Ethics and Basic Environment IES

GENERAL STUDIES
for
ENGINEERING SERVICES EXAMINATION-ESE
1. ETHICS AND VALUES IN ENGINEERING PROFESSION
2. BASICS OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
STUDY MATERIAL
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ESE-General Studies: Ethics and values in Engineering profession (Part A & B) |1|
GENERAL STUDIES
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10. Ethics and values in Engineering profession
STUDY MATERIAL
GENERAL STUDIES: ETHICS

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CONTENT
C O N T E N T : ENGINEERING ETHICS
Part-A:
1. HUMAN VALUES 05-09
2. ETHICS .. 10-19
3. ETHICS IN HUMAN ACTION .. 20-21
4. CORRUPTION 22-25
Part-B
5. ENGINEERING ETHICS OR ROLE OF ETHICS IN
ENGINEERING PROFESSION .. 27-42
6. ETHICS AND MORAL REASONING 43-46
7. ETHICAL PROBLEMS . 47-51
8. RISK AND SAFETY IN ENGINEERING .. 52-54
9. THE RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ENGINEERS 55-57
10. MCQ PRACTICE: ETHICS . 58-62
11. TEST YOURSELF. 63-68

Engineering Services Examination-2017
Ethics and values in Engineering Profession
PART-1
ETHICS

CHAPTER-1
HUMAN VALUES
Values mean whatever is actually liked, prized, esteemed, desired, approved and enjoyed by
anyone at anytime. - Brightman
Values is an important aspect of self-concept and serve as guiding principles for an individual. It
acts as the basic conviction that the specific mode of conduct is personally or socially
preferable. They serve as a standards towards which an individual has strong positive attitude.
For e.g, one who like vegetarian food would have hatred feelings or may consider killing of
animals as sin and will have strong positive attitude towards vegetarianism. This is his value
system. Thus values can be positive or negative, good or bad based on the conviction and
attitude of an individual. This is where values are different from virtues. Virtues simply mean
good habits and is always positive term.
Values are an enduring belief about the way things should be done or about the ends we desire.
Therefore value is something we believe is long lasting. It influences the way in which we do
things and what we hope to achieve. For e.g., if we consider hard work as a value then it is
something we believe in. whatever we do, we will work hard at it to get the result. Values are
important in decision making.
Human values have evolved throughout the ancient time and persisted throughout all the ears
and cultures. In this sense, they are universal and changed with the changing of societies and
civilization. Even they have been incorporated in international laws and practices.
1.1 Content of Human values:

Human values can be formulated or expressed in many ways like anything from practical
examples to moral principles at highest levels of generality. However, genuine human values
are not abstract principles developed by academics or preachers but life-embedded ideas and
practices along with their various justifications. Because they are human, values are not divinely
obtained rules of behavior. They are related to different culture, unique persons and situations
and are developed and expressed in human terms, for the human aims they collectively
represents.
1.2 Basic human values

Human values which have wide common appeal possibly even a universal relevance are;
1. Truth
2. Love-caring
3. Peace
4. Responsibility
5. Justice

1.3 Human values applied in practice

The values outlined above are not independent, separate principles or categories but are all
mutually interrelated while having an interdependent essence in each case. They serve to
summarize and unify all positive values which come from them in one way or another.
A value usually appears as a guidelines or norms that help us to judge what is or is not good in
any situation. A persons value may be seen as expressing one or more of the universal human
values and sub-values. Societies concretize many values as statutory laws or expressed in
different laws or explicit rules and regulations they become specific to given situations and are
no longer remain necessarily universally valid.
Sub-values represent more specific forms of the five values and can be organized in their inter-
relations beneath one or more of the main values.
Sub-values represent more specific forms of the five values and can be organized in their inter-
relations beneath one or more of the main values. For e.g, truth-summarize many sub-values
such as factual accuracy, honesty, personal disinterest, reasonability. Some sub-values derive
from one or more of the five values e.g, fairness and justice relate both to truth and non-violence
while enthusiasm may relate both to love and right action.
1.4 Technique to adhere to human values

1. To follow our conscience:
Conscience is something that we have been given to apply in every act for e.g, the
difference between thief and non-thief is that thief does not follow his/her conscience despite
knowing that stealing is bad thing or sin. While non-thief follows his/her conscience and
does not steal.
NOTE: Conscience means applying reasoning.
2. To bring integrity in thought, word and actions:
Its result would be amazing if we bring integrity (harmony) in thought and word and in our
actions which will minimize our problems to nearly zero. It is really a very practical solution.
1.5 Classification of values

The values can be classified broadly into:
Social values: Principles and ideologies which encourage us to live together e.g., love,
affection etc.
Moral values: Principles and directives which enables us to follow right e.g., honesty,
empathy, integrity etc.
Religious values: Persons believe in a particular thought which is a guide for reasoning
between good and bad e.g., showing respect to holy books, following rituals etc.
National values: Principles which encourage a person to imbibe the feelings of patriotism
and national integration e.g., respecting national flag and national anthem.
Scientific values: Principles and directives which force us to test, analyze, verify, and
enquire etc. e.g, developing sound reasoning.
Civic values: Principles which guide citizens in dos and dontse.g, standing in queue,
respecting elders, dumping garbage in dustbin etc.
Political values: This includes liberty, equality, democracy, unity and integrity etc.
Economic values: This include belief in ideology such as capitalism, socialism, free market
economy, globalization, privatization etc.
Affective values: It is concerned with or arousing the emotion or affection. It includes

feelings of pain, happiness, love etc.
Intellectual values: They are excellent character traits. They are features that make a
person excellent as a person. E.g., humility, perseverance, courage etc.
1.6 Modern classification of values

Immediate values: The values which fulfill the biological and psychological needs of an
individual.
Remote values: These values are related to intelligent and rational needs.
i) Intrinsic values: These values are end in themselves and are permanent and ultimate
values. The thing that has true intrinsic values is happiness or pleasure. There are no
physical things that have intrinsic value.
ii) Extrinsic values: These values are judged good because they are good for something. It
is a means to an end. For e.g., money has extrinsic value because it can be used to
buy something that we want. Intrinsic values are the ultimate end to which all things of
extrinsic values are the means.
1.7 Characteristics of values

1. Values are built as an outcome of knowledge as well as beliefs.
2. They have cognitive, affective and directional aspects
3. They can be beared through culture, experience and social institution.
4. They are hierarchically given, dependent and relative among themselves and with the
perceiver.
5. They are always given in pairsi.e, with counter values.
1.8 Function of values:

1. They help to become socially acceptable.
2. They help in judgments and decision making
3. They serve as internal guide to everything
4. They make behavior choice less random
5. They help in prioritization
1.9 Principles of preference of values

1. Permanent values:
Permanent values are preferred to that of transitory values. Sensuous pleasures are
transient but pleasure of association and character are relatively permanent, and enduring.
2. Productive values:
Productive values are preferred to that of non-productive values. Intrinsic values help in
bringing peace and harmony.
3. Intrinsic values:
Intrinsic values are preferred to that of extrinsic values.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF VALUES:
The values of any individual is developed throughout his/her lifespan. Its not a single method in
fact there are so many factors or influences which help to develop values in human being. Since
values system are influenced by many factors are:
Socialization Culture system
Family Art
Society Philosophy
School/college Mythology
Teachers Customs
Friends Rituals
Work culture Constitution
Media External influences e.t.c.
Religious values
2.1 Technique for developing values:

1. Allegoric method:
In this moral story telling is done for e.g, biography of some great politicians, panchatantra
stories, mythological character, etc. which help in moral building.
2. Conscientization:
It involves pricking the conscience of an individual against the wrong doings. It is a process
of developing critical view of ones social reality through reflection and action.
3. Intense identification:
It is based on the concept of mentorship. A mentor acts like a friend in inculcating values
unlike a philosopher who acts as a guide.
4. Profitable association method:

It is based on fundamentals of symbiotic relationship and joint Endeavour. It inculcates
values of mutual respect, tolerance, harmony, equality etc.
5. Role playing:
It involves acting out or performance of a particular role, either consciously or unconsciously
in accordance with the perceived expectations of society as regards a persons behavior in a
particular context.
2.2 How to inculcate human values

Human values are closely integrated with human life. They are intertwined with our day to day
chores. No human life is possible without values. Every human being lives by certain values. It
is only the combination and proportion of positive and negative values which separates a human
being from a not so noble human being
The positive values are honesty, compassion, integrity, forgiveness, love, discipline, faith,
leadership etc. The negative values like prejudice, hatred, greed, selfishness etc

Every human being are born neutral like clean state without any mindset. The strength of
virtues and vices are filled in depends solely on the parents, teachers, circumstances,
environment and sometimes geographic location.
There are mainly three types of human beings in existence in reference to human values.
The first kind is the person who thinks, what rightfully belongs to others is others property.
Even his or her property belongs to other. They have supreme sacrifice and renunciation values
and they are closer to divinity than humanity.
The Second kind is the one that thinks, what belongs to others is others property and what
belongs to his/her is own property. These persons are perfect human being.
The third type is the one which thinks that whatever exists on this plant belongs to him/her and
try to get it by anymeans. These persons are dangerous to the society.
2.2.1 These are some common ways to inculcate values:

1. Keep life simple and honest
2. Be compassionate
3. Treat integrity as the most essential part of life
4. Criticize and reprimand the act and not the actor
5. Spread love and harmony
6. Upgrade knowledge continuously
2.2.2 Period of value development:

1. The imprint period:
This period starts from the time of birth to the age of seven. During this period, the
individuals acts as sponge means which absorbs everything around him/her. An individual
accepts everything as truth, especially when it comes from parents.
2. The modeling period:

This period lies between the age of eight and thirteen. During this time, an individual copy
other often parents but is also influenced by teachers, film stars, sportsperson etc.
3. The socialization period:

This period lies between the age of thirteen and twenty one. This is a period which is largely
influenced by the peer group. In this an individual prefer people like him or her.

ESE-General Studies: Ethics and values in Engineering profession (Part A & B) | 10 |
CHAPTER-2
ETHICS
1. Ethics meaning:
The word ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos (character) and from Latin word mores
(customs). Derived from the Greek work ethos which mean way of living
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with human conduct. It consists of a code of
conduct of human conduct. It consists of a code of conduct of human beings living in a society.
Ethics examines the rational justification for our moral judgments. It studies what is morally right
or wrong, just or unjust. Together they combine to define how individuals choose to interact with
one another.
Ethics may be defined as the systematic study of human actions from the point of view of their
rightfulness or wrongfulness as means for the attainment of the ultimate happiness. It is the
reflective study of what is good or bad in that part of human conduct for which human has some
personal responsibility. In other words, ethics set of standards that society places on itself and
which help guide behaviour, choices and actions.
Ethics is related to two things:
1. Ethics refers to well founded standards of right or wrong that prescribe what humans ought
to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations benefits to society, fairness or specific virtues.
Ethics for example refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to
refrain from stealing, murder, assault, slander and enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion,
and loyalty. And ethical standards include standards relating to rights such as right to life,
the right to freedom from injury and right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards
of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well founded reasons.
2. Ethics refers to the study and development of ones ethical standards. As we know, feelings,
laws and social norms can deviate from what is ethical. So it is necessary to constantly
examine ones standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well founded. It also
means, the continuous effort of studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct, and
striving to ensure that we and the institutions live up to standards that are reasonable and
socially-based.
2.1 Ethics: Relevance
Ethics determines individuals thought and action. It is not to suggest that the relation
between the two is that of Case and effect but it provides a platform where thoughts are
converted to action. Society contains a lot of functional units of which human being is
fundamental and paramount as the behaviour of human determines the nature and structure
of society and the values surrounding it. Here comes the role of ethics which guides the
human action to pave the way for peaceful, cooperative and healthy society at which rapid
changes in technology and global environment, every country needs to have ethical guiding
principles. India as a developing country too needs to focus on and be aware of the ethics
codes and guidelines in public and private organizations as well as minimize wrongdoing.
Ethics is also integral to public administration. In public administration, ethics focuses on
how the public administrators should question and reflect in order to be able to act
responsibility. Strategic implementation and commitment to change with proper

communications channels and having ethical safeguards in place are expected to enhance
the application of ethical guidelines. Effective communication is important for successful
implementation of code of ethics programs which will ultimately improving wrongdoing.
Having ethical codes and guidelines alone without being effective implementation will not
benefit the country.
Ethics is important to act rightly. It has value which guides people in the practice of right
conduct or the art of living the good life. It helps to avoid bias and prejudice. It aims at
defining terms like right and wrong, good and bad. Since the idea of value is the basic
concept of ethics, which justifies what makes things good or bad or in other words what
constitutes the goodness of good acts?
2.2 Exclusion of ethics
As the meanings of Ethics is hard to pin down and there is diverse virus about it. So to have
a dear picture about ethics we have to understand some common terms which are often
confused with ethics by analyzing what ethics is not.
a) Ethics and feelings
Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a
matter of following his or her feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil
from doing what is right. In fact, feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical.
b) Ethics and morality
Morality can be individual set of commitments even when they are rejected by others.
But one cannot be ethical alone. Ethics brings other people for the realization of the self.
Morality does not demand acquiescence from others the way ethics does. It is possible to be
moral alone. A moralist can say I dont believe in war, so what everyone else does.
c) Ethics and religion
The concept of ethics applies to everyone. One should not identify ethics with religion.
Most religions of course advocates high ethical standards. It ethics were confined to religion,
then ethics would apply to religious people. But ethics applies as much to the behaviour of the
atheist as to that of the devout religious person. Religions can set high standards and can
provide intense motivations for ethical behaviour. Ethics, however cannot be confined to
religion nor is it the same as religion.
d) Ethics and law
Being ethical is also not the same as following the law. A good system of law often
incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws like feeling can
deviate from what is ethical. In law, man is guilty when he violates the rights of another. In
ethics, he is guilty if he/she thinks of doing so. Law may have a difficult time designing or
enforcing standards in some important areas and may be slow to address new problems.
e) Ethics and social norms
Being ethical is not the same thing as doing whatever society accepts. In any society,
most people accepts standards that are in fact ethical. But standards of behaviour in society
can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become ethically corrupt. Nazi
Germany is a good example of morally corrupt society.
Moreover, if being ethical were doing whatever society accepts then to find out what is
ethical one would have to find out what society accepts.
Further the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate
ethics with whatever society accepts. For instance, some people accept abortion but many

others do not. If being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an
agreement on issues which does not in fact exist.
f) Ethics and cultural norms

Some cultures are quite ethical but others become corrupt or blind to certain ethical
concerns. For e.g, United States were to slavery before the Civil war, caste system in India etc.
Conclusion:
After going through the above discussions we can say that ethics is an attempt to guide human
conduct and it is also an attempt to help man in leading good life by applying moral principles.
Ethics refers to well based standards of right and wrong that prescribes what humans ought to
do, usually in terms of rights, obligation benefits to society, fairness or specific virtues.
Consequences of ethics in human action:

Ethics covers the following dilemmas:
How to live a good life
Our rights and responsibilities
The language of right and wrong
Moral decisions what is good or bad?
Our concepts of ethics have been derived from religion, philosophies and culture.
2.3 Why ethics is important?

The study of ethics can deeper our reflection on the ultimate question of life. It helps a
person to look at his own life critically and to evaluate his actions/choices/decisions. If assist
a person in knowing what he/she really is and what is best for him/her and what he/she has
to do in order to attain it.
Ethics helps us to think better about morality. It helps us to clarify our moral positions when
we make judgments. It improves our perspective and makes it more reflective and better
thought out. It also improves our thinking about specific moral issues.
Ethics help us to sharpen our general thinking processes. It trains our mind to think logically
and reasonably and to handle moral issues with greater clarity. Ethics become all actions,
whether one is aware of it or not, some way or another affects the other. In order to make a
decision/judgment are bases himself/herself on a standard of right and wrong even through
the measures may not be the same at all times.
Ethical problems confront everybody. Nobody can really get through life without ethics, even
if one may not be aware of the ethical principles. Consciously or unconsciously all of us are
everybody making moral decisions. Whether we are aware of it or not, the fact is that we do
have ethical attitude and are taking moral stances every day of our lives.
2.4 Determinants of ethics in governance:

The levels of ethics in governance are dependent on the following factors:
1. The historical context
2. The socio-cultural context
3. Legal-judicial context
4. The political context
5. The economic context

Main influences that determine the ethical behaviour and decision are:
Individual personality traits
Individual value system
Upbringing of individual
Education
Religious belief
Experiences
Culture/country of an individual
Organization/industry
Later life experience etc
2.5 Branches of ethics
2.5.1 Meta ethics:

It is not concerned with what is the right action or what sort of ideals and values are preferred,
rather it focuses on the meaning of ethical terms such as good or bad. What are the motives for
acting ethically? So it is the most abstract area of moral philosophy. It does not focus on what
act or kinds of acts are good or bad, right or wrong rather it focuses on the nature of goodness
or badness.
But normative ethics focus on what is moral, meta ethics focuses on what morality is? So
meta ethics is concerned with nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes and
judgments. It examines such themes as what moral questions mean and on what basis
people can know what is true or false.
Thus meta-ethics does not prescribe any particular action or values, their task is of analysis.
It is purely descriptive and abstract.
For examples consider the following two statements:
a) Is it wrong to kill one person to save many lives?
b) It is wrong to kill.
Statement (a) is normative ethics since it questions the god or bad of an action and
Statement (b) is a meta-ethics. Which question the morality of action.

Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics and there is contradictory views also
regarding it.
a) Moral realists: According to this, moral facts are objective facts which exist in the world i.e.,
things are good or bad independent of us and we discover morality about these facts.
b) Moral antirealists: according to this, moral facts does not exist in the world in fact its we
who put these facts in the world and discover morality about these facts.
To understand these view we can refer to cognitivism and non-cognitivism.
Cognitivism:
According to it, moral statements describe the world. If we say that lying is wrong, then it means
we have said something about the world. It means we have attributed a property wrongness to
an act lying. Whether lying has that property is an objective matter and so the statement is
objectively either true or false.
Non-Cognitivism:
It disagree with analysis of moral statements. According to it, when someone makes a moral
statement they are not describing the world but they are expressing their feelings or telling
people what to do. It holds that moral statements are not descriptive, it entails that moral
statements are neither true nor false. To be true is to describe the things as being the way that it
is and to be false is to describe something as being other than the way it is. So statements that
are not descriptive cant be either.
2.5.2 Normative ethics

It is the study of ethical acts so it focuses explicitly on questions of what people ought to do and
how people can decide what the correct morals to take care.
Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the
rightness and wrongness of actions while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral
language and the metaphysics of moral facts.
Normative ethics is also different from descriptive ethics as the latter is an empirical
investigation of peoples moral beliefs. We can say that, descriptive ethics is concerned with
determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong while normative
ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. So normative ethics is
sometimes called prescriptive rather than descriptive.
There are two extremes of normative ethical theories.
a) Normative relativism:
It states that all moral points of view are relative. The morals of one person are not
necessarily equal to the morals of another person. So it is impossible to say that certain
norms and values are better than other norms and values. The problem with this theory
is that it is now impossible to discuss normative ethics i.e., all norms and values are
allowed.
b) Absolutism:
It is also known as universalism. It states that there is a system of norms and values that
is universally applicable to everyone, everywhere at every time. It does not have any
exceptions i.e., a rule is a rule. However, there is no set of norms and values that never
contradicts itself. So absolution in general does not work either.

So relativism and absolutism dont work. Any choice/judgement based on these

theories is ethically suspected.
So, ethical pluralism is an alternative to both relativism and absolutism. Instead,
moral pluralists maintain that there is a plurality of moral truths that cannot be
reconciled into a single principle.
Normative ethics can be grouped into two broad category:
A. Consequentialism:
It refers to moral theories that hold that the consequence of a particular action form the
basis for any valid moral Judgment about that action. Thus from its view point a morally
right action is one that produces a good outcome or consequence. We can say that its
type of consequences which count as good state of affairs.
(i) Hedonism:
It states that pleasure is the most important pursuit of mankind and the only thing
that is good for an individual. Hedonism usually presupposes an individualist
stance and is associated with Egoism. Hedonists therefore strive to maximize their
total pleasure. It says that pleasure is the ultimate aim of life and any action
loading towards achievement of pleasure is moral action.
However, hedonistic theories suffer from demerits like it can promote act for e.g.
alcoholism, drug addiction etc. which people take for pleasure. It can favour
consumerism over Environmentalism.
(ii) Utilitarianism:
It states that we should perform those actions which are best for everyone. (The
greatest good for the greatest numbers). It is also hedonistic approach but it maximizes
overall happiness for everyone. Accordingly it says, an act is moral if it has utility to
society. It is also known as community or social utility which says an action is moral if it
has utility to society i.e., the act should bring greatest good for greatest number.
It can be termed an act is moral if it brings pleasure to individual and
simultaneously promote good of the community. But it is criticized also, since it also
supports Majoritarianismi.e, minority is neglected. Nevertheless, utilitarianism helps
government in prioritizing policies, ensure distributive justice and supports
liberalism.
(iii) Ethical Egoism:
According to Thomas Hobbs, man is selfish and self-oriented. So no action is
unselfishness (altruistic). Egoism holds that an action is right if it maximizes good
for the self. Thus Egoism may license actions which are good for individual, but
detrimental to the general welfare. Individual Egoism holds that he/she should act
in his/her own self-interest, but makes no claims about what anyone else ought to
do. Universal Egoism holds that everyone should act in ways that are in their own
interest. This view has been supported by many for e.g. economists, utilitarian
thinkers, new right philosophers and Public choice Theorists. All holds that people
in governance are not motivated by social good but self-interest. However, it is
criticized for its narrow explanation of human beings as man is always motivated
by self-interest for e.g, soldiers, freedom fighters etc.
Ethical egoism calls for reward and punishment to inculcate morality. Such
application is seen in for e.g,

Civil services reform and public administration.

Morality can be enhanced by reward and punishment.
(iv) Ethical Altruism:
It is the philosophical doctrine of living for others rather than for on self. In its most
extreme form, altruism calls for self-destruction for the sake of others but most
altruists adhere to moderate beliefs. It is more extreme than normal or laymans
altruism, because it does not value the self except as a way of helping others. In
common language it is simply any act that helps others out of generosity rather
than for ones own interest.
B. Non-consequentialism
It studies the nature of action i.e., intention or motive etc. It is concerned with means i.e,
what is right is moral, what is wrong is immoral. In this, means itself is an end.
(i) Virtue ethics:
Virtue is a quality which is not innate (inborn) infact it is acquired when human
action is repeatedly performed based on certain duties or value. Thus a virtue is
formed when fulfillment of duty becomes a habit.
According to this, what matters is the character of the agent and by implication the
motivation of the actor, rather than the act itself or its consequences.
Virtue ethics shifts the analytical emphasis away from rule based decision making
or of the consequences of an action towards the ethics of individuals and the ethics
of human characters. For example, charity which can be explained by utilitarian
that charity maximizes well-being in society and deontologist view it as a duty to
help others but a virtue ethical would point to the fact that helping others displays
desirable virtues such as being charitable or benevolent. An act is moral if it is
virtuous.
Unlike utilitarianism, virtue ethics typically makes no strong theoretical claims. It
serves mainly to systematize or rationalize our established social norms.
Virtue is required because:
It makes a man human
It improves quality of life by raising self-consciousness
It reorders the world and prevent from chaos.
(ii) Deontology:
Deontological ethics or deontology is an approach to ethics that determines
goodness or rightness from examining acts or the rules and duties that the person
doing the act strove to fulfill. This is in contrast to consequentialism, in which
rightness is based on the consequences of an act, and not the act by itself. In
deontology, an act may be considered right even if the act produces bad
consequences if it follows the rule. Deontology is a universal theory. It says that
duty exists irrespective of man.
(iii) Ethical relativism:

There are various practices which are morally acceptable in some societies are
condemned in other societies for e.g., Polygamy, infanticide, abortion etc. such
differences may lead to question whether there are any universal moral principles

or whether morality is nearly matter of cultural taste. This difference in moral

practices across culture raises a concept of ethical relativism.
According to it, there is no fundamental or universal norm but what is morally
right is relative to individual or group of men. The moral statements are not
objectively true, but true relative to a particular individual or society that
happens to hold the belief. Thus, universalism in ethics does not exist.
(iv) Moral intuitionism
An intuition is a special sense faculty/moral faculty that enables human being to
perceive directly (without rational thought) what is right or what is wrong? Thus this
theory grants an element of discretion to the individual in ethical judgments. Moral
intuitionism makes morality, individual in nature so it is not a universal approach.
But this approach has merits as well as demerits. It accepts diverse moral values
and hence values cultural diversity. It honors personal freedom and act as a
guiding force for self. However, an intuition may create in individual a kind of
understating that a satisfaction is superior which is actually inferior. Intuition has
emotional element, extreme or misguided emotions are bad, such as too much
love or hatred etc. Moral intuitionism contradicts general law of morality based on
the rule of law and constitution.
(v) Theory of Justice
These two prominent theorists who propounded justice theory are Karl Popper and
John Rawls. According to Karl Popper, any acts, rules or policies should be so
determined as to inflict least amount of suffering to all.
John Rawlss Theory of Justice gives two principles.

The 1st principle states that equal rights should be given to the most basic rights
for e.g, freedom of speech and expression, Media freedom. Protest right etc. are in
line with 1st principle.
The 2nd principle states that inequality of wealth; authority and social opportunity
are just only if they result into compensatory benefits for everyone and in particular
for least advantages. The idea of reservation, progressive income taxation etc., are
justified on these principles. So reconciliation between liberty and equality is to be
established.
2.5.3 Applied Ethics:
Applied ethics attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations. It is concerned with
how people can achieve moral outcomes in specific situations. Therefore it is concerned
with the philosophical examination of particular and often complex issues that involve
moral judgements. Applied ethics is used in some aspects of determining public policy
as well as by individuals facing difficult decisions.
There are some areas where applied ethics is used are:
(i) Bioethics:
It is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and
medicines. It is concerned with ethical questions that arise in the relationships
among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law and philosophy.
These areas include cloning, gene therapy, human genetic engineering, astroethics
and life in space and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA etc.

There are some issues related to Bioethics are:

a) Abortion
b) Euthanasia
c) Stem all research
(ii) Business ethics:

Business ethics (corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics
that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a
business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant
to the conduct of individual and entire organizations. The range and quality of
business ethical issues reflects the treatment of profit maximizing behaviour with
non-economic concerns.
(iii) Organizational ethics:

It is the ethics of an organization and it is how an organization responds to an
internal or external situations organizational ethics is independent with
organizational culture. Organizational ethics express the value of an organization to
its employees and other entities irrespective of governmental regulatory laws.
There are at least four elements that aim to create an ethical culture and behaviour
of employees within an organization. These elements are:
A written code of ethics and standards (ethical code)
Ethics training for executives, managers and employees
The availability of ethical situational advice
Confidential reporting systems
(iv) Military ethics:

Military ethics are concerned with questions regarding the application of force and
the ethos of the soldier and are often understood as applied ethics.
Military ethics involve multiple areas, including the following others:
What should be the law of war?
Justification for the initiation of military force
Decision about who may be targeted in warfare
Decision on choice of weapons
(v) Political ethics:

Political ethics is also known as political morality or public ethics which is the
practice of making moral judgments about political action and political agents. It
covers two areas.
The first is the ethics of process, which deals with public officials and the methods
they use. The second areas, the ethics of policy which concerns about judgment
about policies and laws.
(vi) Developmental and environmental ethics:
It questions and looks at the ethical implications of ideas such as progress and at
the implications of various types of socio-economic change. As with most areas of
applied ethics, it has a purpose to help in identifying, considering and making ethical
choice about societal development. Key issues include social and human rights,
poverty reduction, the gap between rich and poor and planned international
intervention by some nations in the development of others.
The important issues regarding environmental ethics are sustainable development
climate change and environmental managements. In the area of environmental
ethics comes the concept of Enlightened stewardship which says that caring for
others will give benefits to us. Thus proper conduct on the earth and with the nature
is in our own interest. It is necessary to save our environment while pursuing
development.

