Graph Theory QB

CS6702 Graph Theory and Applications Department of CSE 2016-2017
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION Graphs Introduction Isomorphism Sub graphs Walks, Paths, Circuits
Connectedness Components Euler graphs Hamiltonian paths and circuits Trees Properties of trees
Distance and centers in tree Rooted and binary trees.
UNIT-I / PART-A
1 Define a Graph.
A graph is a ordered pair G=(V,E) where, V={v1,v2,v3...vn} is the vertex set whose elements are the vertices
or nodes of the graph, denoted by V(G) or just V. E= ={e 1,e2,e3...en} is the edge set whose elements are the
edges or connections between vertices of the graph, denoted by E(G) or E.
2 List three situations where a graph could prove useful.

a) to represent air routes travelled among a certain set of cities by a particular airline.
b) to represent an electrical network
c) to represent a set of job applicants and a set of open positions in a corporation.
3 Define Walk, Path and Trail.
Let x, y be the vertices in an undirected graph G=(V,E).
Walk : An x-y walk is a alternating sequence x=x0,e1,x1,e2.......................en-1,xn-1,en,xn=y of vertices
and edges from G, starting at vertex x and ending at vertex y and involving n edges ei={xi-1,xi}, 1 i
n. The length of a walk is its number of edges.
Path : If no vertex of the x-y walk occurs more than once, then the walk is called a x-y path.
Trail : If no edge in the x-y walk is repeated, then the walk is called a x-y trail.
Circuit : A closed x-x trail is called a circuit.
4 Define degree(valency) of a vertex. When two edges and two vertices are said to be adjacent?
The number of edges incident on a vertex vi, with self loops counted twice is called the degree, deg(v i),of
vertex vi.
Two edges are said to be adjacent if they are incident on a common vertex. Two vertices are said to be
adjacent if they are the end vertices of the same edge.
5 Define isolated vertex, pendant vertex and a null graph.
Isolated Vertex-a vertex having no incident vertex is called as isolated vertex ,i.e vertices with
degree zero.
Pendant Vertex-a vertex of degree one is called as pendant vertex.
Null graph-a graph with no edges is called as null graph.
6 When do we say that two graphs are isomorphic? Give an example.
Two graphs G and G' are said to be isomorphic (to each other) if there is one-to-one correspondence
between their vertices and between their edges such that the incidence relationship is preserved. Figure
shows an example
7 What is a subgraph?
If G=(V,E) is a graph(directed or undirected), then G`1=(V1,E1) is called a subgraph of G if V1 and E1
, where each edge in E1 is incident with vertices in V1.
8. State the necessary conditions to show that two graphs are isomorphic.
The two graphs must have-
same number of vertices
a) same number of edges
b) an equal number of vertices with a given degree
9 Is it possible to have a 4-regular graph with 10 edges?
PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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We have
4|V| = 20
v=5
Thus, we have five vertices of degree 4
10 What is Konigsberg bridge problem?
The city of Knigsberg in Prussia was set on both sides of the Pregel River, and included two large islands
which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem was to devise a walk
through the city that would cross each bridge once and only once.
11 What are Euler trail and Euler circuit?

Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph or multigraph with no isolated vertices. Then G is said to have an
Euler circuit if there is a circuit in G that traverses every edge of the graph exactly once. If there is an open
trail from a to b in G and this trail traverses each edge in G exactly once, the trail is called as Euler trail.
12 What are the necessary and sufficient conditions to determine whether a given graph has an Euler
circuit and Euler trail?
a) a given graph G will contain an Euler circuit if and only if all the vertices of G are of even
degree.
b) a given graph G will contain an Euler trail if and only if it contains atmost two vertices of
odd degree.
13 What is an Hamilton circuit?

If G=(V,E) is a graph or multigraph with |V|3,we say that G has a Hamiltonian circuit if there is a circuit
in G that contains every vertex in V i.e a closed walk that traverses every vertex of G exactly once, except
the starting vertex, at which the walk terminates. The figure shows an example. A given graph may have
more than one Hamiltonian circuit.

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14 What is a clique? State the properties of its vertices and edges.

A simple graph in which there exists an edge between every pair of vertices is called as clique. It is also
referred as Complete graph or Universal graph. The degree of every vertex in a complete graph G of n
vertices is (n-1). The total number of edges in G is n(n-1)/2.
15 Does a Hamilton circuit exist on the graph below?
Looking at the graph, if we start at vertex V, there is no way to visit each vertex exactly once and return
back to V because there is only a single edge to V.
16 Prove that the sum of the degrees of the vertices of any nite graph is even.
Each edge ends at two vertices. If we begin with just the vertices and no edges, every vertex has degree
zero, so the sum of those degrees is zero, an even number. Now add edges one at a time, each of which
connects one vertex to another, or connects a vertex to itself. Either the degree of two vertices is increased
by one (for a total of two) or one vertexs degree is increased by two. In either case, the sum of the degrees
is increased by two, so the sum remains even.
17 Prove that a complete graph with n vertices contains n(n1)/2 edges.
This is easy to prove by induction. If n = 1, zero edges are required, and 1(1 0)/2 = 0. Assume that a
complete graph with k vertices has k(k 1)/2. When we add the (k + 1)st vertex, we need to connect it to
the k original vertices, requiring k additional edges. We will then have -
k(k1)/2 + k = (k + 1)((k + 1)1)/2 vertices. Hence the proof.
18 Find the eccentricity of all the vertices in the given graph.

a b
c
e
d
E(a)=E(e)=3; E(b)=E(c)=E(d)=2
19 What is path length of a tree? Calculate the path length for the given tree.

