts at about 200 Tg PVC, of which
4 Tg PVC in 2012. Nakamura et al. (2009) reported about 1.5 Gt of
PVC ow into use in 2000 in Japan, which leads to 11.7 kg PVC/capita
(Nakamura et al., 2009). According to our estimate for PVC ow into
use in Europe for the same year, it results about 11.2 kg PVC/capita.
As described in the methodology section, the quantity of PVC into
use has been disaggregated by major end-use and has input lifetime
distribution models to simulate the generation of PVC waste and
discarded products at obsolescence. PVC losses during use due to
degradation, abrasion or other dissipative phenomena are assumed
to be negligible.
Fig. 3 displays annual per-capita PVC waste generated at end-of-
life disaggregated by major application sector. In 2012, the building
and construction sector has generated the largest amount of PVC
waste (about 1 Tg/year). More in detail, construction and demoli-
tion (C&D) waste is assumed to account for the entire amount of PVC
outputs the building and construction sector; the fraction of C&D
waste that is not collected for recovery is directly disposed of in
landll. An increase in C&D waste can be expected consequently to
the growing demand of PVC products in buildings (e.g., for window
frames) and to renovation practices.
Packaging waste equals the amount of PVC used annually in con-
tainers and packaging as it has been assumed that those products
are discarded within the same year of placing on the market. In
absolute terms, the packaging sector has generated the greatest
quantity of scrap from 1960 to 2012 (24 Tg PVC). Packaging waste
increased constantly until middle 2000s; then a decreasing trend
has followed. Dedicated collection schemes for packaging waste
go back to the beginning of 1990s and nowadays have reached
respectable collection rates (about 65% or even higher), (Eurostat,
2015c). The fraction of PVC packaging waste uncollected through
separate collection systems is assumed likely to follow the same
management route as MSW (Brown et al., 2000). This assumption
accounts also for the entire amount of PVC waste from packaging
that was generated during the years before dedicated collection
schemes were adopted.
The same assumption was also adopted for WEEE. WEEE is reg-
ulated by the EU trough a dedicated collection system; the system
was established approximately in 2003 but still struggles to inter-
cept the totality of electrical and electronics at end-of-life. 2012
collection rate is between 50% and 60%, leaving margins for signi-
cant improvements. According to EU statistics, in the last decade a
still small but increasing fraction of WEEE underwent reusing prac-
tices in Europe. 2012 reusing rate was around 2% by volume of total
WEEE generated in the same year. A further amount of WEEE was
exported, accounting for an additional 2% in 2012 (Eurostat, 2015b).
Trade ows of second-hand goods are generally not included
in the UN COMTRADE statistics and efforts are ongoing to quan-
tify these hidden ows. Thus, WEEE reuse and export rates may
underestimate actual values.
Home and leisure products at obsolescence are also accounted
as MSW. This end-use market has generated about 0.5 Tg/year PVC
waste in the last decade. As for some WEEE, lifetime of home and
leisure products may be extended through second-hand markets
or simply hibernated in houses, for instance for reusing or as
collectibles, by owners. Due to lack of data, we were not able to
quantify the magnitude of those hidden ows.
Medical waste consists mostly of medical tubing, blood and
urine bags, which are disposed by incineration as hazardous waste.
About 100 Gg of PVC is annually generated from the transportation
sector, mostly contained in end-of-life vehicles (ELV). The common
management chain for ELV includes shredding for metal (mainly
iron/steel and aluminum) recovery. As for materials other than
metal, PVC concentrates into the shredder residue (also known
as car uff). The automotive shredder residue is generally dis-
posed of in landll, with a minor fraction sent to incineration in
co-combustion with MSW for energy recovery (Ciacci et al., 2010;
Passarini et al., 2012).
The amount of waste assumed to follow end-of-life treatments
as MSW has been modeled according to the historical evolution of
the European MSW management and so separate between mate-
rial recovery, incineration with energy recovery, incineration with
no energy recovery, and landll disposal (Eurostat, 2015a). The
amount of waste collected for recovery, either through dedicated
collection systems or as MSW, is then processed for sorting poly-
mers and plastics on a single material basis. Process inefciencies
of material recovery facilities (MRF) reduce the amount available
to recycling. In turn, outputs from MRF include material ow to
recycling, energy recovery, and ows to nal disposal.