CHAPTER 3
ETHICS IN HUMAN ACTION
Ethics focuses only on peoples deliberate action (Actushumanus) and not on undeliberate
human action (Actushominis). Therefore focus of ethics is human action. According to some
philosopher simultaneous presence of three elements together constitutes a human action. If
any of them is absent, then the action cannot be called as human action. These elements are:
1. Knowledge
2. Voluntariness (will)
3. Free will
1. Knowledge: In order that a thing be done for an end, some knowledge of the end is
necessary. This implies that we cannot will anything unless we know it. Thus knowledge is
must for a deliberate human action.
2. Voluntariness (will): It includes everything that proceeds from the will. Thus when a person
makes a free decision on its own, the action is said to be voluntary.
Voluntariness is of two types:
a) Direct voluntary action: When the actor wills the action himself or as a means to an end
for e.g., planning to kill someone.
b) Voluntary in cause: The action is not directly willed but arises from another directly
willed action for e.g., drunken driving may kill people on road etc.
3. Free will: This is different from voluntariness, in the sense that here the actor not only wills
the action but he also has choices for e.g, a person wants to buy the mobile but in shop only
one brand of mobile is available. So he wills the action but have no choice of choosing
between different brands. Thus every free action is voluntary but not every voluntary action
is free.
3.1 Essence of human action:
To decide the morality of human action, one must first determine the end or purpose of human
action. An act is moral if it fulfills the ultimate purpose.
The ultimate purpose of human action can be:
i) Hedonism (pleasure)
ii) Stoicism (cultivation of mind)
iii) Materialism (material gain)
iv) Humanism (Achieving property)
v) Humanitarianism (service to mankind)
vi) Utilitarianism (Acting greatest good for all)
vii) Kants moral rationalism (Being duty bound is the ultimate purpose)
viii) Intuitionism (Ethical decision making based on intuition)
ix) Relativism (Ethics is culture specific)
x) Theory of justice

3.2 Determinants of ethics human action:

There are basically three parts to every action that examine the ethics in human action. These
are object, circumstance and purpose/end.
1. Object (Aim)
The object to human action can be good, bad or indifferent.
Bad object: If the object is bad, action remains bad. Nothing can make it good. Neither
circumstances nor purpose nor intention. Circumstances or purpose can make it less bad.
For e.g., lying can be never be good. It can be only less bad if spoken to save someones
life.
Good object: If the object is good, action may become bad because of circumstances or
purpose. For e.g, telling truth to malign someone.
Indifferent object: In this case, action may become good or bad because of circumstances
or purpose. For e.g, running for taking life is immoral while running for saving own life is
good. Thus object without purpose has no meaning.
2. Circumstances:
Circumstance in which human action is performed can be
i) Aggravating: When it increases the badness of an already bad act for e.g, stealing from
poor person.
ii) Extenuating: When it decreases the badness of a bad action. For e.g, stealing Rs. 1000
from a bank is not as bad as stealing from homeless.
3. Purpose/End (Goal):
If purpose is good even negative action becomes less bad. For e.g, lying to save someones
life.
If purpose is bad, even positive action becomes bad. For e.g, giving money to poor to
commit crime.
3.3 Consequence of ethics in human action

Principle of double effect: This principles deals with the action that produces two effects or
consequence. This principle says that if doing something morally good has a morally bad side-
effect, it is ethically right to do it, provided the bad side effect was not intended. This is true even
if we foresee the bad effect would probably happens.
For e.g, in case of euthanasia. It is used to justify the case when a doctor gives anesthesia to a
patient to relieve from pain, even though doctor knows this may endanger patients life. This is
because the doctor is not aiming to kill the patient. And the bad effect i.e, if patient dies is a side
effect of the good result of reducing patients pain.
Principles that follow in deciding ethicality of the acts of double effect are:
i) The action that produces two effects must be good or indifferent not intrinsically wrong.
ii) The good act or effect must be immediate i.e., not obtained through evil effect.
iii) The intention or purpose must be good
iv) There should be proportionately good reason for performing the action.

CHAPTER-4
CORRUPTION
Corruption is an abuse of public resources or position in public life for private gain. The scope of
corruption increases when control on the public administrators is fragile and division of power
between political, executive and bureaucracy is ambiguous. Political corruption which is
sometimes inseparable from bureaucratic corruption tends to be more widespread in
authoritarian regimes where the public opinion and the press are unable to denounce
corruption.
4.1 Threat of corruption

The increase of opportunities of state intervention in economic and social life has vastly
increased, the opportunity for political and bureaucratic corruption, more particularly since the
politics has also become professionalized. Professional politicians are those who are full time
politicians even when out of office. Corruption today poses a danger not only to the quality of
governance but is threatening the very foundations of our society and the state.
Corruption has become such a problem to the country that it poses a threat to the security of the
country like corruption in defence purchase. Even it seems to be a nexus between terrorism,
drugs, smuggling and politicians. Corruption is also anti-poor such that corruption in public
distribution system and many welfare schemes which are meant to the weaker section of the
society hits hard to the poor.
It is nothing like, corruption exists in India or developing countries, corruption is also in
western countries and in many developed countries but corruption in south Asian countries
has four characteristics that make it for more damaging than corruption in any other parts of
the world.
First: corruption in South Asia occurs more at up-stream and not down-stream, corruption at
the top distorts fundamental decisions about development priorities, policies and projects. In
Industrial countries, these decisions are taken through transparent completion and on merit
even through petty corruption may occur down-stream.
Second: Corruption money in South-Asia has wings rather than wheels. Most of corrupt
gains made in the region are immediately smuggled out to safe heaven abroad. Whereas
there is some capital flight in other countries as well, a greater proportion goes into
investment.
Third: Corruption in South Asia often leads to promotion not prison. The big fish unless they
belong to opposition are not convicted. In contrast, industrialized countries often have a
process of accountability where even top leaders are investigated and prosecuted. The most
frustrating aspect of corruption in South Asia is that the corrupt are often too powerful to go
through such an honest process of accountability.
Fourth: Corruption in South Asia occurs when its million of people live in poverty. It poses
such a situation that few people have all the means of life and luxury where majority struggle
to survive. This scenario poses a life-threatening situation in South Asia.
These are two dimension of corruption, one is exploitative corruption where the public
servant exploits the helpless poor citizen and other is collusive corruption where the citizen

corrupts the public servant by a bribe because he/she gets financially better benefits.
Collusive corruption depends on black money.
India as a Soft Society

Gunnar Myrdal a sociologist-economist has described Indian Society as a Soft Society.
According to him, soft society is:
a) One which does not have the political will to enact the laws necessary for its progress and
development or does not possess the political will to implement laws even when made.
b) When there is no discipline in the society, no real or meaningful development or progress is
possible. It is the lack of discipline in the society i.e, administration and structure of
governance at all levels which contributes to corruption. In fact, corruption and indiscipline
feed upon each other. One way of instilling the discipline in the society is to reduce the
chances of corruption and to deal with it sternly and mercilessly wherever it is found. For this
purpose, inadequacies in the criminal judicial system have to be redressed.
4.2 Types of corruption

The primary types of corruption includes:
a) Bribery
b) Nepotism
c) Clientelism
d) Embezzlement
e) Fraud
f) Extortion
g) Rent seeking
4.3 The costs of corruption

Corruption is damaging in a sense that important decisions are determined by ulterior motives
with no concern for the consequences to the wider community and its costs reach just about
every sector of a government and society where corruption occurs. Even if we dont come into
direct contact with corruption, it affects us. From increasing poverty to changing social norms to
environmental degradation to impacting the economy, corruption proves a very dangerous vice
that raises the costs of goods and services and increases the debt of a country.
High level of corruption can threaten economic stability, slow down economic growth,
weaken industrial capacity and reduce resources available for social programs. If
institutional capacity is weak, government cannot effectively implement their poverty
eradication policies and programs.
4.4 Causes of corruption

1. Desire of an unfair advantage
2. Lack of punitive measures
3. Lack of transparency
4. Poor incentive structure
5. Lawless and over regulated government
6. Dysfunctional systems

4.5 Legal framework for fighting corruption in India

In the pre-independence period, the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was the main tool to combat
corruption in public life. The code had a chapter on offences by Public servants. Section 161 to
165 provided the legal framework to prosecute corrupt public servants.
After the Second World War, prevention of corruption Act, 1947 was enacted to tackle
corruption issues.
The prevention of corruption Act, 1988 was enacted which broaden the norms of corruption
and enhanced the punishment also.
4.6 Measures to fight corruption

1. Prevention
2. Transparency
3. Accountability
4. Reciprocity
5. Participation
6. Rule of law
7. Oversight
8. Incentives
9. Elimination of price controls
10. Simplification of procedures
11. Education
12. E-governance
13. Civic and Anticorruption Education is important
14. Enforcement
15. Involvement of Civil Society in Governance
16. Emphasis of moral and ethical studies in school and colleges
4.2.1 Accountability and ethics

Accountability and Ethics are closely related. Effective accountability mechanism helps
achievement of ethical standards in the organization or system. Ethics can be considered as a
form of self-accountability or an inner check on the persons conduct. Higher the level of
ethics, lesser would be the need of for strong instruments of external accountability.
Accountability means answerability i.e, questions asked from them have to be answered.
4.2.2 Accountability of Govt. officials:

In most countries, public or Govt. officials exercise varying degree of power in discharging their
functions and responsibilities based on the authority vested in them. To ensure that these is
proper and responsible use of this power and authority all democratic countries have developed
system and procedures of checks and balances. There is also the system of incentive
mechanism to revered good performance. These systems and procedures can broadly be
termed as mechanism that promote accountability.
In all democratic countries, Government officials are accountable both to the political executive
and to citizens for ensuring responsive, transparent and honest policy implementation and

service delivery. But enforcing accountability for performance is not a simple task in
Government service. There are immense complexities involved in making public officials
answerable for outputs and outcomes.
Setting performance targets and their measurement is easier in respect of service delivery
agencies particularly when the service provided is tangible and thus an easily measured unit
but for many public organizations where output is policy related and therefore very concrete
assessment of performance becomes much more complicated.
The diffusion of responsibility and authority across different levels in Government and the
back of linkage between authority and accountability also lead to a system where plausible
alibis for non-performance abound, particularly for activities that cut across departmental
diving lines or across different functional division within departments.

PART-B
Engineering Ethics

CHAPTER - 5
ENGINEERING ETHICS OR ROLE OF ETHICS IN

ENGINEERING PROFESSION
Ethics has several meanings and hence so does engineering ethics. In one sense, ethics is
synonymous with morality. It refers to moral values that are sound or reasonable, actions or
policies that are morally required (right), morally permissible or otherwise desirable. According
byEngineering ethics consists of the responsibilities and rights that ought to be endorsed by
those engaged in engineering and also of desirable ideals and personal commitments in
engineering.
In second sense, ethics is the activity of studying morality. It is an enquiry into ethics since it
studies which actions, goals, principles, policies and laws are morally justified. Using this sense,
engineering ethics is the study of decisions, policies, and values that are morally desirable in
engineering practice and research.
These two sense are normative. They refer to justified values, desirable choices and sound
policies. Normative ethics differ from descriptive sense of ethics in which what specific
individuals or groups believe and how they act without implying that their belief and actions are
justified.
In its normative sense, engineering ethics refers to justified values in engineering. But what
are moral values? What is morality? As we know morality is about right and wrong, good
and bad values and ought to be done. But such definitions are incomplete because these
words have also non moral meanings. So morality is not easy to define in any
comprehensive way. Nonetheless, we can give examples of moral values such as honesty,
courage, compassion and justice. But the moment we try to provide a comprehensive
definition of morality, we are drawn into at least rudimentary ethical theory. For example, if
we say that morality consists in promoting the most good, it implies we are invoking the
principle of utilitarianism. If we say, morality is about human right, we invoke right ethics or
humanity. If we say, morality is an essentially about good character, we invoke virtue ethics.
So we see there is always confusion arises in which theory it is to be fit?
1.1 Importance of engineering ethics:

Engineering ethics is important because it contributes to safe and useful technological products
and in giving to engineers endeavors. But its direct aim is to increase the ability to deal
effectively with moral complexity in engineering. According by the engineering ethics
strengthens the ability to reason clearly and carefully about moral questions. To invoke terms
widely used in ethics, the unifying goal is to increase moral autonomy.
Autonomy means self-determining but not any kind of independent reflection about ethics
amounts to moral autonomy. Moral autonomy can be viewed as the skill and habit of
thinking rationally about ethical issues on the basis of moral concern and commitment. So
improving the ability to reflect carefully on moral issues can be accomplished by improving
various practical skills that will help to produce autonomous thought about moral issues.
As related to engineering ethics, these skills include the following:

1. Moral awareness: Proficiency in recognizing moral problems and issues in engineering

2. Cogent moral reasoning:Comprehensing, clarifying and assessing arguments on
opposite sides of moral issues.
3. Moral coherence: Forming consistent and comprehensive viewpoints based on
consideration of relevant facts.
4. Moral imagination: Discerning alternative responses to moral issues and finding
creative solutions for practical difficulties.
5. Moral communications: Precision in the use of a common ethical language, a skill
needed to express and support ones moral views adequately to others.
6. Moral reasonableness: The willingness and ability to be morally reasonable.
7. Respect for persons: Genuine concerns for the well-being of others as well for oneself.
8. Tolerance of diversity: It gives wider ambit to respect different religious difference.
9. Moral hope: Enriched appreciation of the possibilities of using rational dialogue in
resolving moral conflicts.
10. Integrity: Maintaining moral integrity and integrating ones professional life and personal
convictions.
1.2 Engineering as a profession:

We know, Engineering is a profession but what is a profession?
In broad sense, a profession is any occupation that provides a means to living. But it includes
more than that since it involves advanced expertise, self-regulation and service to public good.
1. Advanced expertise: Professions require sophisticated skills and knowledge in exercising
judgment that is not entirely routine. Preparation to engage in the work typically requires
extensive formal education, including technical studies in one or more areas of systematic
knowledge. So, continuing education and updating knowledge are also required.
2. Self-regulation: Well established societies of profession are allowed by the public to play a
major role in setting standards for admission to profession, drafting code of ethics, enforcing
standards of conduct and representing the profession before the public and government.
Often this is regarded as autonomy of the profession, which forms the basis for individual
professional to exercise autonomous professional judgment in their work.
3. Public good: The occupation serves some important public good or aspect of public good
and it does so by making a concerted effort to maintain high ethical standards throughout
the profession.
For examples, medicine is directed towards promoting health, law towards protecting publics
legal rights and engineering towards technological solutions to problems concerning the
public well-being, safety and health. The aims and guidelines in serving the public good are
detailed in professional codes of ethics.
So, professions, as structured groups of professionals have collective responsibilities to
promote responsible conduct by their members. Therefore, professions and professionals
also need to think in terms of preventive ethics-that is ethical reflection and action aimed at
preventing moral harm and unnecessary ethical problems.

Appendix A: NSPE Code of Ethics
Preamble
Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers

are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct
and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by
engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the
protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of
professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.
I. Fundamental Canons
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.

2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
5. Avoid deceptive acts.
6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the
honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.
II. Rules of Practice
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
(a) If engineers' judgment is overruled under circumstances that endanger life or property, they
shall notify their employer or client and such other authority as may be appropriate.
(b) Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents that are in conformity with
applicable standards.
(c) Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or information without the prior consent of the client or
employer except as authorized or required by law or this Code.
(d) Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or associate in business ventures with any
person or firm that they believe is engaged in fraudulent or dishonest enterprise.
(e) Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of engineering by a person or firm.
(f) Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code shall report thereon to
appropriate professional bodies and, when relevant, also to public authorities, and cooperate
with the proper authorities in furnishing such information or assistance as may be required.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.
(a) Engineers shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or experience in
the specific technical fields involved.

(b) Engineers shall not affix their signatures to any plans or documents dealing with subject
matter in which they lack competence, nor to any plan or document not prepared under their
direction and control.
(c) Engineers may accept assignments and assume responsibility for coordination of an entire
project and sign and seal the engineering documents for the entire project, provided that each
technical segment is signed and sealed only by the qualified engineers who prepared the
segment.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
(a) Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements, or testimony.
They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports, statements, or
testimony, which should bear the date indicating when it was current.
(b) Engineers may express publicly technical opinions that are founded upon knowledge of the
facts and competence in the subject matter.
(c) Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on technical matters that are
inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they have prefaced their comments by explicitly
identifying the interested parties on whose behalf they are speaking, and by revealing the
existence of any interest the engineers may have in the matters.
4. Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
(a) Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of interest that could influence or
appear to influence their judgment or the quality of their services.
(b) Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party
for services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the same project, unless the
circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to by all interested parties.
(c) Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable consideration, directly or
indirectly, from outside agents in connection with the work for which they are responsible.
(d) Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a governmental or quasi-

governmental body or department shall not participate in decisions with respect to services
solicited or provided by them or their organizations in private or public engineering practice.
(e) Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental body on which a
principal or officer of their organization serves as a member.
5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.
(a) Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications or permit misrepresentation of their or their
associates' qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their responsibility in or for
the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other presentations incident to the
solicitation of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers,
employees, associates, joint ventures or past accomplishments.

(b) Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit, or receive, either directly or indirectly, any contribution
to influence the award of a contract by public authority, or which may be reasonably construed
by the public as having the effect or intent of influencing the awarding of a contract. They shall
not offer any gift or other valuable consideration in order to secure work. They shall not pay a
commission, percentage, or brokerage fee in order to secure work, except to a bona fide
employee or bona fide established commercial or marketing agencies retained by them.
III. Professional Obligations
1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards of honesty and
integrity.
(a) Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or alter the facts.
(b) Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they believe a project will not be
successful.
(c) Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of their regular work or
interest. Before accepting any outside engineering employment, they will notify their employers.
(d) Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another employer by false or
misleading pretenses.
(e) Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of the dignity and integrity of
the profession.
2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.
(a) Engineers are encouraged to participate in civic affairs; career guidance for youths; and
work for the advancement of the safety, health, and well-being of their community.
(b) Engineers shall not complete, sign, or seal plans and/or specifications that are not in
conformity with applicable engineering standards. If the client or employer insists on such
unprofessional conduct, they shall notify the proper authorities and withdraw from further service
on the project.
(c) Engineers are encouraged to extend public knowledge and appreciation of engineering and
its achievements.
3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.
(a) Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a material misrepresentation of fact
or omitting a material fact.
(b) Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may advertise for recruitment of personnel.
(c) Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may prepare articles for the lay or technical press,
but such articles shall not imply credit to the author for work performed by others.

4. Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential information concerning the
business affairs or technical processes of any present or former client or employer, or public
body on which they serve.
(a) Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, promote or arrange for new
employment or practice in connection with a specific project for which the engineer has gained
particular and specialized knowledge.
(b) Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, participate in or represent
an adversary interest in connection with a specific project or proceeding in which the engineer
has gained particular specialized knowledge on behalf of a former client or employer.
5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflicting interests.
(a) Engineers shall not accept financial or other considerations, including free engineering
designs, from material or equipment suppliers for specifying their product.
(b) Engineers shall not accept commissions or allowances, directly or indirectly, from
contractors or other parties dealing with clients or employers of the engineer in connection with
work for which the engineer is responsible.
6. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or professional

engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other improper or questionable
methods.
(a) Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept a commission on a contingent basis under
circumstances in which their judgment may be compromised.
(b) Engineers in salaried positions shall accept part-time engineering work only to the extent
consistent with policies of the employer and in accordance with ethical considerations.
(c) Engineers shall not, without consent, use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office facilities
of an employer to carry on outside private practice.
7. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the
professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other engineers. Engineers who
believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present such information to the
proper authority for action.
(a) Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of another engineer for the same
client, except with the knowledge of such engineer, or unless the connection of such engineer
with the work has been terminated.
(b) Engineers in governmental, industrial, or educational employ are entitled to review and
evaluate the work of other engineers when so required by their employment duties.
(c) Engineers in sales or industrial employ are entitled to make engineering comparisons of
represented products with products of other suppliers.

8. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities, provided,
however, that engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out of their practice for
other than gross negligence, where the engineer's interests cannot otherwise be protected.
(a) Engineers shall conform to state registration laws in the practice of engineering.
(b) Engineers shall not use association with a non-engineer, a corporation, or partnership as a
"cloak" for unethical acts.
9. Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and will
recognize the proprietary interests of others.
(a) Engineers shall, whenever possible, name the person or persons who may be individually
responsible for designs, inventions, writings, or other accomplishments.
(b) Engineers using designs supplied by a client recognize that the designs remain the property
of the client and may not be duplicated by the engineer for others without express permission.
(c) Engineers, before undertaking work for others in connection with which the engineer may
make improvements, plans, designs, inventions, or other records that may justify copyrights or
patents, should enter into a positive agreement regarding ownership.
(d) Engineers' designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively to an employer's work are
the employer's property. The employer should indemnify the engineer for use of the information
for any purpose other than the original purpose.
(e) Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and should
keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in
continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature, and attending professional
meetings and seminars.
Appendix B: ASME Code of Ethics
THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering profession by:
I. Using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare;
II. Being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity the public, their employers and
clients; and
III. Striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession.
THE FUNDAMENTAL CANONS
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the
performance of their professional duties.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.

3. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and
shall provide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of those
engineers under their supervision.
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents
or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflicts of interest.
5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall
not compete unfairly with others.
6. Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.
THE ASME CRITERIA FOR INTERPRETATION OF THE CANONS
The ASME criteria for interpretation of the Canons are guidelines and represent the objectives
toward which members of the engineering profession should strive. They are principles which
an engineer can reference in specific situations. In addition, they provide interpretive guidance
to the ASME Board on Professional Practice and Ethics on the Code of Ethics of Engineers.
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the
performance of their professional duties.
a. Engineers shall recognize that the lives, safety, health and welfare of the general public are
dependent upon engineering judgments, decisions and practices incorporated into structures,
machines, products, processes and devices.
b. Engineers shall not approve or seal plans and/or specifications that are not of a design safe
to the public health and welfare and in conformity with accepted engineering standards.
c. Whenever the Engineers' professional judgments are over ruled under circumstances where
the safety, health, and welfare of the public are endangered, the Engineers shall inform their
clients and/or employers of the possible consequences.
(1) Engineers shall endeavor to provide data such as published standards, test codes, and
quality control procedures that will enable the users to understand safe use during life
expectancy associated with the designs, products, or systems for which they are responsible.
(2) Engineers shall conduct reviews of the safety and reliability of the designs, products, or
systems for which they are responsible before giving their approval to the plans for the design.
(3) Whenever Engineers observe conditions, directly related to their employment, which they
believe will endanger public safety or health, they shall inform the proper authority of the
situation.
d. If engineers have knowledge of or reason to believe that another person or firm may be in
violation of any of the provisions of these Canons, they shall present such information to the
proper authority in writing and shall cooperate with the proper authority in furnishing such further
information or assistance as may be required.

2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.
a. Engineers shall undertake to perform engineering assignments only when qualified by

education and/or experience in the specific technical field of engineering involved.
b. Engineers may accept an assignment requiring education and/or experience outside of their
own fields of competence, but their services shall be restricted to other phases of the project in
which they are qualified. All other phases of such project shall be performed by qualified
associates, consultants, or employees.
3. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and should
provide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of those engineers under
their supervision.
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or
trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflicts of interest.
a. Engineers shall avoid all known conflicts of interest with their employers or clients and shall
promptly inform their employers or clients of any business association, interests, or
circumstances which could influence their judgment or the quality of their services.
b. Engineers shall not undertake any assignments which would knowingly create a potential
conflict of interest between themselves and their clients or their employers.
c. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party for
services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the same project, unless the
circumstances are fully disclosed to, and agreed to, by all interested parties.
d. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable considerations, for specifying
products or material or equipment suppliers, without disclosure to their clients or employers.
e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept gratuities, directly or indirectly, from contractors, their
agents, or other parties dealing with their clients or employers in connection with work for which
they are responsible. Where official public policy or employers' policies tolerate acceptance of
modest gratuities or gifts, engineers shall avoid a conflict of interest by complying with
appropriate policies and shall avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest.
f. When in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a governmental body or

department, Engineers shall not participate in considerations or actions with respect to services
provided by them or their organization(s) in private or product engineering practice.
g. Engineers shall not solicit an engineering contract from a governmental body or other entity
on which a principal, officer, or employee of their organization serves as a member without
disclosing their relationship and removing themselves from any activity of the body which
concerns their organization.
h. Engineers working on codes, standards or governmental sanctioned rules and specifications

shall exercise careful judgment in their determinations to ensure a balanced viewpoint, and
avoid a conflict of interest.

i. When, as a result of their studies, Engineers believe a project(s) will not be successful, they
shall so advise their employer or client.
j. Engineers shall treat information coming to them in the course of their assignments as
confidential, and shall not use such information as a means of making personal profit if such
action is adverse to the interests of their clients, their employers or the public.
(1) They will not disclose confidential information concerning the business affairs or technical
processes of any present or former employer or client or bidder under evaluation, without his
consent, unless required by law or court order.
(2) They shall not reveal confidential information or finding of any commission or board of which
they are members unless required by law or court order
(3) Designs supplied to Engineers by clients shall not be duplicated by the Engineers for others
without the express permission of the client(s).
k. Engineers shall act with fairness and justice to all parties when administering a construction
(or other) contract.
l. Before undertaking work for others in which Engineers may make improvements, plans,
designs, inventions, or other records which may justify seeking copyrights, patents, or
proprietary rights, Engineers shall enter into positive agreements regarding the rights of
respective parties.
m. Engineers shall admit their own errors when proven wrong and refrain from distorting or
altering the facts to justify their mistakes or decisions.
n. Engineers shall not accept professional employment or assignments outside of their regular
work without the knowledge of their employers.
o. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an employee from other employers or from the market
place by false or misleading representations.
5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not
compete unfairly with others.
a. Engineers shall negotiate contracts for professional services on the basis of demonstrated
competence and qualifications for the type of professional service required.
b. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept professional commissions on a contingent

basis if, under the circumstances, their professional judgments may be compromised.
c. Engineers shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their, or their associates, academic
or professional qualification. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their degrees of
responsibility in or for the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other presentations

used to solicit personal employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning
employers, employees, associates, joint ventures, or their accomplishments.
d. Engineers shall prepare articles for the lay or technical press which are only factual.
Technical Communications for publication (theses, articles, papers, reports,etc.) which are
based on research involving more than one individual (including students and supervising
faculty, industrial supervisor/researcher or other co-workers) must recognize all significant
contributors. Plagiarism, the act of substantially using another's ideas or written materials
without due credit, is unethical.
e. Engineers shall not maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, injure the professional
reputation, prospects, practice or employment of another engineer, nor shall they
indiscriminately criticize another's work.
f. Engineers shall not use equipment, supplies and laboratory or office facilities of their
employers to carry on outside private practice without consent.
6. Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.
a. Engineers shall not knowingly associate with or permit the use of their names or firm names
in business ventures by any person or firm which they know, or have reason to believe, are
engaging in business or professional practices of a fraudulent or dishonest nature.
b. Engineers shall not use association with non-engineers, corporations, or partnerships to

disguise unethical acts.
a. Engineers shall endeavor to extend public knowledge, and to prevent misunderstandings of

the achievements of engineering.
b. Engineers shall be completely objective and truthful in all professional reports, statements or
testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports, statements
or testimony.
c. Engineers, when serving as expert or technical witnesses before any court, commission, or
other tribunal, shall express an engineering opinion only when it is founded on their adequate
knowledge of the facts in issue, their background of technical competence in the subject matter,
and their belief in the accuracy and propriety of their testimony.
d. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on engineering matters which

are inspired or paid for by an interested party, or parties, unless they preface their comments by
identifying themselves, by disclosing the identities of the party or parties on whose behalf they
are speaking, and by revealing the existence of any financial interest they may have in matters
under discussion.
e. Engineers shall be truthful in explaining their work and merit, and shall avoid any act tending
to promote their own interest at the expense of the integrity and honor of the profession or
another individual.