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The path length of a tree is the sum of the path lengths from the root to all the pendant vertices. The path
length of the given tree is 2+2+2+3+3=1.
20 Define Binary tree. State its properties.

A binary tree is defined as a tree in which there is exactly one vertex of degree two, and each of the
remaining vertices is of degree one or three. The two properties of the binary tree are-
a) The number of vertices n in a binary tree is always odd. This is because there is exactly
one vertex of even degree, and the remaining n-1 vertices are of odd degrees.
b) Let p be the number of pendant vertices in a binary tree T. Then n-p-1 is the number of
vertices of degree three. Therefore, the number of edges in T equals n-1 and hence
p=(n+1)/2.
UNIT-I / PART-B
1 Define a tree. Illustrate with example. State and prove any two properties of trees.
SOME PROPERTIES OF TREES
THEOREM 1 :
There is one and only one path between every pair of vertices in a tree, T.
Proof: Since T is a connected graph, there must exist at least one path between every pair of vertices in T.
Now suppose that between two vertices a and b of T there may have two distinct paths. The union of these
two paths will contain a circuit and T cannot be a tree.
THEOREM 2: If in a graph G there is one and only one path between every pair of vertices, G is a tree.
Proof: Existence of a path between every pair of vertices assures that G is connected.
A circuit in a graph (with two or more vertices) implies that there is at least one pair of vertices a, b such
that there are two distinct paths between a and b.
Since G has one and only one path between every pair of vertices, G can have no circuit. Therefore, G is a
tree.
1.8.2 Distance and centers in tree
The below mentioned tree has four vertices.
Intuitively, it seems that vertex b is located more "centrally" than any of the other three vertices.

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Tree
Lets see if in a tree there exists a "center" (or centers). Inherent in the concept of a center is the idea of
"distance," so we must define distance before we can talk of a center.
In a connected graph G, the distance d(v i vj) between two of its vertices v iand vj is the length of the shortest
path (i.e., the number of edges in the shortest path) between them.
The definition of distance between any two vertices is valid for any connected graph (not necessarily a
tree).
In a graph that is not a tree, there are generally several paths between a pair of vertices.
We have to enumerate all these paths and find the length of the shortest one. (There may be several shortest
paths.)
For instance, some of the paths between vertices v, and v 2 in Fig. are (a, e), (a, c, f), (b, c, e), (b, f), (b, g,
1), and (b, g, I, k).
There are two shortest paths, (a, e) and (b, f), each of length two. Hence d(v 1, v2) = 2.
In a tree, since there is exactly one path between any two vertices, the determination of distance is much
easier.
For instance, in the tree of Fig., d(a, b) = 1, d(a, c) = 2, d(c, b) = 1, and so on.
A Metric: Before we can legitimately call a function f(x, y) of two variables a "distance" between them,
this function must satisfy certain requirements.
Distance between v1 and v2 in 2
These are

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Theorem:
The distance between vertices of a connected graph is a metric.
Let us define another term called eccentricity (also referred to as associated number or separation) of a
vertex in a graph.
The eccentricity E(v) of a vertex v in a graph G is the distance from v to the vertex farthest from v in G;
that is,
A vertex with minimum eccentricity in graph G is called a center of G. The eccentricities of the four
vertices in Fig.are E(a) = 2, E(b) = 1, E(c) = 2, and E(d) 2. Hence vertex b is the center of that tree.
On the other hand, consider the tree in Fig. The eccentricity of each of its six vertices is shown next to the
vertex.
This tree has two vertices having the same minimum eccentricity. Hence this tree has two centers.
Some refer to such centers as bicenters; we shall call them just centers,We easily verify that a graph, in
general, has many centers.
For example, in a graph that consists of just a circuit (a polygon), every vertex is a center.
2 Verify Eulers theorem with an example.
3 Solve Instant Insanity.
Figure 1: Instant Insanity Block

Figure 1showsfourunwrappedcubesthatformtheinstantinsanitypuzzle. The letters R, W, B
and G stand for the colors red, white, blue and green. The object of the puzzle is to
stack the blocks in a pile of 4 in such a way that each of the colors appears exactly once on each of
the four sides of the stack.
4 Seven towns a, b, c, d, e, f and g are connected by a system of highways as follows:
(1) I-22 goes from a to c , passing through b; (2)I-33 goes from c to d and then passes through b as it
continues to f; (3) I-44 goes from d through e to a; (4) I-55 goes from f to b, passing through g; and
(5)I-66 goes from g to d.
a) Using vertices for towns and directed edges for segments of highways between towns,
draw a directed graph that models this situation.