Post-consumer PVC waste generated in Germany in 2005 and
2007 was quantied at 360 Gg and 430 Gg (PVCplus, 2012); these
values result at about 4.3 kg PVC/capita and 5.2 kg PVC/capita,
respectively. Our estimates for 2005 and 2007 are 4.6 kg PVC/capita
and 4.7 kg/capita; for 2012, about 5 kg PVC/capita is computed.
Grand total of PVC to material recovery amounts at about
22 Tg for 19602012, of which, however, only 3 Tg were effectively
recycled PVC and supplemented more than 220 Tg primary PVC.
19602012 end-of-life collection rate, computed as total amount
of PVC collected for recovery as fraction of total PVC waste gener-
ated at end-of-life, is 34%, while end-of-life recycling rate results
at 4%. The overall 19602012 recycled content, estimated as frac-
tion of the amount of recycled PVC divided by total PVC production,
amounts at about 1%. For the year 2012, end-of-life collection rate,
functional recycling rate, and recycled content are estimated at 55%,
17%, and 9% respectively.
PVC recycling started to be relevant in the last decade and
since then a signicant progress in PVC end-of-life collection and
recycling rates has resulted. Recycling routes for PVC include
mechanical and feedstock recycling. Mechanical recycling con-
sists of material re-melting and re-processing into new products
 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116 113

through grinding, separating, washing and drying, granulating,

and compounding operations (Plastics Recyclers Europe, 2012).
Mechanical recycling is generally preferred for ooring, pipes, roof
sheets, and window frames (Bellstedt, 2015). Several initiatives
have been implemented for the recovery of post-consumer PVC.
As mentioned, C&D waste is largest fraction in waste management
and tack-back systems for window proles have been established in
some European countries (e.g., Germany, Austria, the Netherlands).
The Solvay VINILOOP process enables the recycling of PVC cables
insulation, and recycling options exist for packaging waste. Recy-
cling initiatives are available also for PVC pipes, although the cost of
collection is often a barrier and those products remain uncollected.
In addition, soft PVC products such as ooring and roof sheets are
more difcult to separate and are generally mixed up with waste
(PVCplus, 2012).
Feedstock recycling implies thermal treatment of PVC waste to
produce hydrogen chloride that can be returned back to PVC pro-
duction. The hydrocarbon fraction of PVC contributes positively to
the energy balance of the recovery process by generating heat and
electricity, with PVC having low caloric value in the order of about
20 MJ/kg. Recovery processes differentiate on limitations to chlo-
rine content in input ows. Processing of high-content PVC waste
and mixed inputs in slag bath gasication, hydrolysis, rotary kilns,
and pyrolysis plants has been investigated (Bellstedt, 2015) but is
not fully operating on commercial scale yet. Plastic fractions with Fig. 4. Total PVC in-use stock, 19602012. Shaded area shows the sensitivity anal-
ysis results.
PVC content up to 10% w/w can be either used to increase volume
and caloric value in calcium carbide production, or can be used as
carbon-rich input to syngas conversion (PVCplus, 2012). rates but the release may last for long time: considerable amounts
Compared to pyrolysis, incineration has better electrical power of phthalates were found in landlled PVC waste after more than
output, but also much greater environmental impacts (Wu et al., two decades and is likely that they may last longer than the time
2013). During incineration, the chlorine content of PVC is released required for leachate collection (European Commission DGXI.E.3,
as HCl that may determine corrosion issues within plant equip- 2000).
ment, and contribute to chlorine inow to waste incinerators. As additives supplemented to PVC are not covered in this study,
Particular concerns related to the combustion of organic fraction this aspect is not discussed further.
and chlorine presence in ue gas are due to dioxins and furans
generation. Dioxins and furans concentration in ues gas is strictly 3.2. PVC stock analysis
regulated by the EU (Directive 2000/76/EC). Several processes have
been developed to neutralize HCl from the ue gas. For instance, Fig. 4 displays the evolution of PVC in-use stock over time: at
limestone scrubbers remove HCl as calcium chloride; the Solvay 2012, estimated anthropogenic PVC reservoir amounts at about
NEUTREC process deposits sodium chloride, which is then recov- 137 Tg (or Mt). Shaded area in Fig. 4 shows the results of sensitivity
ered and puried; chlorine recovery in the form of salt is enabled analysis, which has been carried out to evaluate how much robust
by the HALOSEP process. the model created is. As net-traded ows are relatively marginal
Dioxins and furans formation mechanisms are complex and not compared to domestic production and consumption, and assuming
fully understand yet (Zhang et al., 2010); consequently, a wide part that historical PVC production data are consistently reported, life-
of the research is aiming at investigating reactions that determine time distribution models applied to PVC end-use markets are likely
dioxins and furans formation during chlorinated materials combus- the most uncertain parameters in the model. Variations related
tion. Compared to other plastic waste, PVC contributes signicantly to the shape form of normal distribution (i.e., standard deviation)
to the formation of dioxins and furans (Katami et al., 2002), but pro- used for markets resulted negligible compared to the effect of aver-
cess operating conditions seem to be more relevant in determining ages. Monte Carlo analysis was applied as a stochastic model to
dioxin formation (Buekens and Cen, 2011; Font et al., 2010). simulate the effect of random changes in lifespan distribution aver-
PVC waste input to incineration is distinguished between waste- ages on waste generation and annual net-additions to in-use stock.
