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Effah, 2017
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Definitions ..................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Control System Representation ............................................................................................. 3
1.2 Classification of Control Systems .................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 open loop and closed loop CS. ............................................................................................... 4
1.3 Input and Output System .............................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Classes of Control Systems............................................................................................................ 7
1.5 Static System and Dynamic System .............................................................................................. 8
1.6 Stable and Unstable System ......................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Linear vs Non-linear System.......................................................................................................... 9
1.8 Analysis of Control System ............................................................................................................ 9
1.9 Output Response of Control System ........................................................................................... 10
1.10 Stability ..................................................................................................................................... 10
1.11 Control System Design Process ................................................................................................. 10
1.12 Mathematical Modeling............................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER TWO: ..................................................................................................................................... 13
SYSTEM MODELING: MECHANICAL SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Mechanical System ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Modeling Methods & Steps ........................................................................................................ 14
2.4 Rotational Systems and Rotational Motion ................................................................................ 15
2.5 Modeling Electrical Systems ....................................................................................................... 18
2.6 Modeling Operational amplifiers or Op-amps ............................................................................ 20
CHAPTER THREE:TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSES .......................................................................... 27
2.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 27
2.2 Time Response ............................................................................................................................ 27
2.2.1 How to Choose an Input Signals .......................................................................................... 27
2.3. Types of Input ............................................................................................................................ 27
3.4 Behaviour of System at t=0 and t= .......................................................................................... 29
3.5 Response of 1st and 2nd order system ......................................................................................... 30
3.6 First Order Transient Response .................................................................................................. 32
3.7 Critical Examination: Poles & Damping Ratio ............................................................................. 37
3.8 Other Salient Parameters............................................................................................................ 38
3.8 Review: Trigonometry ................................................................................................................. 39
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1.1 Definitions
System: it is a collection of objects or components connected together to serve and objective.
Control system (CS): is a device or set of devices used to manage, command, direct or regulate
the behaviour of other devices or systems using any quantity of interest. This field is wide. It
is also applied in economy, finance, political science, physics, mathematics and biological
sciences. There are three things that define control systems: input, systems and output.
The output may or may not be equal to the specified response by the input. Thus, the purpose
of control system is to regulate the system to produce the desired output.
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Closed loop or feedback system: systems that uses a measurement of the output (usually a
sensor) and compares it with the desired input. The system uses the measurement of the actual
output to compare with the input, hence producing a very effective output.
The block diagram representation is given as follows:
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Purpose of servomechanism:
1. Accurate control of motion without the need for human attendants (automatic control);
2. Maintenance of accuracy with mechanical load variations, changes in the environment,
power supply fluctuations, and aging and deterioration of components (regulation and
self-calibration);
3. Control of a high-power load from a low-power command signal (power amplification);
4. Control of an output from a remotely located input, without the use of mechanical
linkages (remote control, shaft repeater).
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The constant speed control system of a DC motor is a servomechanism that monitors any
variations in the motor's speed so that it can quickly and automatically return the speed to its
correct value. Servomechanisms are also used for the control systems of guided missiles,
aircraft, and manufacturing machinery.
Regulator
A regulator is a system where the reference input is constant for a long period of time.
Characteristics: closed loop system and the input (setpoint) is held constant.
Application example: Car (power) window, Human body temperature, Automatic temperature
regulated over, Human perspiration system.
Dynamic System
Dynamics is a branch of mechanics where due emphasis is paid to inertial effects as opposed
to statics where such effects are ignored. A dynamic system may or may not be a deterministic
and predictable system. It is a system that evolve or change with respect to time. Generally,
this particular system is described by differential equations. Mathematically:
The output signal y(t), at time t, depends on past values of the input.
It is evidently clear that a capacitor is a dynamic system the output of a capacitor depends on
all past inputs.
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For a particular control system to be useful, we want the natural response to either approach to
zero or oscillate. Sometimes, the natural response will go out of bound, hence the system would
be unstable. We can use mathematical techniques to analyze and control the stability of a
particular control system.
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CHAPTER TWO:
SYSTEM MODELING: MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction
The main areas captured here are:
Mechanical Systems, Electrical systems and Electromechanically systems and their respective
models.
The translational elements and the corresponding equations of motion are listed below:
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Example1
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Angular Velocity is the time rate of change in angular displacement. Usually denoted by the
symbol (omega). It is defined by the following equation:
Angular acceleration is the rate of the angular velocity. It is usually denoted by the symbol
Mass Moment of Inertia: It is a measure of an object's resistance to changes to its rotation. And
it is also the inertia of a rotating body with respect to its axis of rotation. The symbol I or J are
usually used to refer to the moment of inertia or polar moment of inertia.
A rotational system can be analyzed similar to the translational system. A rotation will
generally occur around a fixed axis. Torques will occur around the axis rotation and it
corresponds to forces. Inertia however, resists the angular acceleration.
Modeling Rotational Mass: A rotational mass is subjected to the mass moment of inertia
related to mass.
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Systems with Gears: Gears provide mechanical advantage to rotational systems. Some
applications include in systems using a motor as its actuator.