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b) List the paths from g to a.
c) What is the smallest number of highway segments that would have to be closed down
in order for travel from b to d to be disrupted?
d) Is it possible to leave town c and return there, visiting each of the other towns only
once?
e) What is the answer to part (d) if we are not required to return to c?
f) Is it possible to start at some town and drive over each of these highways exactly
once?( You are allowed to visit a town more than once , and you need not return to
the town from which you started.)
5 a) Find a graph G where both G and G are connected.

b) Determine the number of edges in a graph having 6 vertices, 2 having a degree of 4, and 4 having
a degree of 2.
6 a) i)Find an Euler Circuit for the graph in the figure.

ii)If the edge {d,e} is removed from this graph.
b C
a
e
d f g
e k
h i j e e
f
b)Let G=(V,E) be the undirected graph as shown in the figure. How many paths are there in
G from a to h? How many of these have length 5?
7 e an Euler circuit nor a Hamilton cycle.
a) Give an examplee of a connected graph that has (i) Neither
(ii) An Euler circuit but an Hamilton cycle.e(iii) A Hamilton cycle but no Euler circuit. (iv) Both a
e
Hamilton cycle and an Euler circuit.
b) (i)Determine all non isomorphic tournaments with three vertices.
(ii) Find all of the non isomorphic tournaments with four vertices. List the in degree and the out
degree for each vertex, in each of these tournaments.
8 Define the following with one example each :
a) Infinite graph.
b) Component of a graph.
c) Euler graph.
d) Spanning subgraph.
9 Explain Hamiltonian path with theorem proof.
DEFINITION. A path P of a graph G is a Hamilton path, if P visits every vertex of G once. Similarly, a
cycle C is a Hamilton cycle, if it visits each vertex once.
A graph is hamiltonian, if it has a Hamilton cycle.
Note that if C : u1 u2 un is a Hamilton cycle, so is ui . . . unu1 . . . ui1 for each i [1,

n], and thus we can choose where to start the cycle.

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If G is hamiltonian, then for every nonempty subset S VG,
c(GS) |S| .
Proof. Let S VG, u S, and let C : u u be a Hamilton cycle of G.
Assume GS has k connected components, Gi, i [1, k].
The case k = 1 is trivial, and hence suppose that k > 1.
Let ui be the last vertex of C that belongs to Gi, and let vi be the vertex that follows ui in C.
Now vi S for each i by the choice of ui, and vj vt for all j t, because C is a cycle and uivi G for all
i. Thus |S| k as required.
10 Prove the theorem

a)if graph has exactly two vertices of odd degree, there must be a path joining these two vertices.
b) A simple graph with n vertices and k components can have at most (n-k ) (n-k+1)/2 edges.
c) There is one and only one path between every pair of vertices in a tree T.
d) A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges.
UNIT II
TREES, CONNECTIVITY & PLANARITY Spanning trees Fundamental circuits Spanning trees in a
weighted graph cut sets Properties of cut set All cut sets Fundamental circuits and cut sets Connectivity
and separability Network flows 1-Isomorphism 2-Isomorphism Combinational and geometric graphs
Planer graphs Different representation of a planer graph.
UNIT-II / PART-A
1 Define Minimum Spanning Tree:
In a weighted graph, a minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree that has minimum weight that all other
spanning trees of the same graph. In real world situations, this weight can be measured as distance,
congestion, traffic load or any arbitrary value denoted to the edges.

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2 Define Spanning Tree:
A spanning tree is a subset of Graph G, which has all the vertices covered with minimum possible number
of edges. Hence, a spanning tree does not have cycles and it can not be disconnected.
3 Define the Terms: Rank and Nullity

Rank refers to the number of branches in any spanning tree G.r=n-k
Nullity regers to the number of Chords in G.
4 What is a fundamental circuit?
A circuit formed by adding a chord to a spanning tree T, is called a fundamental circuit.
5 Define a cutset.
A cut set of a connected graph G is a set S of edges with the following properties:
* The removal of all edges in S disconnects G.
* The removal of some (but not all) of edges in S does not disconnects G.
6 For the following graph given below draw the adjacency matrix

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7 When a graph is said to be bipartile graph?
if there exists a way to partition the set of vertices V, in the graph into two sets V1 and V2.
where V1 V2 = V and V1 V2 = , such that each edge in E contains one vertex from
V1 and the other vertex from V2.
8 What is a Vertex connectivity?

The connectivity (or vertex connectivity) K(G) of a connected graph G (other than a complete graph) is the
minimum number of vertices whose removal disconnects G. When K(G) k, the graph is said to be k-
connected (or k-vertex connected). When a vertex is removed, all the edges incident to it are also
removed.
The above graph G can be disconnected by removal of single vertex (either b or c).
The G has connectivity 1.
9 Define a bridge.
A bridge is a single edge whose removal disconnects a graph.
The above graph G1 can be split up into two components by removing one of the edges bc or bd.
Therefore, edge bc or bd is a bridge.
10 Define articulation point
A vertex in an undirected connected graph is an articulation point (or cut vertex) iff removing it (and edges
through it) disconnects the graph. Articulation points represent vulnerabilities in a connected network
single points whose failure would split the network into 2 or more disconnected components. They are
useful for designing reliable networks.
11 What is a block and explain with a diagram?

A separable graph consists of two or more non separable sub graphs. Each of the largest non-separable sub
graphs is called a block.

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12 Define radius and diameter.

The eccentricity of a centre in a tree is defined as the radius of the tree.
The diameter of the tree T, on the other hand is defined as the length of the longest path T.
13 Define Binary tree.

A binary tree is defined as the tree in which there is exactly one vertex of degree two, and each of the
remaining vertices is of degree one or three.
14 Define Pendant Vertex.

A leaf vertex (also pendant vertex) is a vertex with degree one.
15 Define Kruskals algorithm:

Start with no nodes or edges in the spanning tree, and repeatedly add the cheapest edge that does not create
a cycle.
16 Define Prims algorithm:
Start with any one node in the spanning tree, and repeatedly add the cheapest edge, and the node it leads to,
for which the node is not already in the spanning tree.
17 Define weighted graph.
A weighted graph is a graph for which each edge has an associated real number, called the weight of the
edge. The sum of the weights of all of the edges is the total weight of the graph.
18 Define network flow.