8. Engineers shall consider environmental impact in the performance of their professional

duties.
a. Engineers shall concern themselves with the impact of their plans and designs on the
environment. When the impact is a clear threat to health or safety of the public, then the
guidelines for this Canon revert to those of Canon 1.
9. Engineers shall consider sustainable development in the performance of their professional

duties.
a. Engineers shall consider development that needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations of meet their own needs. When the impact of the trade-off between
economic, ecological and social issues forms a clear threat of health of safety of the public, then
the guidelines for this Canon revert to those of Canon 1
10. Engineers accepting membership in The American Society of Mechanical Engineers by this
action agree to abide by this Society Policy on Ethics and procedures for its implementation.
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS* (AICHE) AIChE Code of Ethics

American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Members of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers shall uphold and advance the
integrity, honor, and dignity of the engineering profession by:
Being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity their employers, their clients, and the
public;
Striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession;
Using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare.
To achieve these goals, members shall:
Hold paramount the safely, health, and welfare- of the public and protect the environment
in performance of their professional duties.
Formally advise their employers or clients (and consider further disclosure, if warranted) if
they perceive that a consequence of their duties will adversely affect the present or future
health or safety of their colleagues or the public.
Accept responsibility for their actions, seek and heed critical review of their work, and offer
objective criticism of the work of others.
Issue statements or present information only in an objective and truthful manner.
b. Engineers should negotiate contracts for professional sendees fairly and on the
basis of demonstrated competence and qualifications for the type of professional
service required.
c. Engineers may request, propose, or accept professional commissions on a con-
tingent basis only under circumstances in which their professional judgments
would not be compromised.
d. Engineers shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their academic or
professional qualifications or experience.
e. Engineers shall give proper credit for engineering work to those to whom credit
is due, and shall recognize the proprietary interests of others. Whenever possible,
they shall name the person or persons who may be responsible for designs, inventions,
writings, or other accomplishments.

f. Engineers may advertise professional services in a way that does not contain
misleading language or is in any other manner derogatory to the dignity of the
profession. Examples of permissible advertising are as follows:
Professional cards in recognized, dignified publications, and listings in rosters or
directories published by responsible organizations, provided that the cards or listings are
consistent in size and content and are in a section of the publication regularly devoted to
such professional cards.
Brochures which factually describe experience, facilities, personnel, and capacity to
render service, providing they are not misleading with respect to the engineer's
participation in projects described.
Display advertising in recognized dignified business and professional publications,
providing it is factual and is not misleading with respect to the engineer's extent of
participation in projects described.
A statement of the engineers' names or the name of the firm and statement of the type of
service posted on projects for which they render services.
Preparation or authorization of descriptive articles for the lay or technical press, which are
factual and dignified. Such articles shall not imply anything more than direct participation
in the project described.
Permission by engineers for their names to be used in commercial advertisements, such
as may be published by contractors, material suppliers, etc., only by means of a modest,
dignified notation acknowledging the engineers' participation in the project described.
Such permission shall not include public endorsement of proprietary products.
g. Engineers shall not maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, injure the professional
reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of another engineer
or indiscriminately criticize another's work.
h. Engineers shall not use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office facilities of
their employers to carry on outside private practice without the consent of their
employers.
Canon 6
Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity
of the engineering profession and shall act with zero tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption.
a. Engineers shall not knowingly engage in business or professional practices of a
fraudulent, dishonest, or unethical nature.
b. Engineers shall be scrupulously honest in their control and spending of monies, and promote
effective use of resources through open, honest, and impartial service with fidelity to the
public, employers, associates, and clients.
Act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees,
avoiding conflicts of interest and never breaching confidentiality.
Treat fairly and respectfully all colleagues and co-workers, recognizing their unique
contributions and capabilities.
Perform professional services only in areas of their competence.
Build their professional reputations on the merits of their services.
Continue their professional development throughout their careers and provide opportunities
for the professional development of those under their supervision.
Never tolerate harassment.
Conduct themselves in a fair, honorable, and respectful manner. (Revised January 17,
2003)

JAPAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS*

Code of Ethics for Civil Engineers
Preamble:
1. In March of 1938, the Japan Society of Civil Engineers promulgated "the Beliefs and
Principles of Practice for Civil Engineers." This had initially been prepared in February of
1933 and was later codified by an entrusted committee on mutual rules of the Japan
Society of Civil Engineers (the Chairman was Dr. Akira Aoyama, an ex-president of the
Society). In 1933, Japan declared its withdrawal from the League of Nations, a turning point
prior to the later Lukouchiano (Marco Polo Bridge) Incident that led to War with China and
the Pacific War. Despite the trends of such an era, the Japan Society of Civil Engineers is
proud of its insight to stipulate its "Beliefs and Principles of Practice for Civil Engineers".
2. The Japan Society of Civil Engineers is composed of engineers who carry out civil
engineering work and researchers who study the relating subjects. Its members are
obliged to strive for: 1) mutual collaboration among its members; 2) contribution to the
progress of science and technology; and 3) direct contribution to civil societies.
The Society has renewed "the Beliefs and Principles of Practice for Civil Engineers" into
the Code of Ethics, solely because the Society has recognized the increasing importance of
the mission and the emerging responsibility shouldered by civil engineers today and in the
future.
Basic Perceptions
1. From the dawn of human history till the present day, civil engineering has contributed to
ensuring human beings safety and enriching their quality of life through constructing,
maintaining, and managing social overhead capital. The current industrial civilization has
especially been supported by great technological achievements, which has remarkably
improved the lives of mankind. However, along with the expansion and diversification of
technological advancement, the influence caused by these phenomena upon nature and
societies has drastically increased in its complexity and magnitude. Civil engineers should
deeply recognize these facts and adhere to the ethical principles of self-disciplined moral
obligation when applying advanced technology.
2. The present generation is responsible for ensuring the sustainability of life-supporting

conditions for generations to come. It is an honorable mission for the present civil

engineers to create and preserve the environment that enhances the coexistence of nature
and mankind.
Code of Ethics
A Civil Engineer Shall
1. Apply his/her technical skills to create, improve, and maintain "beautiful national land,"
"safe and comfortable livelihood," and "prosperous society", thus contributing to society
through his/her knowledge and virtue with an emphasis upon his/her dignity and honor.
2. Respect nature while giving the highest priority to the safety, welfare, and health of
generations today and in the future, and shall endeavor to preserve and work with nature
and the global environment for the sustainable development of mankind.
3. Value traditional technology rooted in indigenous cultures, engage in research and

development of advanced technology, promote international cooperation, deepen mutual
understanding of other cultures, and enhance welfare and safety of human beings.
4. Perform civil engineering work from a broad perspective based on his/her specialized
expertise and experience regardless of his/her organizational affiliation.
5. Publish reports and express opinions based on his/her accumulated expertise and
experience, and live up to his/her own beliefs and conscience.
6. Disclose all relevant information concerning public safety, health, welfare, and sustainable
global development, in an effort to carry out irreversible civil engineering work that is of
long-term and large-scale in nature.
7. Keep a fair and impartial attitude to the public, clients of civil engineering work, and
himself/herself while performing work sincerely.
8. Act as an honest agent or trustee of the employer or client in regard to technical work.
9. Treat everyone fairly without any discrimination against race, religion, sex, or age.
10. Perform work in compliance with applicable laws, ordinances, rules & regulations,
contracts, and other standards, and shall not give, ask, nor receive directly or indirectly any
undue compensation.
11. Understand the function, forms, and structural characteristics of civil engineering
facilities and structures. In their planning, design, construction, maintenance, and disposal,

apply not only advanced technology but traditional technology as well while preserving the
ecosystem and the beauty it contains, while staying mindful to preserve historical heritage.
12. Strive to enhance his/her own expertise, study diligently concepts and engineering
methods, and contribute to technological development through informing academic
societies of the results of these efforts.
13. Endeavor to cultivate human resources by effectively utilizing his/her own personality,
knowledge, and experience while providing support for others to enhance their professional
proficiency.
14. Actively explain the significance and role of his/her own work and respond sincerely to any
criticism of such explanation. Further, evaluate objectively the work completed by
himself/herself and by others, and express positively individual opinions.
15. Live up to the Code of Ethics stipulated by the Society while continuously seeking to
enhance the social status of civil engineers. In particular, members of the Society shall
take the initiative of professional dignity by observing this Code of Ethics.

CHAPTER-6
ETHICS AND MORAL REASONING

Ethical or moral dilemmas are situation in which moral reasons come into conflict or in which the
application of moral values are unclear and it is not immediately clear what is to do?
Ethical dilemmas arise in Engineering because moral values are many and varied and can
make competing claims. Although moral dilemmas comprise the most difficult occasions for
moral reasoning. They constitute a relatively small percentage of moral choices that is decisions
involving moral values. Majority of moral choices are clear but we fail to act responsibly because
of negligence and weakness of will.
We start by choices involving moral values into routine decisions which involve technological
development, which are shaped by periodic moral dilemmas. Then, we discuss some aspects in
resolving ethical dilemmas taking help from the applicable codes of ethics. Lastly we also use
additional role of technological codes which put limitations on it.
If we understand moral choices broadly as decisions involving moral values then the
development can be understood as a series of routine moral choices interspersed with
occasional moral dilemmas.
The decisions-making process of engineers and managers appear to be purely technological
and economical. But it has moral dimensions in four general directions. These are:
a) Safety
b) Environmental protection
c) Consumer usefulness
d) Economic benefits
2.1 Steps to resolve ethical dilemmas:

The reasonable solutions to ethical dilemmas are clear, informed and well-reasoned. Clear
refers to moral clarify i.e., clarity about which moral values are at stake and how they pertain to
the situation. It also means conceptual clarity i.e., precision in making the key concepts
applicable in situation.
Informing means knowing and appreciating the implications of morally relevant facts. In
addition, it also means being aware of alternative courses of action and what they involve.
Well-reasoned means that good judgment is exercised in integrating the relevant moral
values and facts to arrive at a morally desirable solution.
These characteristics of reasonable solutions also enters as steps in resolving ethical
dilemmas. By steps it means activities that are carried out jointly and in repeating patterns.
Thus a preliminary moral values and relevant facts might be followed by conceptual
clarification and additional facts gathering which in turns give real understanding of the
applicable values and implications of relevant facts.
2.2 Steps which are used to resolve dilemmas are:

1. Moral clarity: Identify the relevant moral values: The most basic step in confronting
ethical dilemmas is to become aware of them. This means identifying the moral values and
reasons applicable in the situation and bearing in mind as further investigations are made.
These values and reasons might be obligations, rights, goods, ideals or other moral

consideration. But the most useful resource in identifying ethical dilemmas in engineering
profession are professional code of ethics as interpreted in light of ones ongoing
professional experience.
2. Conceptual clarity: Be clear about key concepts: Professionalism requires being a
faithful agent of ones employer but it does not mean whatever it is being directed to be
followed. This might be different things in particular as the boss directs could be of short
term view that could harm the long-term interests of the corporation.
3. Informed about the facts: Obtain relevant information: This means gathering information
that is necessary for the application of moral values. Sometimes the primary difficulty in
resolving moral dilemmas is uncertainty about the facts rather than conflicting values per se.
4. Informed about the options: Consider all options: Initially ethical dilemmas force us into
a two-way choice. Do this or do that. Either bow down to superior or blow the whistle. A
closer look often reveals additional options. It means some alternate way also comes up
which should be recognized and implemented.
5. Well-reasoned: Make a reasonable decision:
We should arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing all the relevant moral
reasons and facts. It is a deliberation aimed at integrating all the relevant reasons, facts and
values in a morally reasonable manner.
Often a code of ethics provides a straightforward solution to dilemmas but not always.
Codes are not recipe books that contain a comprehensive list of absolute rules together with
precise hierarchies of relative rules. But the code does emphasis one very important
hierarchy. Hold paramount the public safety, health and welfare. It means that the
responsibility to be a faithful agent of the employer does not override professional judgment
in important matters of public safety.
2.3 Importance of codes:

Ethics code state the moral responsibilities of engineers as it is seen by the profession and as
represented by the professional codes. As they express the professions collective commitment
to ethics. Codes are very important not only in stressing engineers responsibilities but also in
supporting the freedom needed to them.
2.4 Codes of Ethics:

Basically code of ethics provide a framework for ethical judgment for a professional. The
essential part is framework. No code can be totally comprehensive and cover all possible ethical
situations that a professional engineer is likely to encounter. Rather codes serve as a starting
point for ethical decision making or ethical dilemmas. A code can also express the commitments
to ethical conduct shared by members of a profession. Ethical codes do not establish new
ethical principles. They simply represent principles and standards that are already accepted as
responsible engineers practice. A code expresses these principles in a coherent,
comprehensive and accessible manner. Finally code of ethics defines roles and responsibilities
of professionals.
It is important to note that what code of ethics is not. It is not a recipe for ethical behavior but
it is only a framework for arriving at good ethical decisions or choices. A code of ethics is
never a substitute for sound judgment. A code of ethics is not a legal document that one
cannot be arrested or punished for the violations of its provisions. It does not create new

moral or ethical principles. In fact, it spells out the ways in which moral and ethical principles
apply to professional practice. It also helps engineer to apply moral principles to the unique
situations encountered in professional practice.
Codes of ethics helps to create an environment within a profession where ethical behavior is
the norm. It also serves as a guide or reminder of how to act in specific situations.
Codes of ethics can also be used to bolster an individuals position with regard to a certain
activity. The codes also provide a little backup for an individual who is being pressured by a
superior to behavior unethically.
Codes of ethics can also bolster the individuals position by indicating that these is a
collective sense of correct behavior.
Finally, codes of ethics can indicate to others that the profession is seriously concerned
about responsible and professional conduct.
2.5 Code of ethics play following essential roles:

1. Serving and protecting the public: As we know engineering involves advanced expertise
that professionals have and the public lacks and also considerable dangers to a vulnerable
public. According by engineers stand in a fiduciary relationship with the public i.e., trust and
trustworthiness are essential. Code of ethics functions as a commitment by the profession
as a whole that engineers will serve the public health, safety and welfare. In one way or
another, the remaining functions of codes all contribute to this primary function.
2. Guidance: Code of ethics provide helpful guidance by representing the main obligations of
engineers. Because codes should be brief to be effective they indentify primary
responsibilities. More specific directions may be given in supplementary statements or
guidelines, which explains how to apply the codes.
3. Inspiration: Since code of ethics express a professions collective commitment to ethics,
they provide a positive stimulus for ethical conduct. In a way, they express what it means to
be a member of a profession committed to responsible conduct in promoting safety, health
and welfare of the public.
4. Shared standards: The diversity of moral viewpoints among individual engineers make it
essential that professions establish explicit standards in particular minimum standards. In
this way, public is assured of a standard of excellence on which it can depends and
professionals are provided a fair playing field in competing the clients.
5. Support for responsible professionals: Codes of ethics give positive support to
professionals seeking to act ethically. A publicly proclaimed code allows an engineer to act
unethically. Moreover codes can potentially serve as legal support for engineers criticized
for living up to work related professional obligations.
6. Education and mutual understanding: Codes of ethics can be used by professional and in
classroom to prompt discussion and reflection on moral issues. Widely circulated and
officially approved by professional, codes encourage a shared understanding among
professionals, public and Government organizations about the moral responsibilities of
engineers.
7. Deterrence and discipline: Codes can also serve as the formal basis for investigating
unethical conduct. Where such investigation is possible, a deterrent for immoral behavior is
thereby provided.

8. Contribution to professions image: Codes of ethics present a positive image to the public of an
ethically committed profession. Where needed, the image can help engineers more effectively serve
the public. It can also win greater powers of self-regulation for the profession itself, while lessening
the demand for more government regulation.
2.6 Abuse of codes:

When codes are not taken seriously within a profession they amount to a kind of bridge that
increases public cynicism about the profession. Probably the worst abuse of engineering codes
is to restrict honest moral effort on the part of individual engineers to preserve the professions
public image and protect the status quo. The best way to increase trust is by encouraging and
helping engineers to speak freely and responsibly about public safety and well being. This
includes a tolerance for criticism of the codes themselves rather than allowing codes to become
sacred documents that have to be accepted uncritically.

CHAPTER-7
ETHICAL PROBLEMS
Ethical problems are more or less same as arise in moral dilemmas. It arises when some
unfortunate incident happens which arises the questions before us to answers which is difficult
to answer then at that time? For example, why it was needed or required to run such a project
which could pose a threat to human life or environment. But the question also arises what if this
project is not taken then it will hinders the development of mankind. And if some accidents
happen then it should be analyzed from all the angles of how and what were the others
problems which were not rectified?
In other to develop ethical problem solving technique, we must look at several ethical theories in
order to have a framework for decision making.
Ethical problems solving is not as cut and paste like solving as in engineering problems.
In engineering ethics, there are several theories that will be considered. The relatively large
number of theories does not indicate a weakness in theoretical understanding of ethics.
Rather it indicates the complexity of ethical problems and diversity of approaches to ethical
problems solving that have been developed over the centuries.
Having multiple theories to apply actually enriches the problem solving process which allows
problem to be looked at from different angles, since each theory stresses different aspects
of problem.
Even though we will use multiple theories to examine ethical problems but each theory
applied to ethical problems but each theory applied to ethical problem will not necessarily
lead to a different solution. But our ethical problem solving technique will utilize different
theories and approaches to analyze the problem and they try to determine the best
solutions.
3.1 Moral theories:

A moral theory defines terms in uniform ways and links ideas and problems together in
consistent ways. This is how; scientific theories also organize ideas, define terms and facilitate
problem solving. There are many ethical theories and it has been described earlier. But here,
we will focus on mainly four ethical theories which provide the important moral concept to solve
the ethical problems which are encountered in engineering profession.
The following moral theories are:

1. Utilitarianism:
Utilitarianism states that those actions are good that serve to maximize human well beings.
The emphasis in utilitarianism is not on maximizing the well-being of the individual, but
rather on maximizing the well-being of the society as a whole and it is a somewhat of a
collective approach. An example of this is building of dams. Dams often lead to great benefit
to society by providing stable supplies of drinking water, irrigation, power generation, flood
control etc. However, these benefits often come at the expense of people who live nearby
dams who can be affected by floods and may lose lands also. Utilitarianism tries to balance

the needs of society with needs of an individual with an emphasis on what will provide the
most benefit to the most people.
Utilitarianism is fundamental to many types of engineering analysis including cost benefit
analysis and risk benefit analysis.
However, as good as the utilitarianism sound, there are some problems with it first, the
problem arise as in case of building of dams, sometimes what is best for everyone may be
bad for a particular individual or group of individuals. Another problem with utilitarianism
principle is, its implementation depends greatly on knowing what will lead to the most good.
Sometimes, it is impossible to know exactly what the consequences of an action are. It is
often impossible to do a complete set of experiments to determine all of the potential
outcomes, especially when humans are involved as subject of the experiment. So
maximizing the benefit to the society involves guesswork and risk that the best guess might
be wrong. Despite these objections, utilitarianism is a valuable tool for ethical problem
solving.
There are many flavors of the basic tenets of utilitarianism. Two of these are, Act
Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism focuses on individual actions rather
than on rules. According to John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism proponent stated that most of the
common rules of morality (for e.g., dont steal, be honest etc) are good guidelines derived
from human experience. So, individual actions should be judged based on whether the most
good was produced in a given situation and rules can be broken if doing so will lead to most
good.
Rule utilitarianism holds that moral rules are most important. It states that although to these
rules might not always maximize good in a particular situation but overall adhering to moral
rules will ultimately lead to most good.
Although these two different types of utilitarianism can lead to slightly different results when
applied in specific situation.
2. Cost-Benefit Analysis:
One tool often used in engineering analysis especially when trying to determine whether a
project make sense is cost-Benefit analysis. In cost-benefit analysis, the costs of project are
assessed as are the benefits. Only those projects with the highest ratio of benefits to cost will be
implemented. This principle is similar to the utilitarian goal of maximizing the overall good.
But this cost benefit ratio cant take into account many of the more subjective aspects of the
decision. For example, from a pure cost-befit analysis, it might seem that the building of a dam
is an excellent idea but this analysis wont include other issues such as loss of cultivating field
area, endangered species etc with no current economic values.
It should be noted that although cost-benefit analysis shares many similarities with
utilitarianism but it is not really an ethical analysis tool. The goal of an ethical analysis is to
determine what the ethical path is. The goal of cost-benefit analysis is to determine the
feasibility of a project based on costs. When we look at an ethical problem, the first step
should be to determine what the right course of action is and then factor in the financial
costs in choosing between ethical alternatives.

3. Duty ethics and right ethics

These two ethical theories are similar to each other and hold that those actions are good that
respect the rights of the individual. Here, good consequences for the society as a whole are not
the only moral consideration.
According to Immanuel Kant, moral duties are fundamental and ethical actions are those actions
that could be written down on a list of duties for e.g, be honest be fair, maintain rule of law and
equality etc. These actions are duties because they express respect for persons, express an
unqualified regard for autonomous moral agents and are universal principles. Once ones duties
are recognized, the ethically correct moral actions are obvious. In this, way ethical acts are a
result of proper performance of ones duties.
Right ethics: According to John Locke, Right Ethics hold that people have fundamental rights
that other people have a duty to respect. Duty ethics and right ethics are really just two different
side of same coin. Both of these theories achieve the same end. Individuals must be respected
and actions are ethical that maintain this respect for the individual. In duty ethics, people have
duties; an important one is to protect the right of others. And in right ethics, people have
fundamental rights that other have duties to protect.
As there was problem with utilitarianism, there is problem with the duty and right ethics
theories. First, the basic rights of one person may conflict with basic rights of another group.
How to we decide whose rights have priority
As in the case of dam building, people have right to use their property. If their land comes in
the way of building dam, then right ethics would hold that his property right is paramount and
is sufficient to stop the building of dam.
In this manner, a single property holders objection would stop the dam building project.
However, this is need for others living in nearby area to have a reliable water supply and to
be safe from continual flooding. Now the question arises, whose right is paramount? Right
and duty ethics do not resolve this conflict very well so, the utilitarian approach of trying to
determine the most good is more useful in this case.
The second problem with duty and right ethics is that these theories do not always account
for the overall good of society very well. Since the emphasis is on the individual, the good of
single individual can be paramount compared to what is good for society as a whole. Thus,
any complete analysis of an ethical problem must incorporate multiple theories if valid
conclusions are to be drawn.
4. Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics is interested in determining what kind of people we should be. Virtue is often
defined as moral distinction and goodness. A virtuous person exhibits good and beneficial
qualities. In virtue ethics, actions are considered right if they support good character traits
(virtues) and wrong if they support bad character traits (vices). It focuses on words such as
responsibility, honesty, competence and loyalty which are virtues. Other virtues may include
trust or things, fairness, caring, citizenship and respect. Vices could include dishonesty,
disloyalty, irresponsibility or incompetence. As we see, virtue ethics is closely tied to personal
characters. We do good things because we are virtuous people and seek to enhance these
character taints in ourselves and in others.

In many ways, this theory may seem to be mostly personal ethics and not particularly
applicable to engineering ethics. But personal morality should not be separated from
professional ethics. If a behavior is virtuous in the individual life, the behavior is virtuous in
his or her professional life as well. But often questions arise, how virtue ethics can be
applied to engineering profession? To use virtue ethics, we should first identify the virtues or
vices that are applicable to the situation. Then, we should determine what course of action it
suggests.
3.2 Personal vs. corporate morality

This is a tricky issue in engineering ethics. Is there a distinction between the ethics practiced by
an individual and the ethics practiced by a corporation? Or can a corporation be a moral agent
as an individual? This dilemma comes most into focus in a discussion of virtue ethics. Can a
company truly be expected to display honesty or loyalty? There are strictly human traits and
cannot be ascribed to a corporation. In strict sense, a company cannot be a moral agent and yet
companies have many dealings with individuals or groups of people.
Then how we would resolve this problem? In their capacity to deal with individuals, corporations
should be considered pseudo-moral agents and should be held accountable in the same way
that individuals are even if the ability to do this within the legal system is limited. In other words,
with regard to an ethical problem responsibility for corporate wrongdoing should not be hidden
behind a corporate mask. Just because it is not a really morally agent like a person does not
mean that a corporation can do whatever it pleases. Instead, in its interactions with individuals
or communities a corporation must respect the right of individuals and should exhibit the same
virtues that we expect of individuals.
Which theory is important?

As we have discussed different ethical theories, now the question arises, how do we decide
which theory is applicable to a given problem? In solving ethical problems, we do not have to
choose among these theories. Rather we can use all of them to analyze a problem from
different angles and see what result each of these theories give us. Thus, this allows us to
examine a problem from different perspectives to see what conclusions each one reaches.
Frequently, the result will be the same even through the theories are different. For example, a
chemical plant nears a small city that discharges a hazardous waste into the ground water. If
the city takes its water from wells, the water supply for the city will be compromised and
significant health problems for the community may occur. Right ethics states that this pollution is
unethical, since it causes harm to many of the residents.
An utilitarian view also comes to the same conclusion since the economic benefits of the plant
would certainly be outweighed by the negative effect of the pollution and the costs required to
ensure a safe municipal water supply. Virtue ethics states that discharging wastes into
groundwater is irresponsible and harmful to individuals and so should not be done. In this case,
all of the ethical theories lead to the same conclusion.
Generally, right ethics and duty ethics should take precedence over utilitarian consideration.
This is because; the rights of individuals should receive relatively stronger weight than the
needs of society as a whole. For e.g., an action that led to the death of even one persons is
generally viewed very negatively regardless of the overall benefit to society. After thorough
analysis of all these theories a balanced judgment can be formed.

Example of problem solving methods:

Acceptance of gifts/bribery:
One of the many grey areas of engineering ethics is the acceptance of gifts from vendors or the
offerings of gifts to customers to secure business. The difficulty arises when gifts have potential
to become bribe or to be perceived of as bribes. Generally, engineers find themselves either in
the position of dealing with vendors or acting as vendors themselves and working on sales to
other engineers or companies.
As we all know, bribery is illegal universally. In many cases there is a thin line between gift
and bribery. So, the distinction has to do with the value of the gift. Always, it has to do with
the intent of the gift.
The ethical reasons for not tolerating bribery are:
First: bribery corrupts our free-market economic system and is anti-competitive. Unlike the
practice of being the best product at the best price, bribery does not reward the most
efficient producer.
Second: bribery is sellout to rich. Bribery corrupts justice and public policy by allowing rich
people to make all the rules. In business, it guarantees that only large, powerful corporation
will survive since they are more capable of providing bribes. A small start-up company does
not have the resources to complete in an environment where expensive favours are required
to secure business.
Third: bribery treats people as commodities that can be bought and sold.
So, this practice is derogatory and corrupts both the buyer and seller.
Bribery can easily be analyzed by looking at the factual, conceptual and moral issues.
Factual points would be who offered a gift? What is the value of gift? What was its purpose?
Conceptual issues would be somewhat more difficult since it must be determined whether
the gift is of sufficient value to influence a decision whether that influence is the intent of the
gift. Once the conceptual issues have been worked out and it is clear whether or not the gift
is bribe, the moral issue is often very clear.
How to avoid bribery problems:

This is a tricky question, how does one ensure that accepting a gift does not cross the line into
bribery? The first and foremost method is to look at company policy. Since all large and small
companies have very clear rules about what is acceptable?
In the absence of any guidelines, a preapproval from ones senior is the best guide to what is
acceptable?

CHAPTER 8
RISK AND SAFETY IN ENGINEERING
One of the most important duties of an engineers is to ensure the safety of the people who will
be affected by the products that is designed by engineers. All of the code of ethics of
professional engineers stress on the importance of protecting the health and safety of public in
the engineers duties.
Safety:
This term can be at the same time very precise and vague. It is precise because in many cases,
we can readily distinguish a safe design from an unsafe one. It is vague because to some extent
safety is a value judgment.
It is impossible to discuss safety without risk.
Risk:
It is a key element in any engineering design. It is impossible to design anything to be
completely risk free.
Risk is the possibility of suffering harm or loss. Risk is sometime used synonymously with
danger.
Various kind of risk are:
1. Voluntary and involuntary risk: Many consider something safer if they, knowingly take on the
risk but would find it unsafe if forced to do so.
2. Short-term and long-term consequence: Something that might cause a short-lived illness or
disability seems safer than something that will result in permanent disability.
3. Expected probability: Many might find a one in million chance of a severe injury to be an
acceptable risk, whereas 50:50 chance of a fairly minor injury might be unacceptable.
4. Reversible effects: Something will seem less risky if the bad effects are ultimately reversible.
5. Threshold level for risk: Something that is risky only at fairly high exposures will seem safer
than something with a uniform exposes to risk.
6. Delayed and immediate risk: An activity whose harm is delayed for many years will seem
much less risky than something with an immediate effect.
Thus, whether something is unsafe or risky often depends on which is asked. Something that
one person feels is safe may seem very unsafe to someone else. This creates some confusion
for the engineers who has to decide whether a project is safe enough to be pursued. In making
a decision, some analysis methods, especially line drawing and flow charting can be used.
Ultimately, it is up to the engineer and company management to use their professional judgment
to determine whether a project can be safely implemented.
4.1 Engineers and safety

Since safety is an essential aspect of duty as an engineer. There are four criteria that must be
met to help ensure a safe design.
First: The minimum requirement is that a design must comply with the applicable laws.

Second: a design must meet the standard of accepted engineering practice we cant create a
design that is less safe than what everyone else in the profession understand to be acceptable.
Third: The engineer must attempt to foresee potential misuses of the product by the consumer
and must design to avoid these problems.
Fourth: Once the product is designed both prototype and finished devices must be rigorously
tested. The testing is not just to determine whether product meets the criteria. It should also
involve to see if the product is safe.
4.2 Designing for safety
There are various ways to determine safety in design:

1. Define the problem: This includes determining the needs and requirements
2. Generate several solutions: Multiple alternative designs should be created.
3. Analyze each solution to determine the pros and cons of each. This includes in determining
the consequences of each design solution and also determines whether it solves the
problem.
4. Test the solutions
5. Select the best solution
6. Implement the chosen solution
4.4 Risk-Benefit analysis

The method which engineers use to help analyze risk and to determine whether a project should
proceed is called risk-benefit analysis. This technique is similar to cost-benefit analysis.
In this, the risk and benefits of a project are assigned money value and the most favorable
ratio between risk and benefits is sought.
Cost-benefit analysis is tricky it because it is difficult to assign realistic monetary values to
alternatives. This task is especially difficult in risk-benefit analysis because risks are much
hardy to quantity and more difficult to a realistic price on it.
In doing risk-benefit analysis, one must consider who takes the risks and who reaps the
benefits. It is important to be sure that those who are taking the risks are also those who are
benefiting. The ethical way to implement risk-benefit analysis is for the engineering to
ensure to the greatest extent possible that the risk as well as the benefits of his/her design is
shared equally in the society.
Accidents
As we know, the engineers most important job is to protect the safety of the public and saves
from accidents. There are mainly three types of accidents:
a) Procedural
Procedural Accidents: There are most common and are the result of someone making a
bad choice or not following established procedures. For e.g. in airline industry, procedural
accident are frequency labeled as pilot error procedural accidents are fairly well
understood and are amendable to solution through increased training, more supervision,
new laws or regulations or closer scrutiny by regulators.

b) Engineered
Engineered Accident: These accidents are caused by flaws in the design. These can be of
failures of materials, devices that dont perform as expected. For e.g., micro cracks
sometimes develop in turbine blades in aircraft engines. When these cracks become severe
enough, the blade can fail and break apart. Engineered failures should be anticipated in the
design state and should be caught and corrected during testing.
c) Systematic
Systematic Accidents: These are harder to understand and control. They are characteristics of
complex technologies as well it involves many persons at different stages of the operation. For
e.g., Airline industry since it involves baggage handlers, security personnels, technology, air
traffic controller, flight alternates, pilots, government regulators and inspector.

