UNIT VIII

STRESS AND STRAINS

Introduction, Concept and types of stresses and strains,

Poisons ratio, stresses and strains in simple and compound
bars under axial, flexure and torsional loading, Stress and
strain diagrams, Hooks law, Elastic constants and their
relationship

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8.1 Introduction
Whenever a load is attached to a thin hanging wire, it elongates and the load moves
downwards. Increase in length of wire depends upon the magnitude of the load and the
nature of wire material. It has been experimentally found that the cohesive force between
the molecules of hanging wire offers resistance against the deformation. It has been
observed that the process of deformation stops when force of resistance is equal to the
external force. Sometimes, force of resistance is less than the external force, in such case,
the deformation continues until failure takes place. However, as the load is removed, the
wire regains the original position. The behaviour of material when subjected to external
forces is expressed in terms of stress and strains.

8.2 Concept and Types of Stress and Strains

1. Stress
Consider a straight metallic bar acted upon by a pair of oppositely directed forces as
shown in the figure. The bar deforms and its length increases. The cohesive forces
between the molecules of the bar offers resistance to this change. The resistance is called

the strength of the material.

When a body is subjected to an external force, the force of resistance offered by
the body per unit cross-sectional area against the deformation is called the stress.
F dF
Lt A0
A d A

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2. Types of Stresses
(i) Simple or Direct Stresses
The two important direct stresses are the tensile stress and compressive stress.
(a) Tensile Stress

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls in the direction of the axis of
the body, the stress is called the tensile stress.

(b) Compressive Stress

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes in the direction of the body,
the stress is called the compressive stress.

(c) Shear Stresses

When two equal and opposite forces act tangentially on any cross-section of a body and
one part of body tends to slide over another part, the body is said to be subjected to shear
force. Shear stress is the ratio of shear force to area parallel to the direction of force. So
F

A
The diagram shows the shear stress.

(ii) Indirect Stresses

Bending and torsional stresses not caused by direct loading are called indirect stresses.

(iii) Compound Stress

Any possible combination of direct and indirect stresses is called the compound stress.

3. Strain and Types of strains

(i) Strain
When a body is subjected to a stress, the deformation produced is called strain. The
various types of strains are:

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(ii) Tensile Strain

When a body is subjected to a axial tensile stress as shown in the figure, its length
increases from l to l+l. Tensile strain, t is defined as the ratio of increase in length to
original length.
l
t
l
(iii) Compressive Strain

Under the compressive forces, the length of the body will be reduced from l to l -l. So
compressive stress is defined as the ratio of decrease in length to original length.
l
c
l
(iv) Shear Strain

In the diagram, the block ABCD is fixed at the lower face AB and subjected to a shear
force F at the upper surface CD. After the application of force F at the upper face, it
distorts through an angle and the new position of the block is ABCD.

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 So shear strain is produced under the action of shear stress. It is measured by the
change in the angle. If dl is the change in length of face CD under the action of shear
force F
C C dl
s tan as is small.
l l
(v) Volumetric Strain, v
It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to original volume of the body.

7.3 Poisions Ratio,

If a body is subjected to a tensile load, F, as shown in the diagram, there will be increase
in length and corresponding decrease in cross-sectional area of the body. In present case
primary strain will be tensile and the secondary or lateral strain will be compressive.
The ratio of lateral or transverse strain to linear strain is known as Poissions
ratio, so
Lateral strain
Poission ' s ratio ,
Linear or longitudinal strain
1
where m is a constant and lies between 3 to 4
m

7.4 Stresses and Strains in Simple And Compound Bars Under Axial
Loading
Consider a bar made of different lengths and having different cross-sections as shown in
the figure.

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Total change in length is equal to the sum of changes of three lengths.
dl 1 l1
l l1 l 2 l3 , As 1 E1 1 or l1 ,
l E1
l l l
l 1 1 2 2 3 3
E1 E2 E3
F l F l F l
1 1 2 2 3 3
A1 E1 A2 E 2 A3 E 3
If bar is made of same material
i.e. E1 = E2 = E3 = E From free body diagram, F1 = F2 = F3 = F
F l1 l l
l 2 3
E A1 A2 A3
2. Strain in Varying Cross- Section Rod

A rod of length l tapers uniformly from

diameter d at one end to D at the other end.
At a distance x
x
dx d ( D d )
l
Extension in dx,
F dx
l 2
x
d ( D d ) E
4 l

x dx d

l Dd

l

l 4F 1

=
Dd E x

d (D d )

l
0

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 4F l
Extension = d DE
3. Stresses and Strains in Composite Bar

Any tensile or compressive member which consists of two or more bars in series, made of
different materials, is called composite bar. In this case load subjected on both rods will
be same but strain produced will be different.
So F A1 E1 1 A2 E 2 2
F F
Total strain 1 2
A1 E1 A2 E 2

4. Stresses and Strains in Compound Bar

A member consisting of more than one bar or tube of the same or different materials
connected in such a way when subjected to loads, each bar undergoes same change in
length is called compound bar.

Consider a compound bar subjected to load F. Total load is shared by the bars, so
F F1 F2 1 A1 2 A2
Further elongation in two bars is the same
1
2
E1 E2

The ratio E1 / E2 is called the modular ratio.

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7.5 Hooks Law
As discussed earlier, when a body is acted by an external force, it undergoes deformation
and when load is removed, it regains its original shape. However it happens when the
external load is applied to a certain limit called elastic limit.
Hooks law states that when a body is loaded within the elastic limit, stress is
proportional to the strain or

or E
where E is constant of proportionality called Youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity. It
is a property of the material.

7.6. Stress and Strain Diagrams

1. For a ductile Material
A material is said to be ductile if it can withstand elongation or bending. If a
material is not ductile, it is called brittle. Mild steel is a ductile material. Cast iron is a
brittle material. Ductility is the ability to withstand against elongation or bending.

To draw a stress-strain diagram, a specimen as shown in the diagram, is fixed in the jaws
of a universal testing machine. By increasing tensile load gradually, extension is recorded
by an extensometer at a particular load shown by a dial. OA is the portion where stress is
proportional to strain. This relation holds up to A, the limit of proportionality. AB is the
part where the material is still elastic but does not obey Hooks law. If material is stressed
beyond this point B, plastic deformation will occur that is specimen will not recover
original shape if load is removed. CD shows drop in load but increase in strain. C is
upper and D is lower yield point. After yielding, further strain can be achieved by
increasing the load up to the point E called ultimate stress point. At E, stress is the
maximum. After E stress starts decreasing while strain goes on increasing till material
ruptures at F.

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2. Stress and Strain Diagrams For Brittle Material
For brittle materials, like cast iron, no appreciable deformation is obtained and failure
occurs without yielding.

For other ductile materials like Al, Cu etc no definite yield point is obtained.

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Elastic Constants and their Relationships
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, then bulk modulus, K,
is defined as the ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain.
Change in volume
K , v
v Original volume
Modulus of rigidity G is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain,

G

Volumetric stress
K
Volumetric strain

shear strain
G
9K G
E 2 G (1 ) 3 K (1 )
G 3 K

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