to-energy plants and incineration plants for disposal only. In 2012, Uncertainty range was set at 15% for each end-use sector and the
around 35% PVC waste was treated by incineration, of which more model was run 10,000 times. Compared to other methods (e.g., the
than 85% entered waste-to-energy plants for energy recovery. use of minimum and maximum scenarios) Monte Carlo approach
Despite an increase in end-of-life collection and recycling rates gives the advantage of extracting the probability density of possi-
show economic interest and technical progress in PVC recycling, the ble results from data simulation, reducing the likelihood of using
largest fraction of PVC waste has been landlled. This aspect reects too low or too high values (Glser et al., 2013; Laner et al., 2014).
the evolution of MSW management and end-of-life treatments for The sensitivity analysis individuates as a reasonable range of PVC
waste, determining about half of PVC is disposed of. Environmental in-use stock between 130 and 145 Mt.
behavior of PVC in landll is widely discussed in literature. Major On a per-capita basis (Fig. 5), the size of current PVC in-use
concerns are related to heavy metal stabilizers, which may leach stock (270 kg/capita) has an order of magnitude comparable with
out to the environment, and to the migration of plasticizers. In gen- that of most common metals as aluminum (200 kg/capita) (Liu
eral, no severe risk has to be expected from PVC in landll. The and Mller, 2013) and copper (160 kg/capita) (Ruhrberg, 2006),
contribution of metals released from PVC is marginal compared to attesting a signicant relevance of PVC in the European society.
other waste sources, however it should not be neglected. Losses of The largest fraction of PVC stock is embedded in building and con-
phthalates from PVC occurs under aerobic conditions at rather low struction (126 Tg) consequently to demand-supply dynamics and
114 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116
Fig. 5. Per-capita in-use stock of European PVC disaggregated by major application
sector.
relative long lifespan distribution, which give this ow the great-
est impact under sensitivity analysis. Civil engineering appears
hence a major driver for PVC demand and accumulation as much
as for several materials in use including construction minerals and
metals (Hashimoto et al., 2007; Krausmann et al., 2009). Minor
but respectable PVC reservoirs are embedded in home and leisure
(5 Tg), transportation (3 Tg), and electrical and electronic goods
(2 Tg).
Comparing the results of this study with previous in-use stock
estimates for various plastics it emerges good consistency and
reliability of the model created. Based on estimates in (Tukker
et al., 1996), per-capita stock of PVC in Sweden in 1995 amounted
at about 230 kg/capita. Previous projections for stocks of plastic
in the German economy were between 100 and 150 Tg for 2012
(Patel et al., 1998), which is more than 1500 kg plastic/capita.
Germany demands alone about one fourth of EU demand of plastics
(PlasticsEurope, 2015): assuming that 1.5 t plastic/capita is repre-
sentative for Europe, and comparing it to per-capita PVC in-use
stock for 2012, it results that PVC constitutes roughly 17% of the
total anthropogenic reservoirs of plastics in the region. Bogucka
et al. (2008) estimated around 12 Mt of plastic accumulated in in-
use stock in Austria to 2004, which is about 1460 kg plastic/capita.
Kuczenski and Geyer (2010) applied standard MFA to PET in the US,
however, as that material is mostly used in disposable applications,
the authors evaluated only marginal addition to anthropogenic
reservoirs.
With respect to many materials that are used by human society
since ages, PVC and other plastics are relatively young; however,
the material intensity that characterizes modern society has taken
PVC in-use stock to increase remarkably. In the last ve years or
so, accumulation rate of PVC in stock, either in absolute terms and
per-capita values, has slowed down and inection appears to occur.
However, the intensity of PVC stock per economic activity (Fig. 6),
similarly to other materials pattern (Ciacci et al., 2014; Liu and
Mller, 2013; Mller et al., 2010), shows correlation with the level
of development and industrialization of European countries, and
saturation of per-capita PVC in-use stock, if any, appears still far to
come.