CHAPTER 9
THE RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ENGINEERS
There are many rights and responsibilities that engineers must exercise in the course of their
professional careers. Often these rights and responsibilities overlap. However the codes dont
discuss any of the professional rights and responsibility. An engineer has a duty to protect the
public by blowing whistle if necessary when he perceives that something improper is being done
in his organization. The engineer has a right to do this even if his employers feels that it is bad
for the organization.
5.1 Professional Responsibilities

a) Confidentiality and proprietary information:
A hallmark of nay profession is that members of the profession keep certain information
of their client secret or confidential. Confidentiality is mentioned in most engineering
codes of ethics. This is well established principle in professions such as medicine
where the patients medical information must be kept confidential and in law, where
lawyer-client privilege is a well-established principle. This requirement applies equally to
engineers who have an obligation to keep proprietary information of their employer or
client confidential.
Information is to be keep confidential such as test results and data, information about
upcoming unreleased products and designs or formulae for products. Most organization
have strict policies regarding the disclosure of business information and require that all
employees sign them. Engineers working for a client are required to sign a non-
disclosure agreement. Engineers working for government especially in defence sector,
have even more stringent requirement about secrecy placed on them.
In Engineering ethics, there are many grey areas that must be considered. For example
a common problem is the question of how long confidentiality extends after an
engineers leaves employment with the organization. Legally, an engineer is required to
keep information confidential even after he/she has moved to other organization in the
same technical area.
In practice, doing so can be difficult. Even if no specific information is divulged to a new
employer, an engineer takes with him/her a great deal of knowledge of what works,
what materials to choose and what components not to choose. This information might
be considered proprietary by former employer. However, when going to a new job, an
engineer cannot be expected to forget all of the knowledge already gained during years
of professional experience.
This situation arises a problem. Individuals have the right to seek career advancement
wherever they choose even from a competitor of their current employer. Companies
have the right to keep information away from their competitors. The burden of ensuring
that both of these competing interest are recognized and maintained lies with the
individual engineers.
b) Conflict of interest:

Avoiding conflict of interest in any profession is important. A conflict of interest arises

when an interest if pursued could keep a professional from meeting one of his/her
obligations. For e.g, a civil engineer working for a state department of highways might
have a financial interest in a company that has a bid on a construction project. If that
engineer has some responsibility for determining which companys bid to accept, then
there is clear conflict of interest. Pursuing his/her financial interest in the company might
be engineer not to objectively and faithfully discharge professional duties to his/her
employer. The engineering codes are very clear on the need to avoid conflicts of
interest like this.
There are three types of conflict of interest.
First: There are actual conflicts of interest that we saw in the above example. Which
compromise objective engineering judgment.
Second: There are potential conflict of interest, which threaten to easily become actual
conflict of interest. For e.g., an engineer might become friend with supplier. There is a
potential that engineers judgment might become conflicted by the desire to maintain
friendship.
Third: There are appearance of conflict of interest, which arises due to potential conflict
of interest. For e.g, when an engineer is paid based on a percentage of the cost of
design.
A good way to avoid conflict of interest is to follow the guidance of the company policy.
In the absence of such policy, opinion or advice can be taken from seniors.
In absence of these options, it is best to examine our motives and use ethical problem
solving techniques. We can also look at professional codes of ethics that uniformly
forbid conflicts of interest. Some of the codes have very explicit statements that can
help to determine whether or not, the situation is a conflict on interest.
5.2 Professional Rights

As we know the professional status of engineering confers many responsibilities on the
engineer. Engineers also have rights that go along with these responsibilities. Not all these
rights come about due to the professional status of engineering. These are rights that
individuals have regardless of the professional status, including the right to privacy, the
right to participate in activities of ones own choosing outside of work, the right to
reasonably object to company policies without fear of retribution and the right to due
process.
The most fundamental right of an engineer is the right of professional conscience. This
involves the right to exercise professional judgment in discharging ones duties and to
exercise this judgment in an ethical manner. This right is basic to an engineers
professional practice
The right of professional conscience can have many aspects. For example: Right of
conscientious refusal. This is the right to refuse to engage in unethical behavior. It
means, no employer can ask or pressure an employee into doing something that he/she
considers unethical and unacceptable.

5.3Whistle-Blowing:
Whistle blowing is the act by an employee of informing the public or higher management of
unethical or illegal behavior by an employee or supervisor. Whistle blowing lies between
rights and responsibilities. According to codes of ethics, engineers have a duty to protect
the health and safety of the public so in many cases an engineer is compelled to blow the
whistle on acts or projects that harm these values. Engineers also have the professional
right to disclose wrongdoing within their organization and expect to see appropriate action
taken.
5.3.1Types of whistle blowing:
There are two types of whistle blowing
a) Internal
b) External
a) Internal whistle blowing: It happens when an employee goes over the head of an
immediate supervisor to report a problem to a higher level of management or all levels
of management are bypassed and the employee goes directly to head of an
organization. However, when it is done, it is kept within the organization.
b) External whistle blowing:It occurs when the employees goes outside the organization
and reports wrongdoing to newspapers or law enforcement authorities.
Either type of whistle-blowing is likely to be perceived as disloyalty. However,
keeping it within the organization is often seen as less serious than going outside
the organization.
5.3.2 When should whistle blowing be attempted?
Whistle-blowing should be attempted if the following four conditions are met.
i) Need: There must be a clear and important harm that can be avoided by blowing
the whistle. In deciding whether to go to public, the employee needs to have a
sense of proportion.
ii) Proximity: The whistle-blower must be in very clear position to report on the
problem. Hearsay is not adequate. Firsthand knowledge is essential to making an
effective case about wrongdoing. It means that the whistle-blower must have
enough expertise in the area to make a realistic assessment of the situation.
iii) Capability: The whistle-blower must have a reasonable chance of success in
stopping the harmful activity. The chance cannot be taken which can jeopardize the
carrier and financial security of person.
iv) Last resort: Whistle- blowing should be attempted only if there is no one else more
capable or more prominent to blow the whistle and all other lines of action within the
context of the organization have been explored and shut off.
These four condition tell us when whistle-blowing is morally acceptable. But when is
an engineer morally obligated to blow the whistle?
The whistle may be blown if the engineers feel that the matter is sufficiently
important. Engineer is only obligated to blow the whistle when there is great
imminent danger of harm to someone if the activity continues and four condition
have been met. A great deal of introspection and reflection is required before
whistle-blowing is undertaken.

MCQ Practice: Ethics

(1.) You are the chairperson of a leading PSU which is in the process of undergoing a
restructuring and so employee promotion and pay raise was put on hold for the post six
months. However, the restructuring has taken longer than expected and had stretched to a
year. Because of this you see the signs of disgruntlement, disobedience, frustration and low
motivation amongst your employees. Recently the number of resignations has also been
increasing. You need to do something fast before the work culture in your organization is
destroyed. So you:-
(a.) Call a meeting and inform you employees about how much the organization has taken
care of them and tell them it is their turn to have patience and wait for another two months
before the pay scales and promotions are announced.
(b.) Meet with each employee and discuss your dilemma asking them to support the
organization in this process. Also let your employees know that you will speed up the
restructuring process and will bring finality to everything 15 days after you finish all meetings
with employees.
(c.) Call a meeting and discuss your dilemma with your employees asking them to support
the organization in this process. Also let your employees know that you will speed up the
restructuring process and will bring finality to everything within 15 days.
(d.) Meet with each employee and discuss their future plans informing them categorically
that your organization cannot meet their requirements in the next six months you also let
them know that they are free to look for opportunities elsewhere.
(2.) You are a dealer of well-known Personal Computer brand in India and have recently
been asked by the State to submit a tender to supply PC to various government schools in
the state. The contract that will be awarded is for a large amount and there is your chance to
win it. Two days before the tender is to be opened you get a call from a clerk in the
procurement division asking you to give him 5% of the tender amount. In order to be assured
that you win the contract. You know that this contract will establish your organization for the
long-term and so you:-
(a.) Agree and ask him for the details of how and when you need to pay him this amount.
(b.) Immediately disagree and tell him you will win the contract the right way or not at all.
(c.) Immediately disagree, take down details of the conversation and inform the higher
authority so that they may take action against him.
(d.) Listen to the clerk and tell him you are not sure about taking such a decision.
(3.) You are managing the payment section of the State Electricity Board. Your department
is severely understaffed and you have been trying to cope with increased work demands as
best as you can. Your staff has been very supportive but in the last few months you have
seen a perceptible change. There have been more people calling in sick, less motivation
when new work is assigned and a general lack of energy in the department. Despite
repeated requests you find that your superiors have no plans to help staff of your
department. You take matters into your hands by:-
(a.) Discussing matters with your departments and sending your resignation at once

(b.) Apprising your team of the situation and letting them know that you are doing your best
to improve things.
(c.) Bringing in employee improvement and motivational activities and ensuring that
employees work on a rotational system during the day.
(d.) Reducing the number of hours per day that the payment section is open to the public
and using the remaining hours in the day to complete the administrative work that follows.
(4.) You are working as a consultant on a project with a NGO. You have been given a scope
of work and also been told that you will receive support from a specific executive working in
the NGO. The project starts and soon you find that there is not only no support from the
executive but also you find yourself forced to handle all contingencies that arise due to the
executives incompetency. You are aware that your own responsibilities will suffer if this goes
on and so you:-
(a.) Discuss the matter with the department head and ask him to assign another executive to
help support your consultancy
(b.) Discuss the matter with the department head and ask hum for a solution given the
constraints of the project.
(c.) Discuss the matter with the head of department and ask for an increase in your
consultancy fee to compensate the extra effort that you have to make.
(d.) Speak to the executive and try to understand the matter so that you can reach a
solution.
(5.) You are a Labour Welfare Officer in a public sector unit. An employee of your PSU died
on duty and on compassionate grounds his wife is offered a job in the organization. The job
that can be offered to her, according to her qualification is that of a receptionist. But she is
not good of spoken English, which is one of many requirements for the job. The lady is very
poor and she needs some help immediately.
What you would do for her help?
(a.) You will first ask her to hone here English language skills and then come back to you.
(b.) You will first hire her and then see what needs to be done.
(c.) You will give her some money from your own pocket and look for some other jobs for
her.
(d.) You will recruit her as a receptionist and will ask her to undergo the English language
training?
(6.) The hottest selling product of the fast food company XYZ has been found to have
additive not permitted by the food and Beverage control agency which has issued warming
letter to the company. You as the head of the production will
(a.) Stop production of the said product and save the company from future trouble
(b.) Make some modification in the product by using a permitted additive without comprising
the quality of the product
(c.) Consult with your lawyer and prepare to go to court challenging the agencys decision.
(d.) You will ask the officials of the agency to grant six months time so that you can gradually
phase out the product from the market.

(7.) You are working as the head of a Navaratra Organization. There was a mishap in a unit
of your organization and an employee lost his life due to lack of safety and security
arrangements. Now the issue has been highlighted by the labour union of the unit and it has
called for a strike. It is very important for you to maintain the production. In a situation like
this, what will you do to defuse the situation?
(a.) You will assure the labour union of proper safety and security measures and will
maintain the output by increasing the production of some other units.
(b.) You will negotiate with the labour union for immediate resumption of work in return for
adequate safety measures and ensures compensation for the deceased employee while try
to increase the production of the unit.
(c.) You will setup an enquiry commission to find what can be done to improve the safety
and security arrangements in your organization.
(d.) Order an investigation in the case to find whether the mishap was caused by
carelessness of the employee
(8.) You have to accomplish a very important task for your headquarters within the next two
days. Suddenly you meet with an accident. Your office insists that you complete the task.
You will
(a.) Ask for an extension of deadline
(b.) Inform headquarters of your inability to finish on time
(c.) Suggest alternate person to headquarters who may do the task
(d.) Stay away till you recover
ANS: b
(9.) You are an officer-in-change for providing relief facilities to the survivors of an
earthquake affected area. Despite your best possible effort, people put allegations against
you for making money out of the funds given for relief. You would
(a.) Let an enquiry be setup to look into the matter.
(b.) Ask your senior to appoint some other person in you place
(c.) Not pay attention to allegations
(d.) Stop undertaking any initiative till the matter is resolved
(10.) You have taken up a project to create night-shelters for homeless people during
the winter season. Within a week of establishing the shelters, you have received complaints
from the residents of the area about the increase in theft cases with a demand to remove the
shelters. You would
(a.) Ask them to lodge a written complaint in the police station.
(b.) Ensure residents of an enquiry into the matter.
(c.) Ask residents to consider the humanitarian effort made
(d.) Continue with the project and ignore their complaint.
(11.) You are the Executive Engineer in Bihar State Electricity Board (BSEB). The
BSEB is suffering heavy financial loss due to theft of electricity and you have decided to act
to curb this menace.

You have recently received information about rampant electricity theft in the outskirts of the
town. Acting upon the information, you take a team of law-enforcement officials to that area
and discover that indeed, almost 200 households are blatantly flouting rules by engaging in
electricity theft. When you question those people, they tell you that they had applied for a
metered electricity connection about 18 months ago. They also showed valid receipt of the
application.
They however allege that the Junior Engineer in the electricity department is asking for a
bribe of five-thousand rupees per house to sanction the metered connection.
Since these families are poor, they cannot afford to pay bribe. As a result even after 18
months, they have still not got connection-while the normal time frame for issuing fresh
connection is 15 days. Moreover, these people have school going children and without
electricity they cannot study at night. Hence they say that they have no option but to steal
electricity till they get a metered connection.
In these circumstance, what would you do?
(a.) Ask the law-enforcement officers to book the people engaged in electricity theft.
(b.) Suspend the Junior Engineer who has been accused of asking for a bribe
(c.) Give the families 2 weeks notice to clear their dues failing which you will initiate legal
action against them.
(d.) Wave the arrears for the families and grant them new connections within 15 days
(12.) You are an environmental activist. You are living in an area where the majority of
population depends on nature for their survival. You have been recognized and awarded for
your work related to the protection of natural flora and fauna both at the state and national
level. You have also initiated several awareness campaigns related to the protection of the
environment and also lead many agitations to protect the local environment. You have never
allowed any local industry to be setup at the cost of environmental degradation.
However an MNC is going to setup a manufacturing unit in your locality. The company
justifies its decision by promising to generate income for the local people by giving
employment to one member of each family. It also assures that it will undertake various
corporate social responsibility activities in your locality. But the fact remains that project is
bound to create a lot of adverse effects on the local environment. What would you do in such
a situation?
(a.) Organize a campaign to strongly oppose the establishment of the unit
(b.) Return the awards given to you by the State and Central Government in protest against
the decision to allow the MNC to setup this unit.
(c.) Sit on hunger-strike
(d.) Support the MNC decision since it ushers in economic prosperity for the region
(13.) You are a Manager at one of the major automatable companies in India. The
company has recently introduced some polices, which have adversely affected the wages of
labour force. When you take up this matter with the senior management they convey to you
that such changes were necessary because of the recent losses suffered by the firm. The
workers are very aggrieved due to this decision and the trade Union has decided to call a
strike. Repeated attempts by the senior management to ask the workers to join work have

failed and they now have chosen you as a mediator to negotiate with the workers. What
would you do in this situation?
(a.) You would suggest workers to go on a strike
(b.) You would oppose the management
(c.) You would try to bring a midway solution by asking both the parties to negotiate on this
matter
(d.) As the companys policy hurt your sentiments, you would resign and join the strike
(14.) You are working as a software engineer in a leading software development firm.
You were part of a global team working on a very critical module with very stringent timelines.
One day before the project deadline, during routine testing of the module you notice that
there are some issues in the code written by your team which could adversely affect the
functionality of the module. Fixing this issue will take at least a week. You report this issue to
the project manager but he insists that since the affected functionality will be used very
rarely, you must go ahead with the module launch. Moreover he says that the module must
be delivered on time, otherwise the delay will have a very poor impact on the future of the
India development centre of the firm.
What would you do in this situation?
(a.) You will keep silent over this issue
(b.) You will fight to project manager
(c.) You will report this matter to the superior authority and will explain everything
(d.) You will resign so that no body blames you
(15.) You are the head of an organization in the Central Government Directly
subordinate and reporting to you in an IAS officer called A. Directly subordinate and
reporting to A is an IRTS officer called B, who is currently on deputation to your department.
B has complained to you repeatedly that A is in the habit of harassing him. This harassment
started with slight remarks at the workplace escalated to an excessive work-load and has
now taken the form of A threatening B that he will adversely affect his ACR (Annual
Confidential Report)
B pleads before you to shift him out of As control and let him work under another officer or
send him back to his parent cadre permanently even before the term of his deputation ends.
You know that B is a good officer. You would like to keep him in your department. But
transferring B under another officer in your department is sure to be perceived by A as an
insult.
Since A will continue to work under you, this may affect the working relationship between the
two of you.
What would you do in such a situation?
(a.) Tell B to behave professionally and continue working in the current designation under A
till his deputation ends
(b.) Institute a departmental enquiry to investigate into the veracity of Bs claims and send A
on leave to ensure the impartiality of the enquiry
(c.) Transfer B out of As control and personally explain to A why this was necessary
(d.) Return B to his parent cadre with your remarks on his personal records that he is unable
to maintain good working relationship.

Answer-Key : ETHICS
1. c 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. b 7. a 8. b 9. a 10. b
11. c 12. a 13. c 14. c 15. B

ESE-General studies 1. Basics of Energy & Environment |1|
GENERAL STUDIES
for
2. BASICS OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
STUDY MATERIAL

2016 By Engineers Institute of India
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be
reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping,
Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems.
Engineers Institute of India
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Tel: 011-26514888
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ISBN: 978-93-5156-847-6
Price: Rs. 375.00

CONTENT
Basics of Energy and Environment : Conservation, environmental pollution and

degradation, Climate Change, Environmental impact assessment
PART-1
1. BASICS OF ENERGY . 05-28
2. INDIAS ENERGY SCENARIO 29-33
PART-2
3. ENVIRONMENT 34-67
3.1 Introduction 3.10 Ecotone
3.2 Ecology 3.11 Function of ecosystem
3.3 Environment 1.11.1 Energy Flow
3.4 Concept of environment 1.11.2 Biogeochemical cycle
3.5 Components 1.11.3 Ecological succession
3.6 Ecosystem 3.12 Types of ecosystem
3.7 Concept of ecosystem 3.13 Types of grasslands
3.8 Components of ecosystem 3.14Aquatic ecosystems
3.9 Advantage of ecosystem 3.15 Brackish ecosystems
4. BIODIVERSITY . 68-82
4.1 Important facts 4.9.1 Structure of biosphere reserve
4.2 Types of biodiversity 4.9.2 Function of bio reserve
4.3 Measurement of biodiversity 4.10 List of biosphere reserve
4.4 Advantage of biodiversity 4.11 Biodiversity hotspot in India
4.5 Threats to biodiversity 4.12 Flora and fauna
4.6 Biodiversity conservation 4.13 Conservation programme
4.7 Bio hotspot 4.14 List of tiger reserves
4.8 Biodiversity in India 4.15 Facts about forest conservation
4.9 Biosphere reserves

5. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 83-94
5.1 Pollutant 5.7 Effects of water pollutions
5.2 Classification 5.8 Noise pollutions
5.3 Causes 5.9 Soil pollutions
5.4 Structure of atmosphere 5.10 Radioactive pollutions
5.5 Government Initiatives 5.11 E-waste
5.6 Water pollution
6. GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE .. 95-100

6.1 Global warming 6.6.3 The Ozone Hole
6.2 Climate change 6.6.4 Factors accelerating ozone depletion
6.3 Global warming impacts 6.7 Acid Rain
6.4 Green house effects 6.7.1 Causes of acid rain
6.4.1 Green house 6.7.2 Steps involved in the acid rain
6.5 Global warming potential 6.7.3 Chemical reactions involved in acid

rain
6.6 Ozone depletion
6.8 Impacts of climate change:
6.6.1 Ozone formation
6.9 Mitigation:
6.6.2 Significance of ozone layer
6. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS . 101-108

6.1 Environment laws 6.2Brundtland report
7. IMPORTANT CLIMATE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS.. 109-118
8. DISASTER MANAGEMENT . 119-121
9. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS . 122-129
10. PRACTICE SET ... 130-136

PART-1
CHAPTER-1
BASICS OF ENERGY
1. Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy comes in various forms such as motion; heat, light, electrical,
chemical, nuclear energy and gravitational. Total energy is the sum total of all forms of the energy a
system possesses. In the absence of magnetic, electrical and surface tension effects, the total energy of a
system consists of the kinetic, potential, and internal energies.
Hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion of hydrogen in the
sun. Some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight, which may again be stored as
gravitational potential energy after it strikes the earth.
Atmospheric phenomena like wind, rain, snow and hurricanes are all a result of energy
transformations brought about by solar energy on the atmosphere of the earth.
Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis when carbon
dioxide and water are converted into carbohydrates, lipid and proteins this chemical potential
energy is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell.
British thermal unit (Btu) is the energy unit in English system to measure energy.
Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy in the metric system needed to raise the temperature of 1g of
water at 15C by 1C.
Table: Some energy units and definitions
Name of unit Symbol Definitions
British thermal unit Btu 1055 J = 5.4039 psia ft3
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm 2.326 kJ/kg
Joule J J= m.N = 1 kg.m2/s2
Calorie Cal 4.1868 J
kJ kJ kPa m3 = 1000 J
kJ/kg kJ/kg 0.43 Btu/lbm
Erg erg g.cm2/s2 = 107 J
Foot pound force ftlbf g lbft = 1.355 J
Horsepower hour hph hp h = 2.684 106 J
Kilowatt hour kWh kW h = 3.6 106 J

Quad quad 10 Btu = 1.055 10 J
15 18
Atmosphere liter atml atm 1 = 101.325 J

kW kW 3412 Btu/h
Horsepower hp 2545 Btu/h
Therm therm 29.3 Btu/h
Electronvolt eV 1.602 17 1019 4.9 1026 J
1.1 Energy Types

There are two main types of energy, Primary and Secondary.Primary energy is extracted or captured
directly from the environmentsecondary energy is converted from the primary energy in the form of
electricity or fuel.
1.1.1 Primary energy

Primary energy is the energy extracted or captured directly from the environment.
There are three distinctive group of primary energy are:
A. Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels); coal, crude oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel etc.
B. Renewable energy: hydropower, biomass, solar energy, wind, geothermal and ocean energy.
C. Waste
Primary sources of energy consisting of petroleum, coal and natural gas amounts to 85% of the fossil
fuels in primary energy consumption.
Projected energy use in the world shown that petroleum, coal and natural gas will still be dominant
energy sources by 2035
The principle of demand suggested that as fossil fuels diminish, their prices will rise and renewable
energy supplies particularity biomass, solar and wind resources will become sufficiently economical
to exploit.
1.1.2 Secondary energy
The primary energy is transformed to secondary energy in the form of electrical energy or fuel such as
gasoline, fuel oil, methanol and hydrogen. The primary energy of renewable energy sources such as sun,
wind, biomass, geothermal energy and flowing water is usually equated with either electrical or thermal
energy produced from them. Final energy is often electrical energy and fuel which is referred to as useful
energy. The selected four, type of final energy are electrical, thermal, mechanical and chemical energy.
These types of final energy set a boundary between the energy production and the consumption sectors.

1.2 Non-renewable energy sources
As we know that nonrenewable energy sources or fossil fuels are formed from the remains of dead plants
and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the earths crust over the millions of years. Major
nonrenewable energy sources are;-
Coal
Petroleum
Natural gas
Nuclear fuel
Fossil fuels contain high percentage of carbon and include mainly coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Natural gas for example contains only very low boiling point and gaseous components. The specific
mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristics properties such as boiling point, melting point,
density and viscosity. These types of fuels are known as non-renewable energy sources.
There are following non-renewable energy sources are;-
a) Coal
Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and incombustible matters as well as water. It comes
in various composition and energy content depending on the source and types.
Important points:-
It was in the 1880s when coal was first used to generate electricity for homes and factories. Since then
coal played a major role as source of energy in the industrial revolution.
Coal has impurities like sulphur and nitrogen and when it burns, the released impurities combine with
water vapour in the air to form droplets that fall to earth as weak forms of sulphuric acid and nitric
acid as acid rain.
Coal also contains minerals which do not burn and make up the ash left behind in a coal combustor.
CO2 is one of the several gases that trap the earths heat and cause earths temperature to rise and
alters the earths climate.
Coal has high carbon content so it generates more CO2 per unit of released energy than any other
fossil fuel such as crude oil.
Coal also contains sulphur which is a drawback since typically bitumen coil has sulphur.
However, advanced coal technology can filter out 99% of tiny particles, remove more than 95% of
the acid rain pollutants and reduce the release of carbon dioxide by burning coal more efficiently.
Many new plants have fuel gas desulphurization units called scrubbers.

Types of coal
i) Lignite coal: The lowest quality of coal is of lignite since it contains less than 50% carbon and and
energy density lower than wood. It has highest moisture content also.
ii) Bituminous coal: It contains between 70-75% carbon content. It ignites easily and burns with
relatively long flame. If improperly fixed, it releases excess smoke and soot.
iii) Anthracite coal: It has more than 90% carbon content. It is very hard and shiny and ultimate
maturation. It creates a steady and clean flame. It is preferred for domestic heating. It burns longer
with more heat than other types.
Table: Typical properties of various coals
Anthracite coal Bituminous coal Lignite coal
Fixed carbon, weight % 80.5 85.7 44.9 78.2 31.4
Moisture, weight % 2.8 16.3 2.2 15.9 39
3
Bulk density, lb.ft 50 58 42 57 40 54
Ash, weight% 9.7 20.2 3.3 11.7 3.3 11.7
Sulfur, weight% 0.6 0.77 0.7 4.0 0.4
b) Petroleum (crude oil)

Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various
molecular weights which defines its physical and chemical properties like heating value, colour and
viscosity.
The composition of hydrocarbons ranges as much as 97% by weight in lighter oils to as little as 50% in
the heavier oils. The proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits.
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while
other organic compounds nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and trace amounts of metals. The relative percentage
of each varies and determines the properties of oil.
Table: Typical elemental composition by weight of crude oil

Element Percent range (%)
Carbon 83-87
Hydrogen 10-14
Nitrogen 0.1-2
Oxygen 0.1-1.5
Sulfur 0.5-6
Metals <0.1

Table: Composition by weight of hydrocarbons in petroleum
Hydrocarbon Average (%) Range (%)
Paraffins (alkanes) 30 15-60
Naphtanes (cycloalkanes) 49 30-60
Aromatics 15 3-30
Asphaltics 6 Remainder
Alkanes
Alkanes are also known as paraffin and are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains
containing only carbon and hydrogen
They have general formula CnH2n+2
They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule. For e.g., CH4 i.e., Methane, which is a
major component of natural gas.
The propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are known as petroleum gases.
At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms. While
asphalt has 35and up.
These long chain alkanes are usually cracked by modern refineries into lighter and more valuable
products.
Cycloalkanes
They are also known as naphtenes and are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon
rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to formula CnH2n.
Cycloakanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.
Aromatic hydrocarbons
They are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more six-carbon rings called benzene rings
with double and single bonds and hydrogen atoms attached according to the formula CnHn.
Oil currently supplies more than 40% of our total energy demands and more than 99% of the fuel are
used in transportation.
c) Petroleum fractions
Oil is refined and separated into a large number of commodity products from gasoline and kerosene to
asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals 84% by volume of the
hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels, includinggasoline, diesel, jet fuel,
heating and other fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases. The remaining oil is converted to

ESE-General studies 1. Basics of Energy & Environment | 10 |
pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides and plastics. Therefore petroleum is vital to many
industries and thus is a critical concerns to many nations. Some common fractions from petroleum
refining are:-
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG):
LPG is a flammable mixture of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) used as fuel in heating appliances
and vehicles.
Energy content of LPG per kilogram is higher than for gasoline because of higher hydrogen to carbon
ratio.
LPG emits 81% of CO2 per kwh produced by oil and 70% of that of coal.
At liquid state, the vapour pressure of LPG is about 550kPa (5.5bar).
LPG marketed in India governed by IndianStandard Code IS-4576 and the test methods by IS-1448.
Gasoline
Gasoline is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines.
A typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule.
It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced
with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating.
The emission of CO2 from gasoline is about 73.38g/MJ
Petroleum diesel
It contains 8-21 carbon atoms per molecule with a boiling point inthe range of 180-360C
About 86.1% of the fuel mass is carbon and it offers a net heating value of around 43.1MJ/kg
However due to higher density, diesel offers a higher volumetric energy density.
The CO2 emissions from diesel are 73.25 g/MJ (similar to gasoline)
Because of quality regulations, additional refining is required to remove sulphur which may
contribute to a higher cost.
Kerosene
It is a thin, clear liquid formed containing between 6 and 16 carbon atoms per molecule, with density
of 0.78-0.81 g/cm3
The flash point of kerosene is between 37C and 65C and it auto ignition temperature is 220C
The heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel. Its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg

Jet fuel
It is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas turbine engines.
The commonly used fuels are jet A and Jet A-1 which are produced to a standardized international
specifications.
Jet B is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance
Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons with density of 0.775-0.840 kg/l at
15C
Fuel oil
It is made of long hydrocarbon chains particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatics and heavier
than gasoline and naptha.
Fuel oil is classified into six classes numbered 1 to 6, according to its boiling point, composition and
purpose.
The boiling point ranging from 175C to 600C and carbon chain length 9-70 atoms.
Viscosity also increases with number and heavier oil is to be heated to get it flow.Price usually
decreases as the fuel number increases.
Number 1 is similar to kerosene, number 2 is the diesel fuel that trucks and buses and some cars run
on, leading to term known as road diesel
Number 4 fuel oil is usually a blend of heavy distillate and residual fuel oils.
Number 5 and 6 fuel oils are called residual fuel oils or heavy fuel oils.
Diagram
Figure: A distillation tower showing the different weights of various products produced from petroleum

Carbons fuels
Carbon fuels contain sulphur and impurities, combustion of such fuels eventually leads to produce SO
and SO2 in the exhaust which promotes acid rain
One final element in exhaust pollution is ozone (O3). This is not emitted directly but made in the air
by sunlight action on other pollutants to form ground level ozone which is harmful to respiratory
systems of human beings.
Natural gas
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of different gases consisting mainly of methane (CH4)
Natural gas provides 23% of all energy consumed in the world
It is being predicted that the demand of natural gas will rise by 67% by 2030
It is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative transportation fuel
Typical theoretical flame temperature of natural gas is 1960C and ignition point is 593C
Natural gas is a major source of electricity production through the use of gas turbines and steam
turbines.
It burns more cleanly and produces about 30% less CO2 than burning petroleum and about 45% less
than burning coal for an equivalent amount of heat produced.
Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is thus the cleanest source of energy or power
available using fossil fuels and this technology is widely used wherever gas can be obtained at a
reasonable cost.
The gross heat of combustion of one cubic meter of natural gas is around 39MJ and calorific value is
about 1000 Btu per cubic feet, depending on gas composition.
Liquefied natural gas exists at 161C. Impurities and heavy hydrocarbons from the gaseous fossil
fuel are removed before the cooling process.
The density of liquefied natural gas is in the range of 410-500 kg/m3
The volume of the liquid is approximately 1/600 of the gaseous volume of atmospheric conditions.