A network flow graph G=(V,E) is a directed graph with two special vertices: the source vertex s, and the
sink (destination) vertex t.
19 What is Branch and Chord?

An edge in a spanning tree T is called a Branch of T.
An edge of G that is not in a given spanning tree T is called a Chord.
20 What is elementary tree transformation?
The generation of one spanning tree to another through addition of a chord and deletion of an appropriate
branch is called a cyclic interchange or element tree transformation.
UNIT-II / PART-B
1 Write about Spanning trees with relevant theorms?
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If G(V,E) is a graph and T(V,F) is a subgraph of G and is a tree, then T is a spanning tree of G. That is, T is
a tree that includes every vertex of G and has only edges to be found in G. Using the procedure in the
previous paragraph (+move edges from cycles until only a tree remains), we can easily prove that every
connected graph has a spanning tree.
Spanning Tree
Every connected graph has a spanning tree which can be obtained by removing edges until the resulting
graph becomes acyclic. In practice, however, removing edges is not efficient because finding cycles is time
consuming.
Next, we give two algorithms to find the spanning tree T of a loop-free connected undirected graph G
(V, E). We assume that the vertices of G are given in a certain order v 1 , v2, .vm. The resulting spanning tree
will be T (Vi,Ei).
2 Explain Spanning trees in a Weighted Graph.

3 Explain All Cut Sets in a Graph and give Theorem proof with an example.
Theorem: We call this circuit a fundamental circuit. Every spanning tree defines m n + 1 fundamental
circuits C1, . . . , Cmn+1, which together form a fundamental set of circuits. Every fundamental circuit has
exactly one link which is not in any other fundamental circuit in the fundamental set of circuits.
Therefore, we can not write any fundamental circuit as a ring sum of other fundamental circuits in the
same set. In other words, the fundamental set of circuits is linearly independent under the ring sum
operation.
Example:

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The graph T bi has two components T1 and T2. The corresponding vertex sets are V1 and V2. Then, (v1,v2)
is a cut of G. It is also a cut set of G if we treat it as an edge set because G hV1, V2i has two components
. Thus, every branch bi of T has a corresponding cut set I i .
The cut sets I1, . . . , In1 are also known as fundamental cut sets and they form a fundamental set of cut sets.
Every fundamental cut set includes exactly one branch of T and every branch of T belongs to exactly one
fundamental cut set. Therefore, every spanning tree defines a unique fundamental set of cut sets for G.
4 Write about Fundamental circuits and cut sets with theorem proof?
5 Explain Connectivity and Separability?
6 Explain 1-Isomorphism with theorem proof?
7 Explain 2-Isomorphism with examples?
8 a. Write Short notes on Network flows?
b. Write about combinational and geometric Graphs?
9 Write in detail about different representation of a Planar graph?
10 Evaluate using using prims algorithm

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UNIT III
MATRICES, COLOURING AND DIRECTED GRAPH Chromatic number Chromatic partitioning
Chromatic polynomial Matching Covering Four color problem Directed graphs Types of directed
graphs Digraphs and binary relations Directed paths and connectedness Euler graphs
UNIT-III/ PART-A
1 Define Chromatic Number.
The chromatic number of a graph G is the smallest number of colors needed to color the vertices
of so that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.
2 What is proper colouring?

Painting all the vertices of a graph with colours such that no two adjacent vertices have the same colour is
called proper colouring.
3 What is colouring problem?
Proper colouring of a graph with minimal number of colour is called colouring problem.
4 What is chromatic polynomial?
A properly coloured graph G with n-vertices (many ways) and using large number of colours expressed by
means of a polynomial, such a polynomial is called chromatic polynomial.
5 Write about finding all maximal independent sets?
A maximal independent set is an set to which no other vertex can be added with out destroying its
independence property.
6 Define chromatic partioning.
A proper coloring of a graph naturally induces a partitioning of the vertices into different subsets.
7 What is four colour conjecture?
Any map(planar graph) can be properly coloured with four colours.
8 What is dominating sets?
A dominating set (or externally stable set) in a graph G is a set of vertices that dominates every vertex v in
G in the following sense. Either v is included in the dominating set or is adjacent to one or more vertices
included in the dominating set.
9 Write about minimal dominating sets?
A minimal dominating set is a dominating set from which no vertex can be removed without destroying its
dominance property.
10 Define Isomorphic digraphs:
Two digraphs are said to be isomorphic if their underlying graphs are isomorphic and the direction of the
corresponding arcs are same.

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11 What is a maximal matching?