Consider the following gear: r = radius T = torques = displacement N = no. of teeth:
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Figure 2.2 op-amp IC. A DIP pin-out for a typical 741-type operational amplifier
The positive (+) input is called the non-inverting input because the output from this
source is in phase with the input.
The inverting input (negative input) has the opposite behaviour, that is, the output
resulting from this source is 180 out of phase with the input.
Op-amp using NPN transistor will have input impedance greater than 1M. Because
of this high impedance, the input current for op-amp is essentially zero.
The output impedance of op-amps is very low, typically less than 1, and the open-
loop gain is very high, and can be up to the order of 106.
We usually make the following assumption when dealing with op-amp:
Because the op-amp gain is so high, when the output voltage is within its normal
operating range, the voltage between the input terminals is so small that it can
be assumed to be zero.
The current drawn by an op-amp input is zero because its input resistance is
very, very large.
The characteristics of an op-amp are:
Differential input V2(t)=v1(t)
High input impedance Zi= (ideal)
Low output impedance zo=0 (ideal)
High constant gain amplification A= (ideal)
The output of an op-amp is measured in terms of gain.
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The circuit shown below is used for finding the difference of two voltages each multiplied by
some constant (determined by the resistors).
The name "differential amplifier" should not be confused with the "differentiator.
The following are some of the possible configurations of the op-amp: Sign changer, Amplifier,
Integrator, Differentiator, Lag, Lead, Lead-lag or lag-lead, Bandwidth limited integrator,
Bandwidth limited differentiator, etc.
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CHAPTER THREE:
TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSES
2.1 Overview
This chapter will address the following areas as applied to time and frequency responses:
Test input signals, Initial and final value theorem, Time response (First order system response
and Second order system response) Frequency response and techniques, Bode plot and Gain
and phase margins.
Example of step input: Turning on a switch in a circuit, actuating a valve in a fluid system,
Driving over a curb.
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Ramp Input
A steadily rising signal.
Examples: Machine tool cutting metal Robot lifting a box Telescope tracking a star across
the sky
Parabolic Input or quadratic input: The input changes (proportional) with time.
Impulse Function
This function is also called Dirac, needle, , or pulse function. The
impulse function consists of a brief pulse, i. e., at the time t = t0
the input value rises to a high value A for a short time (impulse
duration t) and then immediately drops back to its original value.
The impulse function is the derivative of unit step function.
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Recall that R(s) is the input of the system. We can actually give many type of input to our
system be it impulse, step, ramp or even parabolic inputs. We can perform the analysis of a
1st order system by using the initial and final value theorems or by using the Laplace transform
method.
Example 1
Given the following system. Find the response of the system subjected to step, ramp and
parabolic input by using the initial and final value theorems:
Solution to Example 1
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Example 2
Find the system response of a first order system in example given that a=1 and the input is of
the step, ramp and parabolic nature.
Solution to Example 2
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Settling Time, Ts
The time for the system to settle-down and stay within 2% of its final value. (some books use
5%, but for our case, well stick to 2%). If we assume that the final value of our system is
100%, then a 2% would constitute 98% or simply 0.98. Hence, for a first-order system to settle
down:
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There are two very important parameters in a second order system namely: Natural frequency,
n and Damping ratio, (zeta).
By definition, natural frequency is the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it
has been set into motion. In other words, natural frequency is the number of times a system
will oscillate (move back and forth) between its original position and its displaced position, if
there is no outside interference. Sometimes, the natural frequency is also known as the
undamped natural frequency.
Damping Ratio, is a dimensionless measure of how a body in oscillation decays.
If there are dampers or frictional losses, then there will be more damping. There are generally
four (4) types of damping: Overdamped system, Underdamped system, Critically damped
system, Undamped system.
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In general, for overdamped case, we have two real and distinct poles > 1
Underdamped System
In general, for an underdamped system, we have two complex conjugate poles 0 < < 1.
Critically Damped System
In general, a critically damped system has two real and repeated poles = 1
Undamped
In an undamped system, there exists no first order terms in a second order differential equation
of motion, meaning to say, there is no dampers or dashpot present in the system. Hence, the
system will continue to oscillate.
In general, for undamped case : We have two pure imaginary and complex conjugate. = 0
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The pole can be computed by letting the denominator equal zero, and then solving the quadratic
equation.
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If a sinusoidal input is given, then the output signal is also sinusoidal signal of the same
frequency, but with different amplitude and phase.
Frequency response of a control system is defined as the steady-state response of the system
when the sinusoidal input is applied at the input terminals. The sinusoidal input signal when
applied to a linear system results in an output signal, which is sinusoidal in SteadyState and
differs from the input waveform only in amplitude and phase angle.
We take note that any curve giving information regarding the amplitude (gain) or phase shift
of the frequency function is known as the frequency response of the system.Typical examples
of frequency response graph are the Polar plot (a.k.a. Nyquist plot) and Bode plot.
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Bode Plot
NB: In this lecture, I shall be focusing only the Bode plot. The polar plot is omitted and if you
are interested, you can learn on your own.