Table: Typical composition in mole % and heating value of a natural gas

Component Composition Range
Methane 95.2 87.0 96.0
Ethane 2.5 1.5 5.1
Propane 0.2 0.1-1.5
Butane, n-butane 0.03 0.01-0.3
Iso-pentane, n-pentane, hexane plus 0.01 Trace 0.14
Nitrogen 1.3 0.7-5.6
Carbon dioxide 0.7 0.1-1.0
Oxygen 0.02 0.01-0.1
Hydrogen Trace Trace-0.02
Specific gravity 0.58 0.57-0.62
Gross heating value (MJ/m3), dry 37.8 36.0-40.2
basis
d) Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy plants produce electricity through the fission of nuclear fuel such as uranium so they
do not pollute the air with harmful gases.
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts often
producing free neutrons and photons in the form of gamma rays and releasing large amount of energy.
Nuclear fuels undergo fission when stuck by free neutrons and generate neutrons leading to a self-
sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor. This heat is
used to produce steam to be used in a turbine to produce electricity. This is similar to most coal, oil
and gas fired power plants.
Fission reaction releases about 200MeV of energy, which is much higher than most chemical
oxidation reactions.
The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products. The energy
released is converted to heat to generate electricity.
Nuclear power is essentially carbon-free. However, the electricity from new nuclear power plants
would be relatively expensive and nuclear energy faces lot of obstacles.
The biggest challenges are the disposal of radioactive waste and threat of nuclear proliferation.

2. Heating value of fuels
The heating value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion at constant pressure and
under normal conditions (i.e., to 25C and under a pressure of 1 atm). The combustion process generates
water.
There are various heating values:-
The higher heating value (HHV)
It consists of the combustion product of water condensed and that the heat of vaporization contained in
the water vapour is recovered. So the all the water produced in the combustion is in liquid state.
The lower heating value (LHV)
It assumes that the water product of combustion is at vapour state and heat of vaporization is not
recovered.
Net heating value
It is the same with lower heating value and is obtained by subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the
water vapour formed by the combustion from the gross or higher heating value.
The gross heating value:
It is the total heat obtained by complete combustion at constant pressure including the heat released by
condensing the water vapour in the combustion products.
Gross heating value accounts liquid water in the fuel prior to combustion and valuable for fuels
containing water such as wood and coal.
If a fuel has no water prior to combustion then the gross heating value is equal to higher heating
values.
A common method of relating HHV to LHV per unit mass of a fuel is:
Where Hvap = heat of vapourization per mole of water (kJ/kg)

nH2O, out = moles of water vaporized
nfuel, in = number of moles of fuel combusted
MW = Molecular weight
The heating value of fossil fuels may vary depending on the source and composition.

Table: Properties heating values of some common fuels and hydrocarbons at 1 atm and 20C; at 25C for
liquid fuels, and 1 atm and normal boiling temperature for gaseous fuels
Fuel (phase) Formula MW (kg/l) Hv(kg/ Tb(F) Cp(kJ/kg HHVa(kJ/ LHVa
(kg/kmol) kg) C) kg) (kJ/kg)
Carbon (a) C 12.01 2.000 - 0.71 32800 32800
Hydrogen (g) H2 2.01 - - 14.40 141800 120000
Methane (g) CH4 16.04 - 509 -258.7 2.20 55530 50050
Methanol (l) CH3OH 32.04 0.790 1168 149.0 2.53 22660 19920
Ethane (g) C2H6 30.07 - 172 -127.5 1.75 51900 47520
Ethanol (l) C2H5OH 46.07 0.790 919 172.0 2.44 29670 26810
Propane (g) C3H8 44.09 0.500 420 -43.8 2.77 50330 46340
Butane (l) C4H10 58.12 0.579 362 31.1 2.42 49150 45370
Isopentane (l) C5H12 72.15 0.626 - 82.2 2.32 48570 44910
Benzene (l) C6H6 78.11 0.877 433 176.2 1.72 41800 40100
Hexane (l) C6H14 86.18 0.660 366 155.7 2.27 48310 44740
Toluene (l) C7H8 92.14 0.867 412 231.1 1.71 42400 40500
Heptane (l) C6H16 100.204 0.684 365 209.1 2.24 48100 44600
Octane (l) C8H18 114.23 0.703 363 258.3 2.23 47890 44430
Decane (l) C10H22 142.28 0.730 361 2.21 47640 44240
Gasoline (l) CnH1.87n 100-110 0.72-0.78 350 2.40 47300 44000
Light diesel (l) CnH1.8n 170.00 0.78-0.84 270 2.20 46100 43200
Heavy diesel (l) CnH1.7n 200.00 0.82-0.88 230 1.90 45500 42800
Natural gas (g) ~18.00 - - 2.00 50000 45000
ETB [15] with permission

*HHV, LHV; higher heating value and lower hearing value, respectively; (s): solid; (I): liquid; (g): gas
Example: Energy consumption by a car
An average car consumes 50 gallons gasoline per month. Estimate the energy consumed by the car per
year.
Solution:
Assume that gasoline has an average density of 0.72 g/cm3 and the heating value of 47.3 MJ/kg
Data: V = 50 Gallons/month = 189.25 1/month, 2271.01/year (3.785 1 = 1 gallon)
gas = 0.72 g/cm3 = 0.72 kg/1
Mass of gasoline: mgas V 1635.1 kg / year
Energy consumed per year:
Egas 1635.1 kg / year (47,300 kJ / kg ) 77,340,230 kJ / year
77,340.2 MJ / year

Example: Fuel consumption by a low and a high-mileage car
An average daily traveling distance is about 40 miles/day. A car has a city-mileage of 20 miles/gal. if the
car is replaced with a new car with a city-mileage of 30 miles/gal and the average cost of gasoline is
$3.50/gal, estimate the amount of fuel, energy, and money conserved with the new car per year.
Assume: The gasoline is incompressible with av 0.75kg / l
Table-2: Higher heating values (gross calorific value) of some common fuels
FuelHigher heating value Higher heating value
kJ/kg
Anthracite 32,500-34,000 14000-14500
Bituminous coal 17000-23250 7300-10000
Butane 49510 20900
Charcoal 29600 12800
Coal (anthracite) 30200 13000
Coal (bituminous) 27900 12000
Coke 28000-31000 12000-13500
Diesel 44800 19300
Either 43000
Gasoline 47300 20400
Glycerin 19000
Hydrogen 141790 61000
Lignite 16300 7000
Methane 55530
Oils, vegetable 39000-48000
Peat 13800-20500 5500-8800
Petroleum 43000
Propane 50350
Semi anthracite 26700-32500 11500-14000
Wood (dry) 14400-17400 6200-7500
3
kJ/m Btu/ft3
Acetylene 56000
Butane C4H10 133000 3200
Hydrogen 13000
Natural gas 43000 950-1150
Methane CH4 39820
Propane C3H8 101000 2550
Butane C4H10 3200
kJ/I Btu/gal
Gasoline 32000 115000
Heavy fuel oil #6 42600 153000
Kerosene 37600 135000
Diesel 36300 130500
Biodiesel 33500 120000
Butane C4H10 36200 130000
Methanol 15900 57000
Ethanol 21100 76000

Gaur and reed [18] ; ETB [15] with permission

1 kJ/kg = J/g = 0.43 Btu/lbm = 0.239 kcal / kg
1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg = 0.55 kcal /kg
1 kcal/kg = 4.187 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lbm
Table-3: Energy densities of some fuels
Fuel type Gross (HHV) Net (LHV)
MJ/I MJ/kg Btu/gal Btu/gal
Conventional gasoline 34.8 44.4 125000 115400
High octane gasoline 33.5 46.8 120200 112000
LPG (60%Pr. + 40%Bu.) 26.8 46.0
Ethanol 24.0 30.0 84600 75700
Methanol 17.9 19.9 64600 56600
Butanol 29.2 36.6
Gasohol E10 (ethanol 10% vol.) 33.2 43.5 12900 112400
Gasohol E85 (ethanol 85% vol.) 25.6 33.1
Gasoline (petrol) 34.2 46.4 115500
Diesel 38.6 45.4 138700 128700
Biodiesel 33.5 42.2 126200 117100
Jet fuel (kerosene based) 35.1 43.8 125935
Jet fuel (naphtha) 42.8 33.0 127500 118700
Liquefied natural gas (160C) 22.2 53.6 90800
Liquefied petroleum gas 26.8 46.0 91300 83500
Hydrogen (liquid at 20 K) 10.1 142.0 130
Hydrogen gas 0.0108 143.0
Methane (1 atm, 15C) 0.0378 55.6
Natural gas 0.0364 53.6
LPG propane 25.3 49.6
LPG butane 27.7 49.1
Crude oil 37.0 46.3
Coal, anthracite 72.4 32.5
Coal, lignite 14.0
Coal, bituminous 20.0 24.0
Wood 18.0

Gaur and Reed [18], ETB [15]
Lower heating value (LHV) = 44000 kJ/kg; 44000 kJ of heat is released when 1 kg of gasoline is
completely burned and the produced water is in vapor state table.
Fuel needed for the old car: (40 miles/day)/(20 miles/gas) = 2 gal/day
Fuel needed for the new car: (40 miles/day)/(30 miles/gas) = 1.34 gal/day
Old car:
Mass of gasoline:
mgas av (volume) (0.75 kg / l )(2.0 gal / day )(3.785 l / gal ) 5.7 kg / day
Energy of gasoline:
Egas ( LHV ) (5.7 kg / day)(44000 kJ / kg ) 250800 kJ / day (365 day / year )
91542000 kJ / year 91542 MJ / year
Cost: ($3.50/gal) (2 gal/day) (365 day/year) = $2555/year
New car:
Mass of gasoline:
mgas av (volume) (0.75kg / l )(1.34 gal / day )(3.785l / gal ) 3.8kg / day
Energy of gasoline:
E gas ( LHV ) (3.8kg / day )(44000 kJ / kg ) 167200 kJ / day (365day / year )
61, 028, 000 kJ / year 61028 MJ / year
Cost : ($3.50 / gal )(1.34 gal / day )(365day / year ) $1712 / year
The new car reduces the fuel consumption by around 33%, which is significant.
Example: Daily consumption of natural gas by a city
The new car reduces the fuel consumption by around 33%, which is significant. A city consumes natural
gas at a rate of 500 106 ft3/day. The volumetric flow is at standard conditions of 60F and 1 atm = 14.7
psia. If the natural gas is costing $6/GJ of higher heating value what is the daily cost of the gas for the
city.
Solution: Q 500 106 ft 3 / day at 60 F and1 atm 14.7 paia
The higher heating value is the heat of combustion of the natural gas when the water product is at liquid
state. From table-2 the value of HHV is: 1030 Btu/ft3 table-3.
Heating value: 1030 Btu/ft3 (500 106 ft3/day) = 515.0 109 Btu/day
(515.0 109 Btu/day) (1055 J/Btu) = 543,325 GJ/day
Daily cost: (543,325 GJ/day) ($6/GJ) = $32.6 105/day

Example: Energy consumed by a car
An average car consumes about 2 gallons (US gallon = 3.785 l) a daym, and the capacity of the fule tank
is about 15 gallon. Therefore, a car needs to be refueled once every week. The density of gasoline ranges
from 0.72 to 0.78 kg/l table-2. The lower heating value of gasoline is about 44,000 kJ/kg. Assume that the
average density of gasoline is 0.75 kg/l. if the car was able to use 0.2 kg of nuclear fuel of uranium-235,
estimate the time in years for refueling
Solution:
Assume: The gasoline is incompressible with av = 0.75 kg/l.
Lower heating value (LHV) = 44000 kJ/kg: 44000 kJ of heat is released when 1 kg of gasoline is
completely burned and the produced water is in vapor state.
Complete fission energy of U-235 = 6.73 1010 kJ/kg
Mass of gasoline per day:
mgas = pr V = (0.75 kg/l)(2gal/day)(3.785 l/gal) = 5.67 kg/day
Energy of gasoline per day:
Egas mgas ( LHV ) (5.67kg / day )(4,000 kJ / kg ) 249, 480 kJ / day
B. Renewable energy resources

Renewable energy comes from natural resources and are naturally replenished. Major renewable energy
sources are:-
Hydroelectric
Solar energy
Biomass
Wind
Geothermal heat
Ocean
In its various forms, renewable energy comes directly from the sun or from heat generated deep
within the earth.
The share of renewable in electricity generation is around 18% worldwide. In which 15% of global
electricity comes from hydro power and 3% from new renewables.
Climate change, concerns, high oil prices and government support are leading to increase in
renewable energy usageand commercialization.
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas:power generation, hot
water/space heating, transport fuels and rural energy services.

New and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under development and include cellulosic
ethanol, hot-dry rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.
Renewable energy generally gets cheaper in the long term, while fossil fuels generally get more
expensive.
Fossil fuels technologies are more matured while renewable energy technologies are being improved
to increase efficiency of renewable energy and reduce its cost.
Hydro Energy
Hydro Energy is derived from the force or energy of moving water. Most hydroelectric energy comes
from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator.
The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between
the source and waters outflow. This height difference is called the head.
The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. To deliver water to a turbine
while maintaining pressure arising from the head a large pipe called a penstock may be used.
One of the major advantages of hydroelectricity is the elimination of fuel. Because there is no fuel
combustion, there is little air pollution in comparison with fossil fuels plants and limited thermal
pollution compared with nuclear plants.
Hydroelectric plants also tend to have longer economic lives than fuel powered plants.
Operating labour cost is also usually low as plants are automated and need few personnel on site
during normal operations.
Hydroelectric usually refers to large-scale hydroelectric dams. Micro hydro systems typically produce
upto 100kW of power. Hydro systems without dam derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans.
Solar energy
Solar energy is derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation.
Solar powered electrical generation relies on photovoltaic and heat engines. Other solar applications
include space heating and cooling through solar architecture, day lighting, solar hot water, solar
cooking and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the
way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
i) Active solar technique includes the use of solar thermal collectors to harness the energy.
ii) Passive solar systems rely on gravity and tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated.

Solar electric generating system
Solar electric generating system use parabolic trough collectors to collect the suns energy to
generate steam to drive a conventional steam turbine.
The parabolic mirrors automatically track the sun throughout the day.
The sun light is directed to central tube carrying synthetic oil, which heats around 400C. The heat is
used to convert water to steam to drive a steam turbine and produce electricity.
Photovoltaic
Solar photovoltaic (PV) convert light energy into electricity using semiconductor materials.
Photovoltaic cell is a solar cell, which is a solid state electrical device that converts the energy of light
directly into electricity.
Assemblies of cells are known as solar modules or solar panels
Solar modulus are typically deployed as an array of individual modules on rooftops, building facades
or in large scale ground based arrays.
A module consists of many jointly connected solar cells. Most crystalline modules usually consist of
60-72 cells.
Photovoltaic cells and modules use various semiconductors they are,
i) crystalline silicon, ii) thin,-film, iii) concentrator.
Photovoltaic systems produce direct current which must be converted to alternating current via an
inverter if the output from the system is to be used in the grid.
Figure-(a) the 150-MW Kramer junction plants shown here are part of a 354 MW series of SEGS
(solar electric generating system) facilities, each using parabolic trough collectors to collect the suns
energy to generate steam to drive a conventional steam turbine. The plants have been operating in the
California Mojave desert for two decades; Figure-(a) parabolic trough solar collectors at the recently

Dedicated 1-MW Saguaro power plant outside Tucson concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube
located along the troughs focal line. The solar energy heats the working fluid in the receiver tube,
which vaporizes a secondary fluid to power a turbine. A next generation version of this collector is
being installed at a new 64-MW plant in Nevada
Figure: (a) Photovoltaic systems are typically sited on roofs and may be connected to the electrical
grid. Photovoltaic modules can compete can compete against the retail price of electrically, offsetting
the technologys high cost; (b) Rooftop photovoltaic module
Biomass and Bioenergy

Biomass is an organic material made from plants including microorganisms and animals. Plants
absorb the suns energy in photosynthesis and store the energy as biomass. Therefore biomass is a
renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle. Some example of biofuels include wood, Crops
and algae.
When these are burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat.
Biomass can be converted to other biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel.
Biomass grown for biofuel include corn, soyabeans, willow switch grass, rapeseed, sugar beet, palm
oil and sorghum.
Cellulosic biomass such as corn stover, straw, timber rice husks can also be used for biofuel
production.
Anaerobic digestion of biomass produces biogas while gasification produce syngas which is the
mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to be converted to liquid fuels.
Cellulosic ethanol can also be created by a thermo-chemical process which uses various combinations
of temperature, pressure, water, oxygen or air and catalysts to convert biomass to cellulosic ethanol.

Table: Lower heating value (LHV) for selected biomass
Product Moisture (%) Ash contenta (%) LHV (MJ/kg)
Bagasse sugarcane 18 4 17-18
Coconut husks 5-10 6 16,7
Coffee husks 13 8-10 16, 7
Corn Stover 5-6 8 17-19
Corncobs 15 1-2 19, 3
Cotton husks 5-10 3 16, 7
Oil-palm fibers 55 10 7-8
Oil-palm husks 55 5 7-8
Poplar wood 5-15 1.2 17-19
Rice hulls 9-11 15-20 13-15
Rice straw and husk 15-30 15-20 17-18
Switch grass 8-15 6 18-20
Wheat straw and husk 7-15 8-9 17-19
Willow wood 12 1-5 17-19
Gross heating values of biomass fuels

Biomass fuels are usually characterized by the proximate and ultimate analysis.
The proximate analysis gives context, voltaic content, the free carbon remaining at that point, the ash
in the sample and the higher heating value based on the complete combustion of the sample to carbon
dioxide and liquid water.
The ultimate analysis is the elemental analysis and provide the composition of the biomass in wt% of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen.

Name Fixed Volatiles Ash C% H% O% N% S% HHV HHVest
carbon % % kJ/g kJ/g
Douglas fir 17.70 81.50 0.80 52.30 6.30 40.50 0.10 0.00 21.05 21.48
Hickory - - 0.73 47.67 6.49 43.11 0.00 0.00 20.17 19.82
Maple - - 1.35 50.64 6.02 41.74 0.25 0.00 19.96 20.42
Ponderosa pine 17.17 82.54 0.29 49.25 5.99 44.36 0.06 0.03 20.02 19.66
Poplar - - 0.65 51.64 6.26 41.45 0.00 0.00 20.75 21.10
Redwood 16.10 83.50 0.40 53.50 5.90 40.30 0.10 0.00 21.03 21.45
Western Hemlock 15.20 84.80 2.20 50.40 5.80 41.10 0.10 0.10 20.05 20.14
Yellow Pine - - 1.31 52.60 7.00 40.10 0.00 0.00 22.30 22.44
White Fir 16.58 83.17 0.25 49.00 5.98 44.75 0.05 0.01 19.95 19.52
White Oak 17.20 81.28 1.52 49.48 5.38 43.13 0.35 0.01 19.42 19.12
Douglas Fir bark 25.80 73.00 1.20 56.20 5.90 36.70 0.00 0.00 22.10 22.75
Loblolly pine bark 33.90 54.70 0.40 56.30 5.60 37.70 0.00 0.00 21.78 22.35
Peach Pits 19.85 79.12 1.03 53.00 5.90 39.14 0.32 0.05 20.82 21.39
Walnut shells 21.16 78.28 0.56 49.98 5.70 43.35 0.21 0.01 20.18 19.68
Almond Prunings 21.54 76.83 1.63 51.30 5.29 40.90 0.66 0.01 20.01 19.87
Black Walnut 18.56 80.69 0.78 49.80 5.82 43.25 0.22 0.01 19.83 19.75
Prunings 18.54 80.10 1.36 46.58 5.87 45.46 0.47 0.01 18.77 18.44
Corncobs 19.80 71.30 8.90 43.20 5.00 39.40 0.61 0.11 17.51 16.71
Wheat Straw 22.43 70.89 6.68 43.64 5.81 43.87 0.00 0.00 18.26 17.40
Cotton Stalk 19.25 75.17 5.58 43.65 5.56 43.31 0.61 0.01 17.65 17.19
Corn Stover 14.95 73.78 11.27 44.80 5.35 39.55 0.38 0.01 17.33 17.61
Sugarcane Bagasse 15.80 63.60 20.60 38.30 4.36 35.45 0.83 0.06 14.89 14.40
Rice Hulls 26.12 72.38 1.50 48.21 6.57 43.72 20.12 20.02
Pine needles 15.10 67.30 17.60 39.59 5.26 36.38 2.09 0.00 16.42 15.85
Cotton gin trash - - 162 44.44 6.17 49.38 - - 17.68
Cellulose - - - 63.8 6.30 29.90 - - 26.60
Lignin (Softwood) - - - 59.8 6.40 33.70 - - 24.93
Lignin (Hardwood)
Table: Shows measured and estimated gross heating values as well as the proximate and ultimate
analyses of some selected fuels, including biomass components, natural biomass (woods, agricultural
products), processed biomass, and other solid and liquid fuels.

Bioenergy
Biological fuels produced from photosynthesis can be categorized in three groups:
i) Carbohydrates: represents a mixture of mono-di and poly-saccharides.
ii) Fats: are unsaturated and saturated fatty acids.
iii) Proteins: are used partly as fuels source.
Carbohydrates are straight chain aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups that can exist as
straight chains or rings.
Carbohydrates such as starch are the most abundant biological molecules and play numerous roles
such as the storage and transport of energy and structural components such as cellulose in plants.
The fuel value is equal to the heat of combustion (oxidation) of fuel. Carbohydrates and fats can be
completely oxidized while proteins can only be partially oxidized and hence has lower fuel values.
Synthetic biofuels:
Bioethanol: Corn based ethanol is currently the largest source of biofuel as a gasoline substitute or
additive. The gasoline is mixed with 10% ethanol, a mix known as E10 for only specific types of vehicles
named as flexible fuel vehicles can use mixture with greater than 10% ethanol. E85 is an alterative fuel
that contains up to 85% ethanol.
Biodiesel: Biodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratio of 2%(B2), 5%(B5) or
20%(B20). It can also be used as pure biodiesel (B100). Biodiesel can be produced from various
feedstock and used in regular diesel vehicles without making any changes to the engines.
Green diesel: It is produced by removing the oxygen by catalytic reaction with hydrogen from a
renewable feedstock containing triglycerides and fatty acids, producing a paraffin-rich product, water and
carbon oxide. Therefore, green diesel has heating value equal to conventional diesel and is fully
compatible for blending with the standard mix of petroleum derived diesel fuels. Biodiesel has around
11% oxygen whereas green and petroleum diesel have no O2.
Wind energy
The earth is unevenly heated by the sun and the differential heating drive a global atmospheric convection
system reaching the earths surface to the stratosphere. Most of the energy stored in these wind
movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160km/h occur
To assess the frequency of wind speed at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often
fitted to the observed data
Wind power is totally renewable energy source with no greenhouse gas emissions but due to its
unpredictability, it has problem integrating with national grids.

(a) (b)
Geothermal energy
This is the heat originating from the inside of the earth, from radio-active decay of minerals, from
volcanic activity and from solar energy absorbed at the surface.
The geothermal gradient which is the difference in tempbetween the core of the planet and its surface
drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable and environmentally friendly.
Hot water or steam reservoirs deep in the earth are accessed by drilling. Geothermal reservoirs
located near the earths surface maintain a relatively constant temperature of 50-60F.
The hot water and steam from reservoirs can be used to drive generators and produce electricity.
In other applications, the heat produced from geothermal is used directly in heating building and
industrial plants.
Ocean energy
System to harvest electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining momentum as a viable
technology. The potential for this technology is considered promising. Ocean thermal energy conversion
uses the temperature difference that exists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the simplest element. Each atom of hydrogen has only one proton. The sun is basically a
giant ball of hydrogen and helium gases.
In suns core, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms (fusion process) and gives off radiant
energy. This radiant energy sustains life on earth as it drives the photosynthesis in plants and other
living systems and is stored as chemical energy in fossil fuels.
Hydrogen does not exist on earth as a gas and is found only in compound form with other elements,
such as water H2O and methane, CH4

Hydrogen is produced from other resources including natural gas, coal, biomass and even water. The
two most common production methods are steam reforming and electrolysis in which water is split
into oxygen and hydrogen
Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by weight but the lowest energy
content by volume
Hydrogen transports energy in a usable form from one place to another like electricity, hydrogen is an
energy carrier.
Hydrogen burns cleanly, producing water, H20. When burned in an engine or used as a fuel all it is
converted to water only.
To make hydrogen a renewable fuel it should use renewable energy. Such as wind power or solar
power for production
There are two primary uses for hydrogen i.e., for the production of ammonia (NH3) via the haber
process which is directly or indirectly used as fertilizer and also used in hydro cracking process to
convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels.
Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity. They are very efficient but expensive to build small fuel cell
can power electric cars while large fuel cells provide electricity in remote places with no power lines.
Energy and global warming

The burning of fossil fuels produce around 22 Gigations of carbon dioxide per year and natural
processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of about 11 Gigatons of
atmospheric carbon dioxide per year.
One tone of carbon is equivalent to : MWCO2/MWC = 44/12 = 3.7 tons of CO2
Carbon dioxide emission can be calculated as
CO2 = (Cf/Ef) (MWCO2/MWC)
MW = molecular wet
eCO2 = CO2 emission in kg CO2/kWh
cf = carbon content in the fuel (kgc/kg fuel)
Ef = energy content of the fuel (kWh/kg fuel)
As we know various green house (GHGs) in the atmosphere acts like glass and due to its greenhouse
effect which transmit incoming sunlight but absorb outgoing infrared radiation thus raise the average
temperature of the earths surface.
CO2 is the most influential green house gas which entraps the atmospheric heat.
As the temperature of the earth increases, it can release CO2 from the ground and seawater so the two
effects reinforce each other. The possible consequence of this is ice melting, sea level rises and severe
storms because of the additional energy in the atmosphere.