A maximal matching is a matching to which no edge in the graph can be added.
Example: in a complete graph of three vertices (triangle) any single edge is a maximal matching.
12 What is an edge covering?
A set of edges that covers a graph G is said to be an edge covering, a covering sub graph or simply a
covering of G.
13 What is Equivalence Relation.
A binary relation is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive symmetric and transitive.
Examples : is parallel to, is equal to , is isomorphic to.
14 Define digraph
A directed graph (or digraph) is a pair (V,E), where V is a non empty set and E is a set of ordered
pairs of elements taken from the set V.
15 Name the types of Simple Digraphs:

A digraph that has no self-loop or parallel edges is called a simple digraph.
Asymmetric Digraphs:
Digraphs that have at most one directed edge between a pair of vertices, but are allowed to have
self-loops, are called asymmetric or antisymmetric.
Symmetric Digraphs:
Digraphs in which for every edge (a, b) (i.e., from vertex a to b) there is also an edge (b, a).
16 Write notes on complete digraphs.
A complete undirected graph was defined as a simple graph in which every vertex is joined to
every other vertex exactly by one edge.
For digraphs we have two types of complete graphs.
A complete symmetric digraph is a simple digraph in which there is exactly one edge directed
from every vertex to every other vertex, and a complete asymmetric digraph is an asymmetric
digraph in which there is exactly one edge between every pair of vertices.
A complete asymmetric digraph of n vertices contains n(n - 1)/2 edges, but a complete
symmetric digraph of n vertices contains n(n - 1) edges. A complete asymmetric digraph is also
called a tournament or a complete tournament.
17 Define a Euler Graph.
A closed walk in a graph G containing all the edges of G is called an Euler line in G. A graph
containing an Euler line is called an Euler graph.

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18 A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G are of even degree.
Proof : Necessity Let G(V, E) be an Euler graph.
Thus G contains an Euler line Z, which is a closed walk. Let this walk start and end at the vertex u V.
Since each visit of Z to an intermediate vertex v of Z contributes two to the degree of v and since Z
traverses each edge exactly once, d(v) is even for every such vertex.
Each intermediate visit to u contributes two to the degree of u, and also the initial and final edges of Z
contribute one each to the degree of u. So the degree d(u) of u is also even.
19 Define Arborescence
A digraph G is said to be an arborescence if,
i) G contains no circuit neither directed nor semi circuit.
ii) In G there is precisely one vertex v of zero in degree.
20 Write notes on strongly connected and weakly connected digraphs.
A digraph G is said to be strongly connected if there is at least one directed path from every vertex to every
other vertex.
A digraph G is said to be weakly connected if its corresponding undirected graph is connected but G is not
strongly connected.
UNIT-III / PART-B
1 Explain Chromatic number with necessary proof.
A graph G is said to be Kcolorable if we will properly color it with K (number of) colors. A graph G
which is Kcolorable but not (K-1) colorable is called a K Chromatic graph.
In otherwords, a KChromatic graph is a graph that can be properly colored with K colors but not with less
than K colors.If a graph G is KChromatic, then K is called the chromatic number of G.
Thus,the chromatic number of a graph may be the minimum number of colors with which the graph can be
properly colored. The chromatic number of a graph G is usually denoted by (G).
SOME RESULTS:
i) A graph consisting of only isolated vertices (ie., Null graph) is 1Chromatic (Because no two vertices of
such a graph are adjacent and therefore we can assign the same color to all vertices).
ii) A graph with one or more edges is at least 2 -chromatic (Because such a graph has at least one pair of
adjacent vertices which should have different colors).
iii) If a graph G contains a graph G1 as a subgraph, then

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iv. If G is a graph of n vertices, then
v. (Kn) = n, for all n 1. (Because, in Kn, every two vertices are adjacent and as such all the n vertices
should have different colors)
vi. If a graph G contains Kn as a subgraph, then
2 Explain Chromatic Partitioning in detail.

3 Explain Chromatic Polynomial with Theorem proof.
4 Write in detail about Matching in a graph?
5 Explain in detail about Coverings?
6 Explain Four color problem with theorem proof.
7 Explain directed graphs and its types?
8 Explain in detail about digraphs and binary relations.
9 Explain directed paths and Connectedness.
10 Explain Euler digraphs with theorem proof.
UNIT IV
PERMUTATIONS & COMBINATIONS : Fundamental principles of counting - Permutations and
combinations - Binomial theorem - combinations with repetition - Combinatorial numbers - Principle of
inclusion and exclusion - Derangements - Arrangements with forbidden Positions.
UNIT-IV / PART-A
1 Define Fundamental Counting Principle:
The principle for determining the number of ways two or more operations can be performed together.
Example:How many ways can six different books be positioned on a book shelf?
6! = 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 720
Six different books can be positioned 720 ways on a book shelf.
2 Explain Addition rule or Sum rule.
If one task or operation can be performed in m ways, while a second ask can be performed in n ways
and the two tasks cannot be done simultaneously, then either of the tasks can be done in m + n ways.
Example: There are 3 lists of computer projects consisting of 23, 15 and 19 possible projects
respectively. No project is found in more than one list. How many possible projects can a student choose?
Solution: Total number of projects is 23+15+19 = 57. Since no project is found in more than one list,
the number of ways a project can be chosen is 57 ways.
3 Explain Multiplication rule or Product rule.

Suppose a certain task or operation can be done in m ways and another task independent of the
former can be done in n ways. Then both of them can be done in mn ways.
Example: There are two different collections of books consisting of 6 Mathematics books and 4
Computer Science books. In how many ways can a student select a Mathematics book and a Computer
Science book?
Solution: One Mathematics book can be chosen in 6 ways and one Computer Science book can be
chosen in 4 ways.
Total number of ways taking one Mathematics book and one Computer Science book = (6)(4) = 24
ways.
4 Define Permutation.
A permutation is an arrangement of a given collection of objects in a definite order taking some of the
objects or all the objects.
5 How many different bit strings of length 7 are there?

Page 17 of 24
Solution:
Each of the 7 places can be filled with 0 or 1.
the number of bit strings of length 7 is
27 =128
6 Define Combination.
A Combination is a selection of objects from a given collection of objects taken some objects or all the
objects at a time. The order of selection is immaterial.
7 Explain Inclusion Exclusion Principle.