The Bode plot is generally:
Plots of frequency response.
Gain and phase are displayed in separate plots.
Logarithmic plots.
The horizontal axis is frequency - plotted on a log scale. It can be either f or .
The vertical axis is gain, expressed in decibels - a logarithmic measure of gain.
Sometimes, the vertical axis is simply a gain on a logarithmic scale.
And in general, a Bode plot consists of two components (subplot): The ratio of the amplitudes
of the output signal and the input signal is plotted against frequency.
The phase shift between the input and output signal is plotted against the frequency.
The Bode plot allows us to experimentally determine the transfer function without the tedious
process of detailed modeling.
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A bit on decibel
A decibel (dB) is a ratio between two numbers on a logarithmic scale. A decibel is not itself a
number, and cannot be treated as such in normal calculations. Widely used when dealing with
sinusoidal function and waves. It confers a number of advantages, such as: the ability to
conveniently represent very large or small numbers, a logarithmic scaling that roughly
corresponds to the human perception of sound and light; and the ability to carry out
multiplication of ratios by simple addition and subtraction.
The phase shift is given as:
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Note that a positive angle is known as phase lead and a negative angle is known as phase
lag.
Sketching Bode Plot
There are two ways of sketching the Bode plot. The first method is the tabulation method
where the table of values is generated. This is the easiest method. The second method is the
analytical method. This is by far, the challenging method. Use of any method is acceptable.
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CHAPTER FOUR:
BLOCK DIAGRAMS: REPRESENTATION AND SIMPLIFICATION
4.1 Introduction
A control system consists of a number of components connected to perform a desired function.
Once components (system or subsystem) is reduced to a mathematical model, it can be
represented as a block with the component operation described by the mathematical function.
It is convenient and useful to represent the element of a control system by blocks. The
properties of the block are contained in the transfer function, represented by a Laplace
transform. Thus, a block diagram is a representation of an entire control system in terms of all
the elements and their transfer function.
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Block diagram algebra for pickoff points equivalent forms for moving a block:
a. to the left past a pickoff point;
b. to the right past a pickoff point
Example
Reduce the following block diagram to a single transfer function.
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Solution:
Example 2
Reduce the following block diagram to a single transfer function:
Solution:
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Assignment
Find the peak time, percent overshoot and settling time for the following systems:
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A stable system has a closed-loop transfer functions with poles only in the left half plane.
An unstable system has a closed-loop transfer functions with at least one pole in the right half
plane and/or poles of multiplicity greater than one on the imaginary axis.
A marginally stable system has closed-loop transfer functions with only imaginary axis poles
of multiplicity 1 and poles in the left half plane.
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Example 1
Test the stability for the following system:
Example 2
Test the stability for the following system:
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The stability of this system may be determined by solving this characteristic equation. Solving
this equation will yield roots of the characteristic equation. The necessary but insufficient
condition for the stability of a system is that all coefficients of the above characteristic equation
be real and have the same signs. Furthermore, none of the coefficients should be zero.
We also take note of the following results:
1. If all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts, then the system is
stable.
2. If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part or if there is a repeated
root on the jw-axis, then the system is unstable (because it lies on the right-half plane).
3. If some of the coefficients are zero or negative, then it can be concluded that the system
is unstable.
4. If all the coefficients of the characteristic equation have the same signs, then the
possibility of the stability exists and one should proceed further to examine the
sufficient condition of stability.
Theorem:
1. The positive-ness of the coefficients of characteristic equation is necessary as well as
sufficient condition for stability of system of a first and second order.
2. The positive-ness of the coefficients of the characteristic equation ensures that the
negative-ness of real roots, but it does not ensure the negative-ness of the real parts of
the complex roots for third and higher order systems.
In sum, a necessary and sufficient condition for a feedback system to be stable is that all of the
poles of the system transfer function must have negative real parts.
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Project Assignment:
1. Steady state error, System type, Static error constants and Sensitivity
2. Root Locus
3. Open loop and closed loop system representation, Controller and observer design via
pole placement method and Ackermanns formula for computing the gain, K
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CHAPTER FIVE:
STATE SPACE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Eigenvalues can tell us about the stability of a system. A system is stable if and only if the
eigenvalues of A have negative real parts.
Modern control system is introduced due to arrival of space exploration. Thus, Modeling using
LTI system becomes inadequate. The effect of time must be taken into account. SS is applicable
for all type of system: linear, non-linear, digital system and MIMO system.
SS uses the matrix approach.
5.2 SS Analysis
In state space analysis, the dynamic of a control system is described by a set of first order
differential equations. The general format is written as follows:
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state-variable form. A state variable is a time-related quantity. For example, voltage and current
is a state variable, but not resistance or inductance.
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Type 3: SS to TF
Consider the following equation:
Our main task is to convert the above state space equation to transfer function. To do so, take
the forward Laplace transform and assume zero initial conditions.
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Let us look and study all of this form in the next slide. Now, the general format of transfer
function is:
Note: You can also use the signal flow graph to obtain the above model.
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The state space matrix for Jordan Canonical Form is of the form:
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