As the ice melts, the resulting darker water and ground absorb more sunlight. Thus exacerbating the
warming. The melt water flows like river causing rapid heat transfer and erosion.
Besides this global warming potential of HCFCs and HFC3 are high which again add heat to the
atmosphere. GWP is the ratio of warming potential caused by a sustenance to the warming potential
caused by a similar mass of CO2
Tackling the global warming

Electricity production (40%) and transportation fuel (30%) accounts a large part of total carbon
dioxide emission. Therefore targeting electricity generation and transportation fuel will address about
70% of the carbon dioxide emissions.
The best solution would be the use of renewable energy for electricity generation since it does not
cause additional carbon dioxide emissions and is sustainable into future also.
The major challenges with greatly expanded use of renewable energy are the cost, intermittency of
supply and distance between the resources and the end use.
Some possible renewable energy sources are solar power, geothermal energy, wind power, rooftop
photovoltaic and solar hot water heaters.
Using of hybrid electric vehicles.
Using E85 (85% and 15% blend of ethanol and gasoline respective) may help reducing carbon
dioxide emission

CHAPTER-2
INDIAS ENERGY SCENARIO
Needless to say how important energy is for human being or mankind to survive on the planet earth.
As we know, energy has various forms which fulfills our demand and necessity.
India being a developing country, energy is tremendously important for the overall development of
the country. Infact human poverty cohabits with energy poverty.
Electricity comes under Concurrent list under schedule VII of the Indian Constitution. Being in
concurrent list, it means both the central government as well as state government can make laws
relating to electricity production and consumption usage.
Indias energy security is coal and substantial sunlight. The transportation system is atmost entirely
dependent on fossil fuels, essentially crude oil.
In India, nearly 75% crude oil is imported and this figure is projected to reach 90% by 2040
India is home to 18% of worlds population but uses only 6% of worlds primary energy, inspite of
being the worlds third largest economy.
The energy use in India has almost doubled since 2000, it is still about one-third of global average
and nearly 240 million remain without access to electricity
Access to electricity is 81% and clean cooking fuel 33% CO2 emission as a share of global emission
are 6% CO2 emission per capita are 30% of the global average and share in fossil fuel consumption is
5%.
A major thrust in Indias energy access programme has been to ensure that power/electricity reaches
all households. This translates into capacity to generate electricity, provide the wire and the
transformation infrastructure from higher voltage to lower levels and manage the efficient operation
of distribution entities to make the distribution of electricity a viable business.
Till 31-05-2016, a total number of 5,86,948 village have been electrified out of 5,97,464 villages in
the country.
The mainstay of Indias power generation is coal thermal.
Energy share structure:-

1. Central government 24.91%
States government 33.32%
Private sector 41.77%
100.00%

2. Energy type Capacity (MW) - Percentage share
i) Thermal
a) Coal - 1,87,253 - 61.12%
b) Gas - 25,057 - 8.18%
c) Oil - 919 - 0.30%
69.60%
ii) Hydro - 43,112 - 14.1%
iii) Nuclear - 5780 - 1.9%
iv) Renewable - 44, 237 - 14.5%
energy resource
Total = 3,06,358 MW 100%
Besides this, Indias progressive approach to generate electricity by renewable energy resources
which was submitted to UN at COP-21 in its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions(INDC)
report which envisages to produce or achieve target of electricity of 175GW by year 2022, shall boost
the energy production in energy starved country like India.
175GW has different components:-
100GW solar energy/power
60GW wind power
10GW Biomass power
5 GW small hydro power
175GW Total
The launch of International solar alliance (ISA) group at the COP-21 by India which comprises 121
nations which fall between Tropic of cancer and Tropic of Capriconis a leading initiative in respect of
renewable energy production. ISA, shall focus on solar power and solar technologys share among the
courtiers with financial aid also.
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Energy security:
The 12th Five year plan defined energy security as ensuring uninterrupted supply of energy to support
economic and commercial activities needed for sustained economic growth.
2. Energy intensity:
It is a ratio of energy input to gross domestic product (GDP). It is an indicator of energy efficiency. In
India, the energy intensity has declined from 1.09 (in 1981) to 0.62 (in 2011). Thus there is scope for
reducing energy intensity by adopting energy saving technologies and other measures.

3. Energy conservation:
The energy conservation Act, 2001 aims at providing efficient use of energy and its conservation. It
established the Bureau of Energy Efficiency.
Indias National Mission for enhanced energy efficiency contains the following schemes:-
i) Perform, achieve and trade scheme, a market based mechanism to enhance energy efficiency in
the designated consumers.
ii) Accelerated shift to energy efficient appliances in designated sector through innovative measures.
iii) Standards and labeling i.e., step by step notification for mandatory labeling for equipment and
appliance for domestic as well as commercial purpose.
iv) Amendment of public procurement rules to explicitly mandate procurement of energy efficient
products for all public entities.
4. Markal projections:
MARKAL (Acronym for Market Allocation) is a widely applied bottom-up dynamic technique and
mostly a linear programming (LP) model developed by the energy technology system analysis
program (ETSAP) of the International Energy Agency (IEA)
MARKAL depicts both the energy supply and demand sides of the energy system.
It provides policy makers and planners in the public and private sectors with extensive details on
energy producing and consuming technologies and it can provide an understanding of the interplay
between macroeconomics and energy use.
As a result, this modeling framework has contributed to national and local energy planning and to
development of carbon mitigation strategies.
Government policies:
1. Rajiv Gandhi GrameenVidyutikaranYojana (RGGVY)
As the goal setup by Electricity Act, 2003 and Rural Electrification policy, 2005 to provide
connection to all households by 2009, the Rajiv Gandhi GrameenVidyutikaranYojana (RGGVY)
was launched in April, 2005 to electrify all un-electrified villages/habitations and to provide access to
electricity to all households in un-electrified and electrified villages in the entire country.
The scheme was implemented through the Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) which was
designated nodal agency in Ministry of Power.
2. DeenDayalUpadhyaya Gram JyotiYojana (DDUGJY)

The scope of RGGJY was further expanded and the new DeendayalUpadhaya Gram JyotiYojna
(DDUGJY) was launched in Dec, 2014
It aims to facilitate 24 7 supply of power to all

Its scope includes the following :
i) Separation of agriculture and non-agriculture feeders of electricity in rural areas.
ii) Strengthening and augmentation of sub-transmission and distribution (ST and D) infrastructure
in rural area, including metering at distribution transformers, feeders and consumers end.
iii) Plans of RGGVY was included in DDUGJY
iv) It has two components i.e., feeder separation and power for all by 2019
v) It also aims to improve the power supply in rural households as well as reduction of peak loads.
3. Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY):

To make the electricity distribution sector better equipped and efficient, the Government of India
launched UDAY scheme.
It is path breaking reform and is aimed to restructure the way state owned DISCOMs operate.
It focuses on the following things:
i) Improving operational efficiencies of DISCOMs
ii) Reduction of cost of power.
iii) Reduction in interest cost of DISCOMs
iv) Enforcing financial discipline on DISCOM through alignment with state finances.
4. UnnatJyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA)

The Government of India, launched the National Programme for LED-based home and street lighting
for energy conservation by reducing energy consumption
The main objective of UJALA is to promote efficient lighting, enhance awareness on using efficient
equipment which reduces electricity consumption.
Under this Programme, LED bulbs are being distributed in a phased manner from March, 2015
Currently DELP (Distribution Efficient Lighting Programme) is being implemented in 9 states are,
HP, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Uttrakhand, Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Karnataka.
5. The National Solar Mission

The National Solar Mission launched in Jan, 2010 is a major initiative of the Government of India
involving States, R and D institutions and industries to promote solar energy while addressing energy
security and climate charge challenges of the country.
NSM is one of the several initiative of National Action plan on climate change (NAPCC)
National Action Plan on climate Change (NAPCC)
i) National solar mission

ii) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
iii) National Mission for enhanced energy efficiency
iv) National water mission
v) National mission for sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem
vi) National mission for a green India
vii) National mission for sustainable agriculture
viii) National mission on strategic knowledge for climate change
Objective of the Mission (NSM):
To establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for its large
scale diffusion across the country.
i) Abatement for carbon emissions
ii) Creation of direct and indirect employment opportunities for both skilled and unskilled person.
Goals:
The Mission has a target for deployment of grid connected solar capacity of 20,000 MW by 2022 to
be achieved in three phases i.e., 1st phase 2012-13, 2nd phase 2013-17 and 3rd phase 2017-22

PART-2
CHAPTER-3
ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects a living organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about relation of our natural world and human impact. It is an
applied science since it gives partial approach to make human civilization sustainable on the finite
resources that are available.
Environment is not a single subject because it is an integration of several subjects that include both
science as well as social studies. If we want to understand the different aspects of our environment. We
need to understand biology, chemistry, physics, geography, resource management economics and
population issues. Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely wide and covers some aspects of
nearly every major discipline.
Ecology:
Ecology is a scientific study of the reciprocal relationship between organisms (including microbes, plants,
animals, man) with their environment. It deals with ways in which organism are affected by their
environment, how they make use of environmental resources including energy flow and mineral cycling.
The term ecology was coined in late 1868. It has been derived from two Greek word namely oikos
meaning home or place to live in and logos meaning study. Literally it is the study of the home of
nature.
Ecology is defined as the scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other and
with their environment.
Environment:
Everything that surrounds or affects an organism during its life time is collectively known as its
environment which comprises both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. All organisms
i.e., from virus to man are dependent on the environment for food, energy, water, oxygen, shelter and
other needs.
The environment can be defined as the sum total of living and non-living components, influences and
events, surrounding an organism.
The environment provides us variety of goods and services which are important for our daily life. These
natural resources include air, water, soil and minerals, along with the climate and solar energy.
Concept of environment:
The relationship and interaction between organism and environment is complex. Since no organism can
survive without interacting with other organisms. So each organism has other organism as a part of its
environment. As we know environment is not static therefore both biotic as well as abiotic factors keep
changing continuously.

Components:
There are two components of environment
1. Biotic (living)
2. Abiotic (non-living)
Biotic component Abiotic component

Green plant energy
Human being Temperature
Non-green plants Water
Decomposers Sunlight
Parasites Soil
Animals Wind
For example to understand it let us take the example of fish in the pond.
The fish in the pond consists of both biotic and abiotic component for e.g., microscopic organism called
plankton as well as aquatic plants and animals and decomposers are biotic component.
Abiotic components are light, water, oxygen, nutrients, other gases and organic matter are dissolved
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a complex set of relationship among the living resources, habitats and resident of an
area. It induces plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organism water, soil and people. An ecosystem
can be defined as the system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the
environment.
An ecosystem is an open system with a continuous but variable influx and loss of material and energy. It
is a basic functional unit with no limits of boundaries and consists of both biotic and abiotic components
interacting with each other both necessary for maintenance of life upon earth. Thus an ecosystem
represents the highest level of ecological integration which is energy based and this functional unit is
capable of energy transformation accumulation and circulation.
Concept of an ecosystem:
An ecosystem is a region with a specific and recognizable landscape form, for e.g., forest, grassland,
coastal area, wetland, mangroves, desert etc. The nature of the ecosystem depends on its geographical
features such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands and is also controlled by
climatic conditions i.e., the amount of sunlight, temperature and rainfall in the region. The geographical,
climatic and soil characteristics form its non-living i.e. abiotic components.These features create
conditions that support a community of plants and animals whose evolution has produced to live in these
specific condition. The living part of an ecosystem is called biotic components.
Ecosystems are divided into Terrestrial or land based ecosystem and Aquatic or water based ecosystem.
These form the two main habitat conditions for the earths living organisms. Life can exist only in a small
portion of the earths land, water and atmosphere.
An ecosystem can be understood at various levels:
At global level: the skin or layer of the earth on the land, sea and air forms the biosphere.
At sub-global level: this is divided into biographical realms for e.g., Eurasia is called the Palearctic
realms, south and south east Asia is called oriental realms, North America is the Nearctic realm, South
Americas is Neotropicalrealm, Africa is the Ethiopian realm and Australia is Australian realm.

At a national or state level, this is divided into Biographical region for e.g., western ghat, Eastern ghat,
Deccan plateau, the Himalayas, the Gangetic plains, the Costal belts, Andaman and Nicobar Islands etc.
These geographically distinctive areas contain plants and animals that have adapted themselves to live in
each of these regions.
At the local level, each area has several structurally and functionally identifiable ecosystem. Such as
different types of forests, grassland, rivers catchments, wetlands mangroves etc. Therefore we can say the
living community of plants and animals inany area together with the non-living component of the
environment i.e. soil, air water surelyconstitute the ecosystem.
Difference between Ecology, Environment and Ecosystem:
For example let us take the example of Engineers India of Institute (EII) and its students. Lets say that
ecology would be the scientific study of students relationship with the EII as a whole. The institute being
the environment in which students studies and the set of circumstances surrounding the student in which
the environment would be the teachers, books, other students etc, are said to be ecosystem.
Components of Ecosystem:
The ecosystem comprises of two components are Biotic i.e. living components and Abiotic i.e. nonliving
component. But both the component of ecosystem and environment are same.
1. Biotic components:
It includes living organism consisting of plants, animals and microbes and are classified according to
their functional attributes into producers and consumers:
(a.) Primary producers: Autotrophs (self-nourishing)
These mainly consist of green plants which make their food from inorganic raw materials like
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the presenceof sunlight through the process of
photosynthesis and supply indirectly to other non-producers.
(b.) Consumers: Heterotrophs
Consumers are incapable of producing food themselves so they depend on organic food derived
from plants, animals or both. Consumers can be divided into macro and micro consumers.
Omnivores are organism which consume both plants and animals e.g., Human being.

2. Abiotic components:
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living organism. It consists of water, air, soil, light etc.
It also includes various gases like oxygen, Nitrogen, carbon dioxide etc, and physical processes like
climate, weather conditions, floods, forest fire, earthquakes etc.Abiotic factors are the most important
determinants of an organism which exists in the environment.
Advantages of the ecosystem:

Provision of food, fuel and fibre
Provision of shelter and building materials
Purification of air and water
Detoxification and decomposition of water
Stabilization and moderation of earths climate
Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and forces of wind
Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutrient cycling
Pollination of plants, including many crops control of pests and diseases
Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs to crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines and
other products.
Cultural and aesthetic benefits
Ecotone
Ecotone is a zone of function between two or more diverse ecosystem for e.g, mangrove, wetlands forests
represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem, other example are grassland, estuary and
river bank.
Function of an Ecosystem
The function of an ecosystem is quite broad and dynamic. But its main function can be divided into three
parts:
1. Energy flow
2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
3. Ecological succession
1. The Energy flow:

The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the ecosystem. The energy from sunlight is used
by the pant into growing new plant material like leaves, flowers, fruit etc. since plant grow by converting
suns energy directly into their tissues, they are known as producers in the ecosystem. The plants are used
by herbivores which give them energy. The carnivores in turn depend on the herbivores for the energy
need. Thus different plant and animal species are linked to one another through food chains. Each food
chain has three or four links. However each plant or animal can be linked to various other plants and
animals which are called food web.
The energy in the ecosystem can be shown in the Trophic level interaction. Which shows how the
members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs.
The trophic level interaction involves three steps are:
A. Food chain
B. Food web
C. Ecological pyramids

A. Food chain:
The unidirectional transfer of food energy from the producers through a series of organism (herbivores to
carnivores to decomposer) with repeated eating and being eaten is known as food chain. A food chain
starts with producers and end with top carnivores.
The green plants which prepare food by the sunlight occupy the first trophic level and are called primary
producers. The energy contained in plants are consumed by herbivores, the second trophic level, called as
primary consumers. The herbivores eaten by carnivoresconstitute the third trophic level, known as
secondary consumers. These in turn may be eaten by other carnivores at tertiary consumer level by
tertiary consumers. Some organism are omnivores eating theboth i.e. herbivores and carnivores.
B. Food web:
A food web is a graphical description of feeding relationship among species in ecological community that
is of who eats whom. It is also shown how energy and materials flow through a community of species as a
result of these feeding relationship.
A food web differs from a food chain in a sense that food chain shows only a proportion of food web
involving a simple, linear series of species connected by feeding links. A food web aims to depict a more
comprehensive and complete picture of the feeding relationship and can be considered a bundle of many
interconnected food chains occurring within the community.

Food web
C. Ecological pyramids:
Trophic structure i.e., the interaction of food chain and the size metabolism relationship between linearly
arranged various biotic components of an ecosystem is characteristics of each type of ecosystem. The
trophic structure and function at successive trophic levels i.e., producers, herbivores and carnivores may
be shown graphically by means of ecological pyramids where the producers level constitute the base of
the pyramid and the successive levels making the apex.
Ecological pyramid are of three types:

1. Pyramid of numbers-which shows the number of individual organism at each level
2. Pyramid of biomass - which shows the total dry weight and other suitable measures of the total
amount of living matters.
3. Pyramid of energy-which shows the rate of energy flow and productivity at successive trophic levels.
The pyramids of numbers andbiomass may be upright or inverted depending upon the nature of the food
chain in the particular ecosystem whereas pyramids of energy are always upright.
1. Pyramid of number:
They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic levels in
terms of their number.

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
They are comparatively more fundamental as they show the quantities relationship of standing crops. It is
usually determined by collecting all organism occupying each trophic level separately and measuring
their dry weight. The pyramids of biomass in grasslands and forests are upright as there is generally a
gradual decrease in biomass of organism of at successive levels from the producers to the top carnivores.
However in pond as the producer are small organism their biomass is least this value gradually shows an
increase towards apex of the pyramid thus make the pyramid inverted in shape.
Aquatic or Pond system

3. Pyramid of Energy
The pyramid of energy gives the best picture of overall nature of the ecosystem. An energy pyramid
reflects the laws of thermodynamics i.e. with conversion of solar energy to chemical energy and heat
energy at each trophic level and with loss of energy being depicted at each transfer to another trophic
level. Hence the pyramid is always upright, with a large energy base at the bottom.

Energy transfer is calculated by measuring the energy at one trophic level and then at the next. Calorie is
a unit to measure energy. The energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is about 10% for e.g., if
there are 10000 calories at one level, only 10% i.e., 1000 cal are transferred to the next and so on.
POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL:

Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the process of biological magnificationi.e. the tendency for toxic
substances to increase in concentration progressively at high levels of the food chain.
Pollutants especially non-degradable ones move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Movements of these pollutants involves two main process:
1. Bioaccumulation
2. Biomagnification
1. Bioaccumulation:
It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. In this process there is an increase in the concentration of
pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain.
2. Biomagnification:
It refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the next. Thus
in this, there is an increase of concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another. In
order for biomagnification to occurs, the pollutant must be long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats and
biologically active.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
(i) The water cycle:
The water cycle is also known as hydrological cycle. It means recycling of earths finite water supply.
When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows into rivers or falls directly into the sea. A part of
rainwater that falls on ground percolates into the land. Thus it recharges the groundwater aquifers. Water
is drawn up by the plants along with nutrients from soil. The water then transpires from the leaves as
water vapour and returns to the atmosphere. As it is lighter than air it rises up in the form of water vapour
and forms clouds. The wind blows the clouds, as the clouds rises higher, the vapour condenses and
changes into water droplets which fall down as rain.
Thus the process of evaporation from water bodies, transpiration from plants leaves, condensation of
water vapour, precipitation and percolation form an endless cycle that replenishes water stream, lakes and
wetlands. Further these natural processes of water cycle also remove impurities in water.
This is an endless cycle on which life depends but human activities have made drastic changes in the
water cycle such as over-extraction of surface water and ground water, construction of large dams,
deforestation and pollution etc.

(ii) The carbon cycle
The carbon found in organic compound is induced in both the abiotic and biotic parts of the ecosystem
carbon is building block of both plants and animals tissues. The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide
gas (CO2)
In terrestrial ecosystem CO2 is removed from the atmosphere and in aquatic ecosystem CO2 is removed
from water. During photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight, plants make carbohydrates which contain
carbon which is used for their growth and development. In this process, oxygen is released into the
atmosphere which is vital for the survival. Furthermore, herbivores fed on plant material which is used for
their growth. Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. They also return fixed
carbon to the soil in the form of waste they excrete. When plants and animals die, they return their carbon
to the soil, thus completing the carbon cycle.
OCEAN ROLE IN CARBON CYCLE:

Some CO2 is removed by marine species during photosynthesis
Some gets dissolved as carbon sink
Some reacts with water to from carbonate and bicarbonate ions.
Cold sea water absorbs more CO2 than warm water as temperature of water rises it becomes less
capable of holding CO2 and thus release more CO2 into the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle ensures that CO2 is at acceptable level. Thus in turn moderates the temperature for life
to exist. If the carbon cycle removes too much carbon, the atmosphere will become cool and if too much
carbon is added to the atmosphere, the atmosphere will get warmer. The current climate models show an
increased concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere.

(iii) The Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen is absorbed by plants and animals from the air during respiration. The plant return oxygen to the
atmosphere during photosynthesis. This links the oxygen cycle to carbon cycle.
(iv) The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere cannot be directly used as a nutrient by plants or animals. It must be
converted into its compound from of ammonia (NH4) nitrates or nitrites. This is achieved by four steps of
fixation, nitrification, ammonification and denitrification.
Fixation: Nitrogen fixing bacteria feed off the root nodules of certain plants species such as beans, peas
and alfalfa while they fix nitrogen.
Nitrification: Nitrogen obtained from fixation is converted into ammonia to be used by those plants. Any
unused ammonia undergoes nitrification.
Ammonification: In this process, specialized bacteria and fungi feed and convert dead (from animals),
materials into compounds such as ammonia and water-soluble salts containing ammonium ions. These
compounds are absorbed by plants for growth. In this manner, nutrients are recycled back from animals to
plants.
Denitrification: This process completes the nitrogen cycle as nitrogen leaves the soil and is released into
the atmosphere as nitrogen or nitrous oxide gas.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
This is a universal process of directional change in vegetation on ecological time scale. It can be related to
seasonal environmental changes which creates changes in the community of plants and animals living in
the ecosystem. This process continues i.e., one community replacing another community until a stable,
mature community replacing another community develops. It is a progressive series of changes which
leads to the establishment of a relatively stable complex community. For example, if forest is cleared, it is
initiallycolonized by a certain group of species of plants and animals, which gradually change through an
orderly process of community development.
Figure: Ecological succession

TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM
A. Terrestrial Ecosystem
1. Forest ecosystem
The forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum
conditions such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible for the establishment of forest
communities. The nature of soil climate and local topography determine the distribution of trees and their
abundance in the forest vegetation.
Forest types in India

The forest type depends upon on abiotic factors such as climate and soil characteristics of a region.
Forests in India can be broadly divided into coniferous forests and broad-leaved forests. They can also be
classified according to the nature of their tree-species, i.e., evergreen, deciduous, xerophytes or thorn
trees, mangroves and so on. They can also be classified according to most abundant species of trees such
as sal or teak forests. In many cases, a forest is named after the first three or four most abundant tree
species.
1. Coniferous forests: These forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region where the temperature is
low. These forests have tall stately trees with needle like leaves and downward sloping branches so
that snow can fall down from the branches. They have cones in place of seeds and are known as
gymnosperm.
2. Board-leaved forests: These forests are of several types such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests,
thorn forests and mangrove forests. Broad-leaved trees have large leaves of various shapes which are
usually found in middle to lower latitudes.
3. Evergreen forests: These forests grow in high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, Northeastern India
and Andaman Nicobar Islands. These forests grows in those areas where monsoon last for longer
period.
Characteristics:
Evergreen tress shed their leaves throughout the year.
There is no dry leafless phase.
These forest look green throughout the year.
These form continuous canopy due to overlap
Only few shade loving plants can grow because light penetration is less due to canopy of trees.
The forest is rich in orchids and ferns.
The barks of trees are covered with moss.
The forest is rich in animal and insect life.
Deciduous forests: These forests are found in region where moderate amount of rainfall happens
which usually lasts for few months.
Characteristics:
Deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer months
In March orApril they regain their fresh leaves just before the monsoon, when they grow vigorously
in response to the rains
There are period of leaf-fall and canopy regrowth
These forests have thick undergrowth as light can penetrate easily on the forest floor.

(a.) Thorn forests:These forests are found in semi-arid region of India. Trees are sparsely distributed and
surrounded by open grass areas. Thorny plants are also knows as xerophytes species as they are able
to conserve water. Some of the trees have small leaves while other species have thick, waxy leaves to
reduce water loss during transpiration. Thorn forest trees have long or fibrous roots which enable
them to reach water at great depths. Mary of these plants have thorns which reduce water loss and
protect them from herbivores.
(b.) Mangrove forests: Mangrove forests grow along the sea coast and in river deltas. These trees are
capable to grow in saline water. They grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that the
rivers have brought down. They have breathing roots.
These are found in Sunderban delta, Andaman and Nicobar Island, Mahanadi delta etc.
Importance of forest
It provides us clean air to breath
It gives us food and fodder
It keeps up the natural balance
It purifies the air
It plays role in precipitation (rain)
It prevents floods
It prevents soil erosion
It provides medicinal properties
It provides fuel and timber
It provides raw materials for industries
It maintain biodiversity on earth
It provides shelter and home to fauna.
Threats to the forest ecosystem:

1. Deforestation
2. Infrastructure development
3. Mining
4. Dam building
5. Cutting down of trees for timber
6. Pollution
7. Shifting cultivation
8. Urbanization
9. Expansion of agricultural fields
10. Conversion to monoculture plantations for timbers or other products
Conservation of forest ecosystem

1. Afforestation
2. Adoption of sustainable development
3. Adopting sustainable life-style
4. Using alternative source of energy instead of fuel wood
5. Forest to be protected under national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
6. Public awareness to plant trees

2. Grassland ecosystem
Grass land are usually found in areas where rainfall is low and soil gravity is poor. The vegetation is
predominantly grass and small plants which are specifically adapted to those climatic conditions. The low
rainfall prevents the growth of a large number of trees and shrubs but it is sufficient to support the growth
of grass cover during the monsoon. Many grasses and other small herbs become dry and the exposed
portion of plants above the ground dies in summer. In the next monsoon, the grass cover grows back from
the root-shock and seeds of the previous year. This change gives grassland a highly seasonal appearance
with periods of increased growth being followed by a dormantphase. Gradually a variety of grasses, herbs
along with several species of insects, bird and mammals evolve. So that they become adapted to these
wide open grass covered areas.
TYPES OF GRASSLANDS IN INDIA:

Grass lands form a variety of ecosystem located in different climatic condition ranging from near desert to
shola grasslands.
Types of Grasslands:
1. Himalayan Grassland:
The Himalayan grassland extend upto the snowline, the grasslands at a lower level form patches
along with coniferous or broad leaved forests. Himalayan wildlife requires both forests and grassland
ecosystem as vital parts of their habitats. The animal migrate up into the high-altitude grassland in
summer and move down into forest in the winter when the snow covers the grasslands. The
Himalayan pastures consists of variety of grasses and herbs and flowers.
2. The Terai:
It consists of patches of tall grassland interspersed with Sal forest ecosystem. The patches of tall
elephant grass which grow to a height of about five meters are located in the low-lying waterlogged
areas. It also includes marshes in the low lying waterlogged areas. This ecosystem extends in a belt
south of Himalayan foothills.
3. The shola grassland:
It consists of patches on hill slopes that occurs alongside the shola forests on the Western Ghats, the
Nilgiri and Anamalai ranges. These form patchworks of grassland on the slopes and forest habitats
along the streams and low-lying areas.
Uses:
i) It acts as grazing areas of rural communities.
ii) It supplies food stock to animals.
iii) Fodder is collected and stored to feed cattle.
iv) It maintains biodiversity.
v) It serves as a storehouse for carbon.
vi) Grasses from this area are used to hatch house and farm sheds.
vii) It provides fuel wood also
Threats:
i) Overutilization has led to degradation
ii) Increased number or population of cattles decrease the nutritious species of grass
iii) Over grazing
iv) Conversion into irrigated farmland

v) Wild fires.
vi) Industrial development.
Note: If grassland continues to be lost, the land would be degraded as there would be no grass to hold the
soil in place. It shall become wasteland.
Conservation:
i) Grasslands should not be over-grazed.
ii) Some areas should be closed for grazing.
iii) Rotational grazing pattern should be applied.
iv) Sanctuaries and national parks must be created.
v) Plantations of trees should be restricted in grassland.
A. Desert Ecosystem:
Desert and semi-arid lands are extremely specialized and sensitive ecosystem. The plants and animals that
inhabit these dry areas can live only in this ecosystem. These area are mainly located in western India and
the Deccan plateau. The climate in these areas is extremely dry, clod desert such as in Ladakh is located
in high plateau of the Himalaya. The most typical desert landscape are seen in Rajasthan is in the
Thardesert. In these area shrubs, and horny tress such as Kher and babul is found. The great and
littleRann of Kutch isextraordinary specialized arid ecosystem. In summer, they are similar to a desert
landscape but in monsoon converted to salt marshes since these are low-lying areas near the sea.
The greatRann of Kutch is the only known breading place of greater and lesser flamingos in the country.
The little Rann of Kutch is the only home of the wild ass in India.
Desert and semi-arid regions have a number of highly specialized insects and reptiles. The rare animals
include wolf, desert Cat, desert fox and birds such as great Indian bustard and Florican.
Uses:
i) Areas having little moisture are used for growing crops such as Jowar and Bajra.
ii) The natural grasses and local varieties of crops have adapted to grow at very low moisture levels. So
these can be used for genetic engineering and developing semi-arid land crops for the future.
Threats:
i) Infrastructure development.
ii) Urbanization.
iii) Human population.
iv) Extensive irrigation for conversion this land.
v) The over-extraction of ground water.
Conservations:
i) Sustainable development.
ii) Establishing rational parks and wildlife sundries.
iii) Public awareness.
iv) Mining projects should be minimized.
v) Not to covert this land into farming sector.