A third basic principle of counting is the inclusion-exclusion principle.
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then
n(AB) = n(A) + n(B) or |AB| = |A| + |B|.
If A and B are any two sets, then
n(AB) = n(A) + n(B) n(AB).
If A, B, C are any three sets, then
n(AB C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(AB) n(BC) n(CA) + n(AB C).
It has applications in number theory, onto functions, derangements.
8 Explain Pigeon Hole Principle.

If m pigeons are assigned to n pigeonholes (m>n), then at least one pigeonhole has two or more pigeons.
9 A salesman at a computer store would like to display 5 models of personal computers, 4 models of
computer monitors and 3 models of keyboards. In how many ways can he arrange them in a row if
the items of the same kind are together?
Solution:
The total number of arrangements
= 3! x 5! x 4! x 3! = 103,680 .
10 From a college if we select 367 students, how many students have the same birthday?
Solution: There are 367 students and the maximum number of days in a year is 366 (leap year)
and so 366 possible birthdays are there. Treating the 367 students as pigeons and the 366 birthdays as
pigeonholes, by Pigeonhole principle atleast two students will have the same birthday.
11 How many different 7 digit phone numbers are possible if the 1st digit cannot be a 0 or 1?
8*10*10*10*10*10*10=8000000 ways
12 Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters MISSISSIPPI
11 letters with I repeated 4 times, S repeated 4 times, P repeated 2 times
11! = 39,916,800 = 34,650
4!*4!*2! 24*24*2
13 Define Rook Polynomial.

The rook polynomial RB(x) of a board B is the generating function for the numbers of arrangements of
non-attacking rooks.
RB(x) = k=0 rk (B)xk
where rk is the number of ways to place k non-attacking rooks on the board. Despite the notation, this is a
finite sum, since the board is finite so there is a maximum number of non-attacking rooks it can hold;
indeed, there cannot be more rooks than the smaller of the number of rows and columns in the board.
14 What is a Inclusion Map?
Given a subset B of a set A the injection f: B A is defined by f(b)=b for all b belongs to B is called
the inclusion map.
15 From a group of 7 men and 6 women, five persons are to be selected to form a committee so that at
least 3 men are there on the committee. In how many ways can it be done?

Page 18 of 24
We may have (3 men and 2 women) or (4 men and 1 woman) or (5 men only).
Required number of ways = (7C3 x 6C2) + (7C4 x 6C1) + (7C5)
7x6x5 6x5
= x + (7C3 x 6C1) + (7C2)
3x2x1 2x1
7x6x5 7x6
= 525 + x6 +
3x2x1 2x1
= (525 + 210 + 21)
= 756.
16 List all the derangements of the number 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 where there first three numbers are 1, 2 and
3 in some order.
When 1, 2 and 3 are in some order there are only two derangements.
23154 and 31254.
17 In how many ways can 8 papers in an examination be arranged so that the two Mathematics papers
are not consecutive?
Since the two Mathematics papers are not to be consecutive, remove them for the time being. Arrange the
remaining 6 papers. This can be done in P(6,6) = 6! ways = 720 ways.
In each of these arrangements of the 6 papers there are 7 gaps. In these gaps, the 2 Mathematics
papers can be arranged in P(7,2) = (7)(6) = 42 ways.
the total number of ways arranging all the 8 papers = 720 x 42 = 30240 ways.
18 How many different license plates are possible if each plate contains a sequence of 3 English
alphabets followed by 3 digits? (Repetition is allowed)
There ar 26 alphabets and 10 digits.
there ar 26 choices for each alphabet and 10 choices for each digit.
all 3 alphabets can be chosen in 26 x 26 x 26
= 263 ways,
and the 3 numbers can be chosen in 10 x10 x 10
= 103 ways.
total number of possible license plates
= 263 x 103 = 17,576,000
19 7 students enter a restaurant where each of them has one of the following:
a cheese burger, a chicken sandwich, a egg puff or a veg puff. How many different purchases are
possible? (from restaurant point of view)
n = 7, r = 4,
no: of purchases = (n+r-1)Cr
= (7+4-1)C4
=120.
20 Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many words of 3 consonants and 2 vowels can be formed?
Number of ways of selecting 3 consonants from 7
= 7C3
Number of ways of selecting 2 vowels from 4
= 4C2
Number of ways of selecting 3 consonants from 7 and 2 vowels from 4
= 7C3 4C2
=(765321)(4321)=210=(765321)(4321)=210
It means we can have 210 groups where each group contains total 5 letters (3 consonants and 2
vowels).
Page 19 of 24
UNIT-IV / PART-B
1 Explain the fundamental principles of counting.
2 A survey of 100 students with respect to their choice of the ice cream flavours Vanilla, Chocolate and
Strawberry shows that 50 students like Vanilla, 43 like Chocolate, 28 like Strawberry, 13 like Vanilla
and Chocolate, 11 like Chocolate and Strawberry, 12 like Strawberry and Vanilla, and 5 like all of
them. Find the number of students who like
(i)Vanilla only (ii) Chocolate only (iii) Strawberry only (iv) Chocolate but
not Strawberry (v) Chocolate and Strawberry but not Vanilla
(vi) Vanilla or Chocolate, but not Strawberry. Also find the number of students who do not
like any of these flavors.
3 In making a seating arrangement for their sons wedding reception. Grace and Nick are down to
four relatives, donated Ri for 1 i 4, who do not get along with one another. There is a single open
seat at each of the five tables Tj where 1 j 5. Because of family differences,
a) R1 will not sit at T1 or T2. c) R2 will not sit at T2.
b) R3 will not sit at T3 or T4. d) R4 will not sit at T4 or T5.
4 State and prove Binomial Theorem.