Fig. 6. Intensity of PVC stock per economic activity (Gross Domestic Product based
on Purchasing Power Parity, GDP-PPP) for Europe, 19602012.
To put the results of this analysis in perspective, the size of
PVC in-use stock is discussed in light of the current European pro-
duction of the main building blocks for PVC. In 2012, ethylene
production was around 19 Mt/year in Europe, of which about 14%
was demanded for ethylene dichloride that is the starting mate-
rial for VCM production (Petrochemicals Europe, 2015). In the
same year, the European chlorine production was 12.4 Mt/year,
mainly obtained through the membrane process (Eurochlor, 2015).
The model estimates about 140 Mt PVC accumulated in anthro-
pogenic reservoirs, which is more than 20 years of domestic
ethylene dichloride production and about 6 times the European
chlorine production at current levels. This theoretical projection
gives the measure of the potential amount of PVC available for recy-
cling. However, as ow analysis has shown, signicant margins for
improving material and energy recovery at end-of-life do exist for
that resin. Thus, the challenge for the future is how to turn that
potential into effective recovery and recycling.
Collection and separation is a prerequisite for enabling recovery
and recycling. Contamination is a great barrier for plastic recy-
cling and the presence of different polymers in the ow to be
recycled may limit recovery process efciency. The development
of sorting techniques for separating mixed plastic to single poly-
mer streams is attracting growing interest. Among most suited
separation methods are froth otation, near-infrared spectroscopy,
magnetic density separation, optical separation techniques, and X-
ray detection (Hopewell et al., 2009; Luciani et al., 2015; Wang et al.,
2015).
Prevention and minimization of waste are priorities for the EU
(Directive 2008/98/EC). Polymer labeling can play an important
role in public engagement and information, helping consumers to
individuate PVC components and discard them through proper col-
lection schemes. However, similar initiatives cannot solve alone
barriers that limit PVC recycling.
With this regard, a combination of different responsibilities can
be summed up. Beside consumer responsibility and education, a
strong momentum to recycling may derive from industry through a
systematic adoption of Industrial Ecology practices such as Ecode-
sign, Design for Recycling, and life cycle assessment procedures
 L. Ciacci et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 108116
to reduce (primary) material requirements and waste generation
(Navajas et al., 2013). Particularly, end-of-life recycling of plas-
tics can be enhanced if design criteria are fundamental part of
new monomers manufacturing (Anastas and Beach, 2007; Tabone
et al., 2010). Then, constructive actions by governments and policy
measures can address the PVC recycling challenge by banning plas-
tic landlling across Europe, setting appropriate recycling targets,
and supporting proper initiatives to drive technological progress
(Thompson et al., 2009; Stichnothe and Azapagic, 2013). In par-
ticular, notwithstanding the EU has set recovery targets for waste
material including plastic (Directive 2008/98/EC), such targets do
not focus on the effective recycling at end-of-life but rather claim
for preparing for reuse, recycling, and other material recovery.
According to plastic recyclers perspective, more emphasis should
be, instead, shifted from collection rates to recycling rates and, at
the end, to recycled content targets for new products manufactur-
ing (Plastics Recyclers Europe, 2012). These actions would have the
results of extending attention to the entire life cycle of PVC and of
stimulating the creation of the required recycling infrastructure in
Europe.
4. Conclusions
The work provided a rst quantication of in-use stock and
ows of PVC in Europe. Overall, the PVC cycle has wide margins
for improvements on the route towards a sustainable closure of
material ows. In this perspective, the results support the discus-
sion about what actions should be undertaken to increase recycling
at end-of-life. The ow analysis quantied the magnitude of PVC
streams along the resins life cycle and showed where dedicated
plans may have the best effect in pursuing new recovery opportuni-
ties. Building and construction is the largest driver for PVC demand
and supply but collection and separation inefciencies in packag-
ing waste, WEEE, and other major application sectors reduce the
amount available to recycling.
Lastly, as additives commonly supplemented to PVC were not
included in this work, further studies should focus particularly on
stabilizers and plasticizers in light of the related environmental
implications. With this regard, the analysis performed may con-
stitute a fundamental basis for future characterization and risk
evaluation related with anthropogenic PVC stock and ows in
Europe.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Dr. Arjen Sevenster from PlasticsEurope for
his courtesy and availability to provide historical European PVC
statistics.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found,
in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.
08.008.
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