B. Aquatic ecosystem
The aquatic ecosystem consists of the marine environment of sea and freshwater system in lakes, rivers,
ponds and wetlands. In this ecosystem, plants and animals live in water as these species are adapted to
live in aquatic habitats. The special abiotic features are its physical aspects such as the quality of water,
which includes its clarity, salinity, oxygen content and rate of flow.
Aquatic system can be characterized as stagnant ecosystem or running water ecosystem. The mud, gravel
or rocks that form the bed of the aquatic system alter its characteristics and influences its plant and animal
species composition. Aquatic ecosystems are classified based on this salt content as freshwater, brackish
and marine ecosystem.
1. Freshwater ecosystem: The salt content of fresh water bodies is very low always less than 5 ppt (parts
per thousand) for e.g., rivers, lakes, ponds etc
2. Brackish ecosystem: These ecosystem in river deltas are covered by Mangrove forests and are among
the worlds most productive ecosystem in terms of biomass-production. These have salt content
between 5ppt to 35ppt.
3. Marine ecosystem: The salt content of this ecosystem lies greater than or equal to 35ppt e.g, shallow
seas and Open Ocean.
(1.) Freshwater Ecosystem:
(a.) Pond Ecosystem:The pond ecosystem is the simplest aquatic ecosystem. The water level in the
pond changes in phased manner such as in dry or summer season, water level deceases but in
monsoon season, water level rises in the pond. When pond begins to fill during the rain, its life
forms such as algae and microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails and worms, emerge from the
floor of the pond where they remained dormant during the dry phase. As the ponds fills in the
monsoon season, a large number of food chains are formed. The algae are eaten by microscopic
animals which are in turn eaten by small fish, on which larger carnivores fishes depend. These are
in turn eaten by birds such as kingfisher, herons and birds of prey.
Aquatic insects, worms and snail feed on the waste material exerted by animals and dead or
decaying plant and animal matter. They act on the detritus, which is broken down into nutrients
which aquatic plants absorb thus complete the nutrient cycle in the pond.
(b.) Lake Ecosystem: A lake ecosystem functions like a giant permanent pond. Energy cycles
through the lake ecosystem from the sunlight that penetrates the water surface to the plants. From
plants, energy is transferred to herbivores animals and the carnivores. Animals excrete waste
products which settle at the bottom of the lake and are broken down by small animals that live in
the mud in the lake bed. This acts as nutrient material used by aquatic plants for their growth.
During this process, plants use carbon from CO2 for their growth and release oxygen. This
oxygen is then used by aquatic animals, which filter water through their respiratory system.
(c.) River ecosystem: Streams and river ecosystem are flowing water ecosystem in which all living
forms are especially adapted to different rates of flow. Some plants and animals such as snails
and other burrowing animals can withstand the rapid flow of hill streams & other species like
water bottles and skaters can live only in slow moving water.
The flora and fauna of streams and river depends on the clarity, flow and oxygen content as well
as the nature of their beds. The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky or muddy bed each type
having its own species of plants and animals.

Eutrophication :
Eutrophication is a syndrome of ecosystem, response to the addition of artificial or natural substances
such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage etc. that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem. The
growth of green algae on Lake Surface is the physical identification of an eutrophication.
Characteristics:
It is primarily caused by the leaching of phosphate or nitrate containing fertilizers from agricultural
lands into lakes or rivers.
Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excisions and a population explosion occurs, which
covers almost entire surface layer is known as algal bloom.
As algal boom covers the surface layer so it restricts the penetration of sunlight.
As oxygen is required by all respiring animals in the water and it is replenished by photosynthesis of
green plants.
The oxygen level is already low due to population explosion and further oxygen is taken up by
microorganism which feed off the dead algae during decomposition process.
Due to reduced oxygen level, fishes and other aquatic organism suffocate and die.
Because of this new anaerobic conditions can promote harmful bacteria which produces toxins and
hence cause death to aquatic organism, birds and mammals.
All this ultimately leads to degradation of aquatic ecosystem and death of its organism.
It finally leads to change in animal and plants population and degradation of water and habitat quality.
Types:
1. Natural: Deposition of nutrients in the system for e.g., seasonally inundated tropical flood plains.
2. Anthropogenic: These inputs come from untreated sewage discharge runoff of fertilization from farm
fields, animals waste, combustion of fossil fuels, etc.
Effects:
i) Change in ecosystem.
ii) Decreases biodiversity.
iii) Invasion of foreign species.
iv) Induces toxicity.
Mitigation:
i) Treatment of industrial effluents.
ii) Organic farming and integrated farming system.
iii) Improving the efficiency of use of fertilizer.
iv) Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power plants.
Harmful algal blooms

Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organism that can be found naturally in coastal waters. These
are major producers of oxygen and food for many animals that live in these water.
Algae may multiply rapidly and form high numbers of cells when environmental conditions are
favorable for this development is called an algal bloom.
A bloom often results in a colour change in the water. Algal blooms can be of any colors but the
common ones are red or brown. These blooms are commonly known as red or brown tides.

Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produces toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine
mammals and humans. The toxin may also make the surrounding air difficult to breathe. These are
known as harmful algal blooms
Side effects:
Harmful algal bloom can deplete the oxygen level in water and lead to low dissolved oxygen levels.
When masses of algae die and decompose then in decaying process oxygen is depleted by bacteria in
water which causes water to become very low in oxygen. When oxygen levels drops too low, fish
suffocate and die.
Some algae species in bloom produce potent neurotoxins which can be transferred through the food
web where they affect and even kill high form of life such as zooplanktons, shellfish, fish, birds,
marine mammals and evenhumans that feed either directly or indirectly on them.
HAB even affects commercial and recreational fishing, tourism and valued habitats creating a
significant impact on local economy and livelihood of coastal.
Flow chart

(2.) Brackish ecosystems
i) Wetland:A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water either permanently or seasonally
such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. Primarilythe factor that
distinguishes wetland from other landform or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation which
is adapted to its unique soil condition. Wetlands consists primarily of hydric soil which supports
aquatic plants.
Definition: A patch of land that develops pool of water after a rain would not be considered a
wetland, even through the land is wet. Wetland have unique characteristics as they are
distinguished from others bodies based on their water level and on types of plants that thrive within
them. Specifically wetlands are characterized as having a water table that stands at or near the land
surface for long enough period each year to support plants. Wetlands have also been described as
ecosystem, i.e., providing a transition between dry and water bodies.
Ramsar convention definition

Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty wetlands are defined as
Art1.1: Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary with water that is staticor flowing, fresh, brackish or salt including areas of marine water the
depthof which at low tide does not exceeds six meters.
Art2.2: Wetlands may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to wetlands and islands or bodies
of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying withinthewetlands.
Ramsar convention is an international treaty designed to address global concern regarding
wetlands loss and degradation. The primary purpose of the treaty is to list wetlands of
international importanceand to promote their wise use with the ultimate goal of preserving the
worlds wetlands. Methods includes restricting access to the majority portion of wetlands areas
and educating people not to treat wetlands as wastelands.
The convention works closely with five international organization are: Birdlife International,
IUCN, International Water Management Institute, Wetlands International and World wide fund
for nature.
Main wetlands types include swamps, marshes, bogs and fens. Sub-type include Mangroves, Carr,
and Versa etc.
Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystem
Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica.
The largest wetlands in the word include the Amazon River Basin and the west Siberian plain.
Environmental degradation is more prominent with wetlands systems than any other ecosystem on
earth.
WETLAND FUNCTION:
The main functions performed by wetlands are water filtration or purification, ground water
replenishment, shoreline stabilization and storm protection, biological productivity, sediment traps and
provide habitat for wildlife.
i) Water purification:Wetlands possess bio filters hydrophytes and organism that in addition to
nutrient up take abilities have the capacity to remove toxic substances that have come from

pesticidesindustrial discharges and miningactivities. Floating plants can absorb and filter heavy
metals. Animals such as oyster can filter more than 200 litres of water per day.
ii) Groundwater replenishment: Wetlands system are directly linked to groundwater and a crucial
regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetlands system that are
made of permeable sediments like limestone plays a vital role in water storage. Sediments that are
porous allow water to filter down through the soil and overlying rocks into aquifers which are the
source of 95% of words drinking water.
iii) Shoreline stabilization: Tidal and intertidal wetland system protect and stabilize coastal zones.
Along with this coral reefs and mangroves also protect the costal zones by obstructing the wind
velocity and minimize erosion of soil.
iv) Biological productivity: Wetlands have ability to absorb nutrients so they are highly biologically
productive i.e., to produce biomass. The ability to create biomass may become important to the
development of alternative source of energy.
v) Sediment trap: Rainfall runoff is responsible for sediment transportation and the wetlands restricts
the flow of sediment into groundwater. Reedbeds or forest located in wetlands acts as physical
barriers to slow waterflow and trap sediments.
vi) Wild habitat: It provides habitat to different kinds of flora and fauna and migratory birds.
FLORA AND FAUNA OF WETLANDS:

Flora:
There are four main types of hydrophytes that are found in wetlands system throughout the world:
i) Submerged water plants.
ii) Floating water plants.
iii) Emergent water plants.
iv) Surrounding trees and shrubs.
Fauna:
i) Fish.
ii) Amphibians.
iii) Reptiles.
iv) Mammals.
v) Birds.
Advantages of wetlands
1. Flood control.
2. Shoreline protection.
3. Provide food and fodder to animal and human begins.
4. Water purification.
5. Reservoirs of biodiversity.
6. Cultural values.
7. Recreation and tourism.
8. Climate change mitigation and adaptation.
9. Provide natural water balance in the landscape.
10. Provide nursery areas for fish and breeding grounds for wildlife.
11. Provides medical herbs.

12. Supports varieties of flora and fauna.
Threats to wetlands:
1. Infrastructure development.
2. Urbanization.
3. Climate change.
4. Pollution.
5. Not awareness among public.
6. Over use.
7. Cutting trees for fuel or wood.
8. Agricultural activities.
9. Deforestation.
10. Salinization.
11. Aquaculture.
12. Invasion of foreign species.
Wetlands in India
India has a wealth of wetland ecosystem distributed across various geographical regions that range from
Himalayas to Deccan plateaus. Wetland occupy 18.4% of the countrys area of which 70% are under
paddy cultivation. Natural wetlands in India consists of high altitude wetlands in Himalayas, flood plains
of the major rivers system, saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid regions. Coastal
wetlands such as lagoons, backwater, estuaries, mangroves, swamps and coral reefs and so on. Coastal
wetlands occupy an estimated 6750 square km and are largely dominated by mangrove vegetation.
Legal framework
National wetlands conservation programme (NWCP)
NWCP was implemented by the Govt. of India with the collaboration of states/UT in year 1985-86
Under the programme 115 wetlands have been identified which require urgent conservation.
Aim of the programme

Conservation of wetlands to prevent from their further degradation and ensuring their wise use for the
benefit of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.
Critical for identification of wetlands:

Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance are same as under the Ramsar convention.
Criteria are as follows:
1. Site containing representative rare or unique wetland type
2. Criteria based on species and ecological communities
3. Specific criteria based on water birds
4. Specific criteria based on fish
5. Specific criteria based on water/life and culture

RAMSAR DESIGNATED WETLANDS SITES IN INDIA
State - Wetlands Name
1. Andhra Pradesh - Kolleru Lake.
2. Assam - DeeporBal.
3. Gujarat - Nalsarovar Bird sanctuary.
4. Himachal Pradesh - Renuka wetland, pong dam lake,Chandertal wetland.
5. Jammu and Kashmir - Hokera wetland, surinsar-Mansar lakes, Tsomoriri, Wularlake.
6. Kerala - Ashtamudi wetland, sasthamkotta lake, vembanand-kol wetland.
7. Madhya Pradesh - Bhoj wetland.
8. Manipur - Loktaklake.
9. Odisha - Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Chilikalake.
10. Punjab - Harikelake, Kanjili, Ropar.
11. Rajasthan - Sambharlake, Keoladeo national park.
12. Tamil Nadu - Point Calimere wildlife and bird sanctuary.
13. Tripura - Rudrasagarlake.
14. Uttar Pradesh - Upper Ganga River.
15. West Bengal - East Calcutta wetlands.
The Monteux Record

The Montreux record is a register of wetland sites on the list of wetlands of International importance
where changes in ecological characters have occuredorare occuring or are likely to occur as a result of
technological development, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar
list:
Mangroves:
Mangroves are salt-tolerant plants of tropical and subtropical intertidal regions of the world mainly
formed between latitudes 25N and 25S. The specific regions where these plants occur are termed as
mangrove ecosystem. These are highly productive but extremely sensitive and fragile. Mangroves occupy
less than 1% of worlds surface and are mainly found between tropic of Capricorn and tropic of Cancer on
all continents covering an estimated 75% of tropical coastline worldwide Mangroves are shrubs and trees
that grow between the high water mark of spring tides and a limit close to but above the mean sea level.
They are capable of reclaiming land with the help of their special widespread underground root system,
which instead of growing downward tend to come upward like shoots and loops to breathe air when
flooded by water and also for support. An increase in mangrove has been suggested for climate change
mitigation.
Characteristics:
The mangrove trees or plants are capable to tolerate broad range of salinity, temperature and moisture
Mangroves plants are adapted to low oxygen content in water.
Mangroves trees exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly suberised
acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salt from the rest of the plant.
Mangroves trees limit the amount of water loss through transpiration.
Mangrove trees store gases directly inside the roots processing then even when the roots are
submerged during high tide.
Mangroves seeds are buoyant and therefore suited to water dispersal.

Mangroves are viviparous i.e., whose seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree.
Advantages or function of Mangroves:

Mangrove roots provide habitat to oyster and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment
deposition.
The anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sink for a variety of heavy meals.
Mangroves protect coastal areas from erosion.
Mangroves protect coastal areas from hurricane, tsunami etc, because its massive root system are
efficient at dissipating (reducing) wave velocity and energy.
Margraves proves nursery habitat for many wildlife species including commercial fish and
crustaceans.
Mangroves provide timber and fuel wood.
Mangroves supports many species of flora and fauna .
Mangroves provides varieties of medical herb plants.
Mangroves improve costal water quality by abiotic and biotic retention.
It provides portion rich fodder for cattle.
It provides edible fruits and vegetables.
It provides traditional medicines.
Biomass productivity of Biomass is relatively high.
Threats to mangrove ecosystem:

Climate charge.
Insect pests.
Weeds.
Urban development.
Over harvesting.
River changes.
Infrastructure development.
Destruction of coral reefs.
Pollution.
Diversion and blocking of brackish water cannels.
Industrialization.
Mining.
Deforestation.
Mangroves in India
In worlds total mangrove vegetation, Indias share stands at 3%. Currently Mangrove cover in India is
4740km2 which is 0.14% of countrys geographical area. According to forest report 2015, net increase of
112 sq. km in mangrove cover have been recorded. These mangrove habitats (69E-89.5E longitude and
7N-73N latitude) comprise three district zone:
East coast habitat having a coast line of 2700 km facing Bay of Bengal
West coast habitat having coast line of about 3000km facing Arabian sea and Island territories with
about 1816.6km

About 60% of the margraves occur on the east coast along the bay of Bengal 27% on west coast
bordering with arabian sea and 13% on Andaman and Nicobar Island.
Mangroves cover has been categorized into very dense (canopy density > 70%) moderate dense
(canopy density 40-70%) and open mangrove cover (canopy density 10-40%)
Gradual topography along the east coast is said to have an extensive intertidal expanse which favours
major formation of mangroves in the deltaic regions. And due to the river deltas of Ganga,
Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery which have nutrient rich alluvial soil
support mangrove formation.
The sunderbandeleta is the largest mangroves in India and its islands are formed by the sediments
deposited by three major rivers, Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna.
The mangroves ecosystem is basically of three types:
i) Deltaic Mangroves: These are located along the mouth of major river estuaries on east coast
and Gulf of katch and Gulf of khambhat on west coast.
ii) Coastal mangrove: These are found along the intertidal coastline, minor river mouths, sheltered
bays and backwater area.
iii) Islandmangroves:These are found along shallow protected intertidal zones of bay islands such
as Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.
Top 5 states having mangroves cover in India

State - Total Area (sq. Km)
1. West Bengal - 2106 Km2
2. Gujarat - 1107 Km2
3. Andaman and Nicobar Island - 617 Km2
4. Andhra Pradesh - 367 Km2
5. Odisha - 231 Km2
Besides these states mangroves are also found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka,
Daman and Diu and Puducherry.
Conservation:
Environmental protection Act, 1986.
Coastal regulation zones (CRZ) 1991.
Scheme on conservation and management of mangroves and coral reefs (1996).
Increasing public awareness programme.
Intertidal mud banks control.
Increased social forestry.
Creating buffer zone to limit anthropogenic activities around it.
Marine ecosystem:
The pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arabian sea, Bay ofBengaletcconstitute the marine
Ecosystem. In the coastal areas sea is shallow while further away it is deep. Both are deep ecosystems.
The producers in this ecosystem vary from microscopic algae to large seaweeds. There are millions of
zooplankton and large variety of invertebrates which fish, turtles and marine mammals feed on. In India,
the shallow areas near the Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar islands are some of the most incredible coral

reefs in the world. Coral reefs are second only to tropical evergreen forests in their richness of species.
The great barriers reef in Australia is the largest coral reefs in the world.
Coral reefs
Coral is a living animal which has a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellaemicroscopic algae which
live on coral i.e instead of living on the sea floor, the algae lives up on the coral which is closer to the
ocean surface and so that algae gets lot of light.
Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production through photosynthesis. The tissues of corals
are of white colour and they getcolouration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps. These polyps tribe, grow and die
leaving behind their limestone skeletons (CaCO3) and these limestone is colorized by new polyps.
Therefore a coral reef is built up of layers of these skeletons covered ultimately by living polyps.
Conditions for survival or growth of coral reefs

i) The water temperature must not fall below 20C. This virtually limits the areal distribution of corals
to the tropical and sub-tropical zones. Again they will not flourish where there are cold currents and
this explains why coral reefs are generally absent on the western coast of continents.
ii) The depth of water should not exceed 180 feet or 54.9 55 mt. because beyond this depth sunlight is
too faint for photosynthesis to take place. This is essential for the survival of the microscopic algae on
which the coral polyps depends.
iii) There should always be plenty of water as polyps cannot survive for too long out of water.
iv) The water should be saltishor free from sediments. Corals therefore survive best in the moving ocean
water away from the silty coasts or muddy mouths of streams.
v) The corals are best developed on the seaward side of the reef where constantly moving waves, tides
and currents maintain an abundant supply of clear and oxygenated water. They also bring an adequate
supply of food in the form of microscopic organism.
NOTE: There are four major reef areas in India are: Andaman and Nicobar Island are very rich in species
diversity followed by Lakshadweep Islands, the Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kutch.
Functions of coral reefs:

Coral reefs act as natural protection barriers against erosion and storm surge.
They are largest biogenic calcium carbonate producers.
They provide substrate for mangroves.
They provide habitat for a large varieties of animals and plants including avifauna.
They are used in medicinal products also.
Threats:
Natural causes like hurricanes, tsunami etc.
Anthropogeniccausesi.e., human induced pollution and wastes material.
Global warming and climate charge.
Overfishing.
Coral reef bleaching.
Shipping.

Minerals and gas and oil exploration in the sea.
Coral bleaching:
When coral are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light or nutrients they expel the
symbiotic algae living in their tissues causing them to turn completely white. This is called coral
bleaching. When coral bleaches, it is not dead. Corals can survive a bleaching event but they are under
more stress and are subject to mortality.
Causes:
1. El Nina effect
2. La Nina effect
3. Global warming
4. Climate change
5. Pollution
Effects:
i) Changes in ocean currents.
ii) Changes in phytoplankton and zooplankton populations.
iii) Changes in water temperatures.
iv) Changes in water salinity level.
v) Sedimentation.
vi) Change in air temperatures over the ocean.
vii) Affects the food chain system.

Multiple choice questions
(1.) Environmental studies involves
(i) Biology and geology
(ii) Physics and chemistry
(iii) Anthropology and economics
(iv) All of the above
Which of the following is correct answer:
(a.) (i) and (ii)
(b.) (i) and (iii)
(c.) (ii) and (iii)
(d.) (iv) only
ANS: d
(2.)World Environmental Day is on

(a.) 5 May
(b.) 5 June
(c.) 22 April
(d.) 6 June
ANS: b
(3.)Desertification is caused by
(i) Mining
(ii) Deforestation
(iii) Overgrazing
Choose the correct answer
(a.) (i) and (ii)
(b.) (ii) and (iii)
(c.) (i) and (iii)
(d.) (iv) only
ANS: d
(4.)The organisms which feed on the waste products are called

(a.) Herbivores
(b.) Carnivores
(c.) Detritivores
(d.) Chemovores
ANS: c
(5.) Ecology is related to

(i) Relations between organism within environment
(ii) Study of home of nature
(iii) Organism relations with environmental resources
Which of the following is correct options:

(a.) (i) and (ii)
(b.) (ii) only
(c.) (iv) only
(d.) (i) , (ii) and (iii)
ANS: c
(6.)Environment consists of
(a.) Biotic component
(b.) Abiotic component
(c.) Both
(d.) None
ANS: c
(7.)An ecosystem consists of

(i) Ecology
(ii) Environment
(iii) Biotic component only
Which of the following is correct answers:
(a.) (i) and (ii) only
(b.) (i) and (iii)only
(c.) (iv) only
(d.) (i) , (ii) and (iii)
ANS: d
(8.)An Ecosystem is an
(a.) Open system
(b.) Closed system
(c.) Both
(d.) All of the above
ANS: a
(9.)An Ecosystem depends on its

(i) Geographical conditions
(ii) Biotic component only
(iii) Abiotic component only
Which of the following is correct answer:
(a.) (i) only
(b.) (iv) only
(c.) (ii) and (iii)
(d.) (i) , (iii)
ANS: b

(10.) Ecotone is an example of
(i) Mangroves
(ii) Wetlands
(iii) Desert
Which of the following is correct options:
(a.) (i) and (ii)
(b.) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(c.) (iv) only
(d.) None
ANS: a
(11.) The energy from sunlight supports

(a.) Plants
(b.) Herbivores
(c.) Carnivores
ANS: d
(12.) Trophic level in food chain is related to

(a.) Energy
(b.) Nutrients
(c.) Biomass
(d.) All of these
ANS: a
(13.) Food chain is

(a.) Unidirectional
(b.) Bidirectional
(c.) Multidirectional
ANS: a
(14.) The pyramid of numbers

(i) Always upright
(ii) Can be upright
(iii) Can be inverted
(iv) Always inverted
Which of the following is correct?
(a.) (i) only
(b.) (ii) and (iii)
(c.) (iv) only
(d.) All of these
ANS: b

(15.) Which of the following pyramid is always upright?
(a.) Pyramid of number
(b.) Pyramid of Biomass
(c.) Pyramid of energy
ANS: c
(16.) In Biomagnifications, which of the following process happens?

(i) Pollutant is found maximum at the source
(ii) Pollutant is found maximum at the end
(iii) It is based on energy pyramid
Find out the correct option:
(a.) (i) only
(b.) (ii) only
(c.) (ii) and (iii)
(d.) (iv) only
ANS: c
(17.) The water cycle involves how many cycle?

(a.) Two
(b.) Four
(c.) Five
(d.) Six
ANS: c
(18.) Which of the following statements are true?

(i) Cold sea water are capable to absorb more CO2
(ii) Warm sea water absorb less CO2
(iii) Ocean water absorbs CO2 during photosynthesis
(iv) Ocean acts carbon sink
Select the correct options:
(a.) (i) and (ii)
(b.) (i) and (iii)
(c.) (ii) and (iii)
ANS: d
(19.) Arrange the following in ascending order or chronological order in Nitrogen cycle
(a.) Nitrification Fixation DenitrificationAmmonifixation
(b.) Fixation NitrifixationAmmonifixationDinitrifixation
(c.) NitrifixationDentirifixation Fixation Ammonifixation
(d.) AmonfixationNitrifixationDentirifixation Fixation
ANS: b

(20.) In the content of Thorn Forests, consider the following statements:
(i) Found in semi-arid region
(ii) Forests are closely distributed
(iii) Xerophytes species of plants are found
(iv) Have small leaves to reduce water loss during evaporation
State which of the following option is true?
(a.) (i) and (iii)
(b.) (ii) and (iii)
(c.) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
ANS: a
(21.) Shola grasslands are found in

(a.) The Himalayas
(b.) The vindhyas
(c.) The western ghats
(d.) The Eastern ghats
ANS: c
(22.) In the context of Eutrophication, consider the following statements:

(i) Caused by addition of nitrate only
(ii) The growth of green algae is seen
(iii) The growth of red algae is seen
(iv) It causes loss of oxygen in the pond/lake
State which is the correct option:
(a.) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(b.) (ii) and (iv)
(c.) (i), (ii) and (iv)
ANS: b
(23.) Ramsar convention is related to

(a.) Wetlands
(b.) Mangrove
(c.) Forests
(d.) Ecosystem
ANS: a
(24.) In the context of wetlands, consider the following statements:

(i) It is an Ecotone
(ii) It is a transition area between land and water system
(iii) Wetlands occur naturally on every continent
(iv) Wetlands are natural only
State the correct answer:

(a.) (i) and (ii)
(b.) (i) (ii) and (iii)
(d.) (i), (ii) and (iv)
ANS: a
(25.) Loktak lake is situated in

(a.) Assam
(b.) Manipur
(c.) Aruranchal Pradesh
(d.) Meghalaya
ANS: b
(26.) In how many states, the Ramsar designated wetlands are found?
(a.) Ten
(b.) Twelve
(c.) Thirteen
(d.) Fifteen
ANS: d
(27.) In the context of Montreux record, consider the following statements:

(i) It is a register of wetlands of international importance
(ii) It is a register of wetlands of rational importance
(iii) It is not maintained as part of the Ramsar lists
(iv) It is a register of wetlands of both national and international importance
(a.) (i) and (iv)
(b.) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(c.) (i) and (iii)
(d.) (i) only
ANS: d
(28.) In the context of Mangrove, consider the following statements:

(i) It is an Ecotone
(ii) It is a part of ecosystem
(iii) It is found in only tropical regions
(iv) It is a salt-resistance plants
(a.) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(b.) (i), (ii) and (iii)
ANS: a

(29.) In the context of Mangroves in India, consider the following statements:
(i) According to Forest survey report, 2015 there is net increase of 116 sq. km in Mangrove forest
area
(ii) East coast have highest cover of Mangroves forest in India
(iii) Sunderban is deltaic mangrove system
(iv) Mangroves exerts methane gas
(a.) (i),(ii) and (iii)
(b.) (ii), (iii)and (iv)
(c.) (ii) and (iii)
(d.) (iii) and (iv)
ANS: b
(30.) In the context of coral reefs, consider the following statements:

(i) These are living animal
(ii) They have their own colour
(iii) Are found in all regions
(iv) Secrete CaCO3
(a.) (i) and (iii)
(b.) (i) and (iv)
(c.) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(d.) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
ANS: b

CHAPTER-4
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given species, ecosystem, biome or plant. It is
biological diversity on the earth planet. The United Nations Earth Summit, 1992 defined Biodiversity
as the variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part, this includes diversity within
species between species and of ecosystems. Thus it is a concept laying emphasis on inter-related nature of
the living world with its processes. Biodiversity is of fundamental importance to the functioning of all
ecosystem and to the ecosystem services that nature provides to human society. Biodiversity boosts
ecosystem productivity where each species no matter how small, all have an important role to play.
The United Nation designated 2011-2020 as the United Nation Decade on Biodiversity.
Important facts about Biodiversity

Biodiversity is not evenly distributed rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within
regions.
The diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soil,
geography and the presence of other species.
Diversity is higher in the tropics and lower in Polar Regions.
Generally there is an increase in biodiversity from poles to the tropical regions therefore locations at
lower latitudes have more species than location at higher latitudes. This is referred to as the latitudinal
gradient. This is referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. The reason is greater mean
temperature due to nearness of the location to the equator.
Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots.
Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extension.
Since life began on earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have ledtodestruction
of biodiversity.
The recent, the cretaceous-polygene extinction event occurred 65 million years ago resulted in the
extinction of the dinosaurs.
The most recent since the emergence of humans named Holocene extinction caused habitat
destruction.
TYPES OF BIO-DIVERSITY:
There are three distinct levels or types of biodiversity though all of them are components of a much
intricate web.
1. Genetic diversity.
2. Species diversity.
3. Ecosystem diversity.