5 Determine the number of positive intergers n, 1 n 2000, that are
i) Not divisible by 2,3 or 5.
ii) Not divisible by 2,3,5 or 7.
iii) Not divisible by 2, 3 or 5 but are divisible by 7.
6 Explain the principles of Inclusion and exclusion.
7 Consider the following program segment where i, j and k are integer variables
for i : = 1 to 20 do
for j : = 1 to i do
for k : = 1 to j do
Print(i*j+k) How many times the print statement is
executed in this program segment?
8 Explain Derangements.
9 From a club consisting of 6 men 7 women, in how many ways can we select a committee of (i) 3men
and 4 women(ii)4 persons which has at least 1 women (iii) 4 persons that has at most one man? (iv) 4
persons with people of both sexes?
10 Prove That:
UNIT V
GENERATING FUNCTIONS: Generating functions - Partitions of integers - Exponential generating function
Summation operator - Recurrence relations - First order and second order Non-homogeneous recurrence
relations - Method of generating functions.
UNIT-V / PART-A
1 Define Generating Function.
A generating function is a formal power series

Page 20 of 24
whose coefficients give the sequence .
2 Define Recurrence Relation.

A mathematical relationship expressing as some combination of with . When formulated as an
equation to be solved, recurrence relations are known as recurrence equations, or sometimes difference
equations.
3 Define Recursive Sequence.
A recursive sequence , also known as a recurrence sequence, is a sequence of numbers indexed
by an integer and generated by solving a recurrence equation. The terms of a recursive sequences can
be denoted symbolically in a number of different notations, such as , , or f[ ], where is a symbol
representing the sequence.
4 If ek represents the number of ways to make change for k rupees, using Rs. 1, Rs. 2, Rs. 5, Rs. 10 and
Rs. 100 , find the generating function for ek.
f(x) = (Rs 1 factor) ( Rs 2 factor) (Rs 5 factor) (Rs 10 Factor) (Rs 100 factor)
=(1+x+x2+) ( 1+x2+x4+) (1+x5+x15+) (1+x10+x20+) (1+ x100+x200+)
=(1/(1-x)) (1/(1-x2)) (1/(1-x5)) (1/(1-x10)) ( 1/(1-x100))
5 Steps for solving a linear homogeneous recurrence relation of degree 2:
Step #1. Get the characteristic equation of the given recurrence relation.
Step #2. Solve the characteristic equation to get the two roots r1, r2. The general solution is
an = 1r1n + 2r2n
Step #3. Substitute the initial conditions into the general solution to find the constants 1 and 2.
6 Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 5Fn1 6Fn2 where F0 = 1 and F1 = 4

The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is
x2 5x + 6 = 0,
So, (x 3) (x 2) = 0
Hence, the roots are
x1 = 3 and x2 = 2
The roots are real and distinct. So, this is in the form of case 1
Hence, the solution is
Fn = ax1n + bx2n
Here, Fn = a3n + b2n (As x1 = 3 and x2 = 2)
Therefore,
1 = F0 = a30 + b20 = a+b
4 = F1 = a31 + b21 = 3a+2b
Solving these two equations, we get a = 2 and b = 1
Hence, the final solution is
Fn = 2.3n + (1) . 2n = 2.3n 2n
7 List some applications of Generating Functions.
For solving a variety of counting problems. For example, the number of ways to make change for
a Rs. 100 note with the notes of denominations Rs.1, Rs.2, Rs.5, Rs.10, Rs.20 and Rs.50.
For solving recurrence relations.
For proving some of the combinatorial identities.
For finding asymptotic formulae for terms of sequences.
8 What is the generating function of the infinite series; 1, 1, 1, 1..?
Here, ak = 1, for 0 k .
Hence, G(x)=1+x+x2+x3+........=1(1x).
9 Find the coefficient of 17 x in the expansion of (1+x5+x7)20
The only way to form an 17 x term is to gather two 5 x and one 7 x . Since there are 20C 2 =190
ways to choose two 5 x from the 20 multiplicands and 18 ways to choose one 7 x from the
remaining 18 multiplicands, the answer is 190* 18= 3420.

Page 21 of 24
10 Explain all the three Methods to Solving Recurrences?
Iteration: Start with the recurrence and keep applying the recurrence equation until we get a pattern. The
result is a guess at the closed form.
Substitution: Guess the solution; prove it using induction. The result here is a proven closed form. It's
often difficult to come up the guess so, in practice, iteration and substitution are used hand-in-hand.
Master Theorem: Plugging into a formula that gives an approximate bound on the solution. The result
here is only a bound on the closed form. It is not an exact solution.
11 If we have a recurrence relation for a sequence, is it possible to express the sequence in a way that
does not use recursion?
Sometimes. When we are able to do so, we find what is called the closed form of the recurrence. It is an
algebraic formula or a definition that tells us how to find the nth term without needing to know any of the
preceding terms. The process of finding the closed form is called solving a recurrence.
12 Find a recurrence relation for the sequence 8, 24/7, 72/49, 216/343,
Here a0=8 and each term is multiplied by 3/7 so an=(3/7)an-1 for n>1.
13 A bank pays 6% (annual) intrest on savings, compounding the interest monthly. If Raj deposits Rs.
1000/- on the first day of may, how much will he deposit be a worth year later?
Interest is 6% annually , so monthly is 6%/12=0.5% ==0.005
Pn+1=Pn+0.005Pn.
14 Define Catalan number.
In combinatorial mathematics, the Catalan numbers form a sequence of natural numbers that occur in
various counting problems, often involving recursively-defined objects.
Cn = 1/(n+1) ni=0 (n i)2
15 Find a12 if an+12=5an2 for n0 and a0=2.
Let bn=an2. Then bn+1=5bn for n0 and b0=4
16 For the alphabet={0,1,2,3}, how many strings of length n contains an even number of 1s
Consider the nth symbol of a string of length n
(1) The nth symbol is 0, 2, 3. 3an-1
(2) The nth symbol is 1. Then there must be an odd number of 1s among the first n-1 symbols.
4n-1-an-1
an=3an-1+(4n-1-an-1)=2 an-1+4n-1
17 Solve the recurrence relation an+2-4an-1+3an=-200 for n0 and a0=3000 and a1=3300
The solution for an+2-4an-1+3an=0 is an(h)=c1(3n)+c2.
(Let an(p)=An) The particular solution for an+2-4an-1+3an=-200 is an(p)=100n.
The solution to the problem is an= c1(3n)+c2+100n
Finally, we have an= 100(3n)+2900+100n
18
Solve an = an-1 +8an-2 - 12an-3, with initial conditions a0 = 2, a1 = 3, and a2 = 19.

Page 22 of 24
Therefore, g(x)-xg(x)-8x2g(x)+12x3g(x) = 2+x.

Thats, g(x) =(2+x)/(1-x-8x2+12x3).
19 Properties of generating functions.
20 Define Exponential generating functions.
An exponential generating function for the integer sequence , , ... is a function such that
UNIT-V / PART-B
1
Explain generating Functions.
2
Find the generating function of the sequence a(n,r) for r 0 where a(n,r) denote the number of ways
Page 23 of 24
to select r objects without repetition from n distinct objects.

3 Write an algorithm for merge sorting. Show the intermediate steps when the numbers
310, 285, 179, 652, 351, 423, 861, 254, 450, 520 are sorted using Merge Sort and Derive the worst
case analysis of Merge Sort using suitable illustrations.
4
Explain Exponential Generating functions.
5
Explain recurrence relations.
6
Explain first order linear recurrence relation.
7
Explain Second order linear homogenous recurrence relation with case Distinct Real roots, complex
roots and Repeated roots.
8
Explain Nonhomogeneous Recurrence relation.
9
The population of Mumbai city is 6,000,000 at the end of the year 2000. The number of immigrants is
20,000 n at the end of year n. The population of the city increased at the rate of of 5% per year. Use a
recurrence relation to determine the population of the city at the end of 2010.
10
Derive the formula for the sum of the cubes of first n natural numbers using recurrence relation.

Page 24 of 24

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CS6702 Graph Theory and Applications Department of CSE 2016-2017

2 List three situations where a graph could prove useful.

, where each edge in E1 is incident with vertices in V1.

11 What are Euler trail and Euler circuit?

13 What is an Hamilton circuit?

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

14 What is a clique? State the properties of its vertices and edges.

18 Find the eccentricity of all the vertices in the given graph.

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

20 Define Binary tree. State its properties.

SOME PROPERTIES OF TREES

1.8.2 Distance and centers in tree

The below mentioned tree has four vertices.

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Distance between v1 and v2 in 2

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

The distance between vertices of a connected graph is a metric.

2 Verify Eulers theorem with an example.

3 Solve Instant Insanity.

Figure 1: Instant Insanity Block

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

5 a) Find a graph G where both G and G are connected.

6 a) i)Find an Euler Circuit for the graph in the figure.

A graph is hamiltonian, if it has a Hamilton cycle.

Note that if C : u1 u2 un is a Hamilton cycle, so is ui . . . unu1 . . . ui1 for each i [1,

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

If G is hamiltonian, then for every nonempty subset S VG,

Proof. Let S VG, u S, and let C : u u be a Hamilton cycle of G.

Assume GS has k connected components, Gi, i [1, k].

The case k = 1 is trivial, and hence suppose that k > 1.

10 Prove the theorem

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

3 Define the Terms: Rank and Nullity

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

8 What is a Vertex connectivity?

11 What is a block and explain with a diagram?

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

12 Define radius and diameter.

13 Define Binary tree.

14 Define Pendant Vertex.

15 Define Kruskals algorithm:

18 Define network flow.

19 What is Branch and Chord?

2 Explain Spanning trees in a Weighted Graph.

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

2 What is proper colouring?

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

11 What is a maximal matching?

15 Name the types of Simple Digraphs:

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Proof : Necessity Let G(V, E) be an Euler graph.

iii) If a graph G contains a graph G1 as a subgraph, then

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

iv. If G is a graph of n vertices, then

vi. If a graph G contains Kn as a subgraph, then

2 Explain Chromatic Partitioning in detail.

3 Explain Multiplication rule or Product rule.

5 How many different bit strings of length 7 are there?

7 Explain Inclusion Exclusion Principle.

8 Explain Pigeon Hole Principle.

13 Define Rook Polynomial.

PREPARED BY : SYLVIA GRACE J ,MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Required number of ways = (7C3 x 6C2) + (7C4 x 6C1) + (7C5)