1. Genetic diversity
It refers to variation of genes within species. This variation can exist between different populations of
the same species as well as between individuals within a population.
Genetic diversity provides organism and ecosystems with capacity to recuperate after change has
occurred. Thus genetic diversity is a level of biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic
characteristic in the genetic makeup of species.
It is distinguished from genetic variability which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to
vary.
Neutral theory of evolution proposes that diversity is the result of the accumulation of neutral
substitution.
Genetic diversity and biodiversity are dependent upon each other i.e., the diversity within a species is
necessary to maintain diversity among species and vice-versa. If anyone type is removed from the
system, the cycle can break down and the community becomes dominated by a single species.
It gives beautiful butterflies, flowers etc in various shape and sizes.
2. Species diversity
It refers to variety of living organisms on earth.
Measure of index to this diversity comprise of species richness, species abundance and polygenetic
diversity.
Equatorial region have more species than the rest.
Species diversity is essential for the proper functioning of communities and for emergence of
communities level properties.
It is the ratio of one species population over total population across all species in the given biome.
Zero signifies infinite diversity and one signifies only one species present only.
3. Ecosystem diversity:
Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region or political entity such as
country, state or city. Distinctive ecosystems include landscape like forests, grasslands, deserts,
mountains and aquatic ecosystems like pond, river, sea etc.
An ecosystem is referred to as natural when it is relatively undisturbed by human activities.
As the environment changes, species adapt to that environmental change. Thus the diversity of
species in the ecosystem is influenced by the nature of the ecosystem.
Measurement of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is measured by two major components:
a) Species richness: It is the number of species found in a community.
b) Species evenness : It measures the proportion of species at a given site e.g., low eveness indicates few
species dominate the ecosystem.

ADVANTAGES OF BIO-DIVERSITY:
a) Ecosystem advantages:
Maintain climate stability.
Protection of water resources.
Soil formation and protection.
Nutrient storage and recycling.
Pollution control.
Carbon sequestration.
Maintenance of ecosystem.
Recovery from unpredictable events.
b) Biological advantages:
Food and fodder.
Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs.
Timber and wood.
Breeding stocks.
Population reservoirs.
Maintain food chain and food web.
Provides habitual to flora and fauna.
c) Social advantages
Research, education and monitoring.
Recreation and tourism.
Cultural values.
Supports local economy.
Threats to Biodiversity:
a) Natural causes:
Floods.
Earthquakes.
Landslide.
Disease.
Natural fire.
Climate change.
b) Anthropogenic causes:
Habitatdestruction.
Urbanization.
Industrial development.
Infrastructure.
Hunting and poaching.
Pollution.
Agriculture expansion.
Invasion of foreign species.
Dumping of wastes.

Biodiversity conservation:
i) In-situ conservation
The species can be conserved in best manner by protecting its habitat along with all other species
that live in nature. So, in-situ conservation conserves species in its own environment by creating
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Biodiversity at all levels can be best conserved by in-situ
conservation.
ii) Ex-situ conservation:

There are situation in which an endangered species is close to extinction if some alternate method is
not adopted. This is known as ex-situ conservation that is conserving the species outside its natural
habitat by creating zoo, botanical garden, sperm bank, breeding centre etc.
Biodiversity hot spots

A biodiversity hotspot is an area with unusual concentration of species, many of which are endemic. It is
marked by serious threats to its diversity.
The key criteria for determining a hot spot are:
1. Endemism: It must contain atleast 1500 species of vascular plants (>0.5% of worlds total) as
endemic.
2. Loss of habitat: It has to have lost at least 70% of its natural or original habitat.
So far, 35 biodiversity hotspot are found in the world which comprises the Indian hotspot i.e, western
ghats and Eastern Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Collectively biodiversity hotspot support 60% of worlds
plant and animal species and cover around 2.5% of Earths land surface.
Eight hottest hotspot in the world

1. Madagascar
2. Philippines
3. Sundaland
4. Brazils Atlantic Forest
5. Carribean Islands
6. Indo-Burma or Myanmar region
7. Western ghats and Sri Lanka
8. Eastern arc and coastal forest of Tanzania and Kenya
List of Biodiversity Hotspots:

1. North and central America : California, Floristic province, Modrean pine-oak woodlands,
Mesoamerica
2. The Caribbean: Caribbean Islands
3. South America: Atlantic forests, Cerrado, Chilean winter rainfall-valdivian forests, Tropical Andes.
4. Europe: Mediterranean Basin
5. Africa: Cape Floristic Region, Coastal forests of Eastern Africa, EasternAfromontane, Guinean
forests of West Africa Horn of Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean Islands.
6. Central Asia: Mountains of central Asia.
7. South Asia: Eastern Himalayas, Nepal, Indo-Myanmar, Westernghats, India, Sri Lanka
8. South East and Asia Pacific: East Melanesian Islands, New-Caledonia, New-Zealand, Philippines,
Sundaland, South west, Australia.

9. East Asia: Japan, Mountains of southwest chain.
10. West Asia: Caucasus, Iran.
Biodiversity in India
Geological events in the landmass of India provided conditions for high levels of biologicaldiversity.
Around 70 million years ago, India spilted from large continent or supercontinent, Pangea as the part of
Gondwanaland i.e., the southern landmass together with Africa, Australia and Antarctica. Later due to
tectonic movementswhichshifted India northward across the equator to join the Northern
EurasianContinent. As the intervening shallow Tethys sea dried up plants and animals that had evolved
both in Europe and in far East migrated into India before the Himalaya had formed. A final influx came
from Africa with Ethiopian species which were adapted to the savannas and semi-arid regions. Thus
Indias special geographical position or niche between three distinctive centres of biological evolution
and radiation of species is responsible for our rich and varied diversity. India is in top 10 bio-rich
countries for its great variety of plants and animals. India has 350 different mammals, 1200 species of
birds, 453 species of reptiles, 4500 plant species, 50000 insects species.
Biosphere Reserves:
Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large
area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystem or a combination thereof and representative example of
bio-geographic zones/provinces.
The UNESCO has introduced the designation Biosphere Reserve for natural areas to minimize conflict
between development and conservation. Biosphere Reserves are nominatedby national Govt. which meet
a minimal set of criteria and adhere to minimal set of conditions for inclusion in the world network of
Biosphere Reserve under the Man and Biosphere Reserve programme of UNESCO. Globally 621 BRs
representing from 117 countries have been included in the network so far.
Criteria for designation of BR

A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature
conservation.
The core area should be typical of biographical unit and large enough to sustain viable population
representing oftrophic levels in the Ecosystem.
Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of
environment.

Structure of Biosphere Reserve
1. Core zone: It contains endemic species of plants and animals. It includes National Parks or Wildlife
sanctuary. No human interference is permitted.
2. Buffer zone: It adjoins or surrounds core zone. Limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing etc is
allowed.
3. Transition zone: It is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. It allows agriculture, economic
activities etc.
Function of Biosphere Reserve
Conservation of diversity of flora and fauna
To safeguard genetic diversity of species
Promote appropriate, sustainable management of the living resources
To promote and facilitate ecological and environmental research
List of Biosphere Reserve in India
Name Location
1. Nilgiri Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka
2. Nanda Devi Uttarakhand
3. Manas Assam
4. Nokrek Meghalaya
5. Sunderban West-Bengal
6. Guff of Mannar Tamil Nadu
7. Great Nicobar Nicobar Islands
8. Similipal Odisha
9. Dibru-saikhova Assam
10. Dehang-Dibang Arunachal Pradesh
11. Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh
12. Khangchendzonga Sikkim
13. Agasthyamalai Parts of Tamilnadu and Kerala
14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak M.P and Chhattisgarh
15. Gulf of kachchh Gujarat
16. Cold desert Himachal Pradesh
17. Seshachalam Andhra Pradesh
18. Panna Madhya Pradesh
List of BRs included in UNESCO lists:

1. Nilgiri
2. Nanddevi
3. Sunderban
4. Gulf of Mannar
5. Pachmarhi
6. Nokrek
7. Similipal
8. Great Nicobar Islands
9. Amarkantak
10. Agasthyamalai. (latest Mach 2016)
11. Khangchendzonga National Park. (Latest July 2016)

Biodiversity hotspots in India
India shares its territories into three biodiversity hotspots of the world i.e., Eastern Himalayas, Western
ghats and Indo-Burma or Myanmar or out of these three, Eastern Himalayas and Western ghats are mostly
located in India. In India-Burma biodiversity hotspot. India shares only a small part in North East India.
The India-Burma Biodiversity hotspot includes parts of Northeastern India, Bangladesh and Malaysia.
Flora and Fauna of India

Red Data Book
It is a catalogue of Taxa that are facing the risk of extinction. It gives information about the urgency and
scale of conservation probes to the public and policy makers. This is continually updated and issued by
the International Union for conservation of Nature (IUCN), (located in Switzerland). In this book,
information for endangered mammals and birds are more extensive than for other groups of animals and
plants.
The pink pages include critically endangered species. Green pages are used for those species that were
formerly endangered.
IUCN classification:
1. Extinct: A taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known or expected habitat at
appropriate times throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual.
2. Extinct in wild: A taxon is extinct in wild if it was known to survive in cultivation in capacity or as
naturalized population well outside the past range.
3. Critically endangered:
Criteria:
Population of taxon is reduced over 90% in last 10 years
Population size is less than 50 mature individuals
4. Endangered:
Criteria:
Population is reduced over to 70% in last 10 years
Population size is less than 250 mature individuals
5. Vulnerable:
Criteria:
Population is reduced over to 50% in last 10 years
Population size is lesser than 10,000 mature individuals.
6. Near threatened: When taxon has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for
critically Endangered, Endangered or vulnerable but closer to qualify for a threatened category in near
future.
Common flora of India

Teak:
It is a common tree in deciduous forests and yields the much sought after timber used for making
furniture.
Sal:

This is common species found in several types of forests in Northeastern region of India extending over
into Madhya Pradesh and Odisha. Sal trees yield large number of seeds used in making cosmetics.
Mango:
This most popular horticulture species with different varieties being grown all over the country. The wild
mango tree has small tangy fruit and big seed, in comparison to large pulpy fruit used in horticulture.
Ficus:
The peepal, banyan and many other ficus species comprise this. They are ecologically important as many
different species of insects, birds and mammals feed on ficus berries. The flowers are inside the berries.
The ficus trees bear berries throughout the year. This supply nutritious food to several animal species
when other trees have no fruit.
Tamarind:
It grows to large size and is known to live for over 200 years. It is commonly cultivated as a shade tree
and for its edible sour fruit which has vitamin C. It is used as preservative and an additive in food to give
a tangy flavor.
Babul:
It is a thorny species that is characteristics of the semi-arid areas of western India and the decean plateau.
It is used for fodder and fuelwood. It remains green throughout the year.
Oak:
It is a large and economically important. It provides the finest hardwood of great strength and durability.
It was once used for building ships and bridges. It is found in the temperate areas throughout the
Himalayas.
Pine:
There are five species of true pines found in India in the Himalayan region. The timber of these trees is
frequently used in construction, carpentry and the paper industry.
Fauna of India and their status

Fauna IUCN status
1. Leather back Turtle - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Indian Ocean
: Great Nicobar Coast
2. Malabar Civet - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Tropical rainforests of western ghats
: South Malabar, Kerala
3. NilgiriTahr - Endangered
Habitat: Montane grassland of western ghats
: Nilgiri Hills, Kerala
4. Dhole - Endangered
Habitat: Scrubland and deciduous forests of western ghats
: Karnataka
5. Black Buck - Near Threatened
Habitat: All over India

: Gujarat, Rajasthan
6. Fishing cat - Endangered
Habitat: Wetlands of Sunderban
: West Bengal
7. Gharial - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Chambal River
: Madhya Pradesh
8. Pygmy Hog - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Himalayan Foothills
: Manas Sanctuary, Assam
9. Red Panda - Vulnerable
Habitat: Temperate, bamboo forests of Himalayas
: Arunachal Pradesh
10. Snow Leopard - Endangered
Habitat: High altitude, rocky terrain of Himalayas
: J&K, H.P, Leh.
11. The great Indian Bustard - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Grassland areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana
12. Wild ASS - Critically Endangered

Habitat: Rann of Kutch, Gujarat.
13. Flying squirrel - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Tropical Forests
: Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh
14. Sumatran Rhinoceros - Critically Endangered
Habitat: Foothills of Himalayas, North-East India
15. Kashmir stag/Hangul - Critically Endangered
Habitat: J&K and Himachal Pradesh
16. Himalayan Brown/Red Bear- Endangered
Habitat: Nepal, Pakistan and Northern India
17. Golden langur - Endangered
Habitat: Foothills of western Assam and Bhutan
18. Himalayan wolf - Endangered
Habitat: H.P and J&K
19. Hog deer - Endangered
Habitat: Northern India
20. Lion-tailed Macaque - Endangered
Habitat: Western Ghats,
: Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka
21. Four-horned antelope, chousingha Vulnerable
Habitat: Himalayan forest of India & Nepal
22. Dugong (sea cow) - vulnerable
Habitat: Indian Ocean
23. River dolphin - Vulnerable
Habitat: Brahmaputra and Ganga River

CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES
Project Tiger
An estimate of tiger population in India at the turn of century was placed at 40,000. Subsequently the first
tiger census as conducted in 1992 which revealed the existence of 1872 tigers only. In 1972, the wildlife
protection Act Come into force. A Task force was set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation with
an ecological approach.
The project tiger was launched on 1st April, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers
in India, for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values. Subsequently tiger reserves
were created for its protection and its prey. With core and buffer area strategy. The core areas to be free
from all human activities and the buffer areas were subjected to conservation oriented land use.
Tiger Census 2015

The Tiger census is done on every five years. The last Tiger census, 2010 revealed the total of number of
tiger population was 1706. Tiger census, 2015 showed an increase of 30% from last census i.e., 2226
tigers. According to latest data till March 2016, population of tigers have reached near about 2500. The
number of wild tigers have gone up globally by 22% to 3890 from the earlier 3200 recorded in 2010
based on World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Global Tiger Forum (GTF) data. India has 2500 tigers out of
3890 tigers globally. Tiger still has Endangered category status given by IUCN.
Tiger range countries of the world-India, Indonesia Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.
Note: Tiger population have increase in several states like Uttarakhand, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and Madhya Pradesh. Karnataka is the state which has highest number of tigers, (406) in India, followed
by Uttarakhand (34) and Madhya Pradesh (308) Goa has listed first time in census having 5 tiger.
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body under the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and climate change constituted under the enabling provisions of the wildlife
Protection Act, 1972. NTCA is chaired by the Union cabinet Minister of Environment, Forest and climate
change (MOEFCC). Project Tiger is a centrally sponsored scheme of MOEFCC. Providing support to
tiger range states and for in-situ conservation of tigers in designated tiger reserves in the country.
Objectives:
Providing statutory authority to project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become legal
Fostering accountability of centre-state in management of Tiger resources
Providing for an oversight by Parliament
Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Resources.

LIST OF TIGER RESERVES OF INDIA
Tiger Reserves
There are 50 tiger reserves in India which are governed by Project Tiger
which is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority
(NTCA). India is home to 70 percent of tigers in the world. In 2006, there
were 1,411 tigers which increased to 1,706 in 2011 and 2,226 in 2014.
According to latest statement by Environment Minister, the count had
gone up to 2500 in 2016.
In addition to existing reserves, the in-principle approval has been

accorded by the national Tiger Conservation Authority for creation of three new tiger reserves, and the
sites are:
1. Ratapani Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh)

2. Sunabeda Tiger Reserves (Odisha)
3. Guru Ghasidas (Chhattisgarh)
Final approval has been accorded to Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka) and Rajaji National Park in
Uttarakhand for declaring as tiger reserves by States. The State Governments have been advised to send
proposals for declaring the following areas as tiger reserves: (i) Suhelwa (Uttar Pradesh), (ii) Mhadei
Sanctuary (Goa), (iii) Srivilliputhur Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary / MegamalaiWildlife Sanctuary
/ Varusanadu Valley (Tamil Nadu), (iv) Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary (Arunachal Pradesh) and (v) Cauvery-
MM Hills (Karnataka).
List of Tiger reserves in India

S.No. Tiger Reserve State Core Area(km2) Buffer Area(km2) Total Area (km2)
1 Bandipur Karnataka 872 584 1,456
2 Jim Corbett Uttarakhand 822 466 1,288
3 Kanha Madhya Pradesh 917 1,134 2,052
4 Manas Assam 840 2,311 3,151
5 Melghat Maharashtra 1,500 1,268 2,769
6 Palamau Jharkhand 414 716 1,130
7 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1,113 298 1,411
8 Similipal Odisha 1,195 1,555 2,750
9 Sunderbans West Bengal 1,700 885 2,585
10 Periyar Kerala 881 44 925
11 Sariska Rajasthan 881 332 1,213
12 Buxa West Bengal 391 367 758
13 Indravati Chhattisgarh 1,258 1,541 2,799
14 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh 1,808 245 2,053

2 2
S.No. Tiger Reserve State Core Area(km ) Buffer Area(km ) Total Area (km2)
15 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 1,094 1,108 2,202
16 Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu 895 707 1,602
17 Valmiki Bihar 598 301 899
18 Pench Madhya Pradesh 411 768 1,180
19 Tadoba Maharashtra 626 1,102 1,728
20 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 717 820 1,598
21 Panna Madhya Pradesh 576 1,022 1,579
22 Dampa Mizoram 500 488 988
23 Bhadra Karnataka 492 572 1,064
24 Pench Maharashtra 257 484 741
25 Pakhui Arunachal Pradesh 683 515 1,198
26 Nameri Assam 200 144 344
27 Satpura Madhya Pradesh 1,339 794 2,133
28 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 959 521 1,480
29 Udanti-Sitanadi Chhattisgarh 851 991 1,843
30 Satkosia Odisha 524 440 964
31 Kaziranga Assam 626 548 1,174
32 Achanakmar Chhattisgarh 626 288 914
33 Kali Karnataka 815 283 1,098
34 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh 813 862 1,675
35 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 321 368 689
36 Nagarahole Karnataka 643 562 1,206
37 Parambikulam Kerala 391 253 644
38 Sahyadri Maharashtra 600 565 1,166
39 Biligiriranga Karnataka 359 216 575
40 Kawal Telangana 893 1,126 2,019
41 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 793 615 1,408
42 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 417 343 760
43 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra 654 1241 1895
44 Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Telangana 2,596 701 3,296
45 Amrabad Andhra Pradesh 2,166 445 2,611
46 Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh 603 127 730

2 2
S.No. Tiger Reserve State Core Area(km ) Buffer Area(km ) Total Area (km2)
47 Bor Maharashtra 138 678 816
48 Rajaji Uttarakhand 820 256 1,075
49 Orang Assam 79 413 492
50 Kamlang Arunachal Pradesh 671 112 783
71027.10
Total 40340.12 30686.98
The Gir Lion Project

The Gir forest in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat is the only surviving habitat of the Asiatic lion. This
habitat is dry scrubland and open deciduous forest. These lions were once found across northern Africa,
South West Asia and Northern Greece.
Now according to latest 14th Lion census, 2015 the number of lions have increased by 27% from 411 to
523. It includes 109 Male, 201 Females and 213 Cubs. Its census is done on every five years.
Asiatic Lion reintroduction Project

This project is an effort to save the Asiatic lion from extinction in wild. There are large scale deaths in
population annually because of man and animal conflict. The project aims to establish a second
populationof Asiatic lions at Kuno wildlife sanctuary (M.P). This site was chosen because it is in the
former range of lions before they were hunted into extinction in about 1873.
Project snow leopard

Snow leopards live in the mountain regions of central Asia. In India their geographical cover
encompassed a large part of the western Himalayas including states of Himachal Pradesh, J&K and
Uttarakhand with a sizeable population in Ladakh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in Eastern Himalayas.
They are found at high elevation of 3000-4500 meter and even higher.
The snow leopard is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Project snow
leopard is a manifestation of the government of India to resolve to conserve biodiversity with community
participation. The snowleopard has been included in the list of species under recovery programme to be
funded through umbrella scheme of integrated development of wildlife habitats. This project is
operational in five states of Himalayan region i.e., J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh. The project is being undertaken to create 12 snow leopard reserves throughout the
Himalayas. According to WWF, India have estimated population of 400-700 snowleopards. The year
2015 is designated as International year of snowleopard.
Indian Rhino Vision, 2020

There are approximately 3333 Greater one horned rhinoceros in the world with about 75% of those found
in Assam (Kaziranga National Park). Indian Rhino Vision 2020, (IRU, 2020) is a partnership between the
Assam Forest Department, the Bodoland Territorial Council, WWF, IRF and the US Fish and wildlife
service. Its goal is the have a wild population of atleast 3000 one horned Rhinos in India by the year 2020.

Project Elephant
Project Elephant was launched by the Government of India, in 1992 as the centrally sponsored scheme
with following objectives:
1. To protect elephants and their habitats
2. To address issues of man-animal conflict
3. Welfare of domesticated elephants
The project is being implemented in 13 states i.e, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal.
Elephant Corridor
An elephant corridor is a stretch/narrow stripes of forested land that connects larger habitats with elephant
population and forms a conduct for animal movement between the habitats. This movement helps to
enhance species survival and birth rate. These are 88 identified elephant corridor in India.
FACTS ABOUT FOREST CONSERVATION IN INDIA

The wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (WLPA, 1972) and its subsequent Amendments provide for the
definition of sanctuaries, National parks and Reserves wide chapters IV, IV-A, IV-B and IV-C covering
section 18-38z and this includes National Tiger ConservationAuthority and its power to declare protected
areas etc. The Forest Act, 1927 and Forest (Protection) Act, 1980 are also read together with WLPA for
the definitions.
1. National park:
A National park is a forest area notified by the State Government for the protection and propagation
of the flora and Fauna of the area. National Park does not allow any human activities inside the core
or buffer zones or area. There may be limited activities within tourism zone of National Park. This
comes under category 2 of IUCN classification.
2. Wildlife sanctuaries:
The definitionof this same as National Park except that indigenouspeople inside the sanctuaries and
human activities are permitted. This comes of under the category 4 of the IUCN classification.
3. Tiger Reserves:
Its definition is same as sanctuaries (all tiger reserves are sanctuaries) but comes under the direct
administration of NTCA as provided by chapter IV-B of WLPA, 1972.
4. Biosphere Reserves:
These are notified areas which cover a larger area of land which may cover multiple National Parks,
wildlife sanctuaries and Reserves as well for e.g, the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve covers, Bandipur NP,
Mudumalai, Tiger Reserve, silent valley NP, wyanad WLS, Nagarhold NP etc,. It is usually a
contiguous areas and include all the buffer and tourism zones. It provides protection to not only
wildlife and flora abut also to indigenous people as well. Besides that some controlled economic
activities is also permitted in those areas like mining and farming etc., Thisis a category 5 under
IUCN classification.

5. Reserve Forests:
These are classified into two (a) Reserved and Protected Forests (b) Conservation and Community
reserves. They are large tracts of forests lands that could be in Buffer Zones of National Park,
sanctuaries etc or just within the cities or towns. For e.g, Jayamangali Blackbuck in Maidenhalli in
Karnataka.
Similarity and difference between national park and wildlife sanctuaries:

1. The boundaries of National Parks are well marked whos as boundaries of WLS are not well marked.
2. All human activities are completely prohibited in National Parks whereas in wildlife sanctuaries some
human activities like timber extraction, forestry and cultivation are allowed if they are not adversing
it.
3. State Governments have power to constitute National Parks and wildlife sanctuaries are created
through an order of competent authority like chief conservator of forest or minister of a state.
4. There are no private ownership in National Parks but private ownership exist in wildlife sanctuaries.
5. Both provide protection, preservation and conservation of wildlife.
6. Both can be formed out of reserved or protected forest.
7. The Central Government extends assistance to state Government for maintenance of both National
Parks and Wildlife sanctuaries.

CHAPTER-5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution is defined as an addition or excessive addition of certain materials to our surroundings or
environment (Air, Water, lands) which have harmful effect and making it unfit for life. This occurs when
only short-term economic gains are considered at the cost of long term benefits for humanity.
Pollutants:
The materials or factors which cause adverse effect on natural quality of any component of the
environment are called pollutants. It includes solids, liquid and gaseous substances present in greater than
natural abundance produced by human activity. For e.g, smoke from automobiles and industries, solids
wastes from factories etc.
Classifications:
1. According to the form of existence after being released into the environment.
a) Primary pollutants: These exist in the form in which they are added to the environment e.g., DDT,
plastic bags etc.
b) Secondary pollutants: These are formed by reacting with primary pollutants with other agents.
For e.g., smog, i.e. smoke + fog
2. According to their existence in nature
a) Quantitative pollutants: These are found in nature and become pollutant only when their
concentration reaches beyond a threshold limit. Example: CO2, NO etc.
b) Qualitative pollutants: They are not found in nature and are man mode. For e.g., DDT, fungicides,
herbicides etc.
3. According to their nature of disposal
a) Biodegradable pollutants: These can be easily broken down by natural processes for example:
domestic sewage and discarded vegetables.
b) Non-Biodegradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural process. Once they are
released into environment they remain or difficult to break down. For e.g., plastic, Nuclear waste,
lead, mercury etc.
4. According to origin
a) Natural
b) Anthropogenic
Causes of Pollution
Excessive population
Industrialization
Urbanization
Uncontrolled exploitation of nature
Infrastructure development
Weapon testing
Agriculture production
Deforestation

Structure of the atmosphere
To understand how pollutants travel and cause an impact on us, it is important to understand the structure
of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is composed of 79% Nitrogen, 20% oxygen and 1% as a mixture of
CO2, water vapour (H2O) and several amount of gases such as neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen
and xenon. The general structure of the atmosphere has several important features of relevance to
environmental problems. The atmosphere is divided into several layers.
1st layer, the Troposphere, extends upto 20km above sea level at the equator and at about 8km
over the poles. It contains 75% of the mass of earths air. Temperature decreases with increase in
height in troposphere. At the top of the troposphere, temperature abruptly begin to rise. This
boundary where temperature reversal occurs is called tropopause. Tropopause marks the end of
the troposphere and beginning of the stratosphere.
2nd layer, the stratosphere extends from 20-50km above the earths surface. In this layer volume
of water vapor is about 1000 times less and volume of ozone is about 1000 times greater. The
presence of ozone in this layer prevents about 99% of the suns harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays
from reaching the earths surface. This layer does not have clouds therefore aeroplanes fly in this
layer as it creates less turbulence. In this layer, temperature rises with altitude in the stratosphere
until there is another reversal. This point is called stratopause and it marks the end of the
stratosphere.

3 layer, the Mesophere, in this temperature decreases with altitude falling upto-110C at the top.
rd
Above this is a layer where ionization of the gases is a major phenomenon thus raising the
temperature. This layer is called thermosphere.
Only the lowest layer i.e., troposphere is involved in our weather and hence air pollution. The other layers
are not significant in determining the level of air pollution.
1. Air pollution
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities
that are harmful to human health and environment.
The air may be polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes which release dust, sulphur, CO2 and other
gases or by forest fire. However unlike pollutants caused by human activity, naturally occurring pollutants
tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric changes.
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources whether natural or human activities are
primary pollutants. There are five primary pollutants that together contribute to about 90% of the global
air pollution. These are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides,
sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds and suspended particulate matter.
The pollutants produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place among the primary
pollutants are called secondary pollutants. For e.g, sulphuric acid, Nitric acid and carbonic acid.
Effects of air pollutions

1. Health effect
Name of Sources Health effect
pollutant
Sulphur oxides Thermal power plants and Eye and throat irritation, cough, allergies,
industries impairs enzyme function in respiratory
system. Reduces exchange of gases from
lung surface
Nitrogen Thermal power plant, industries Irritation and inflammation of lungs,
oxides and vehicles breathlessness, impairs enzyme function in
respiratory system and causes bronchitis
and asthma
Suspended Vehicular emissions and burning Lung irritation reduces development of
Particulate of fossil fuels RBC and cause pulmonary malfunctioning
Matter (SPM)
Carbon Vehicular emissions and burning Difficulty in breathing, severe headaches,
monoxide of fossil fuels, wood irritation to mucous membrane,
unconsciousness and death
Carbon dioxide Burning of fossil fuels , Impairs reflexes, judgment and vision,
volcanoes, thermal power plants severe headaches and heart strain
Smog Industries and vehicular pollution Respiratory problems and intense irritation
to the eyes.
Ozone Automobile emissions Breathlessness, asthma, wheezing, chest
pain, emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Chlorofluoroca Refrigerator, sprays, emissions Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer,
rbons from jets global warming
Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil flues Carcinogenic effect on lungs, kidney
damage, hypertension, respiratory distress,
irrigation of eyes, nose and throat, asthma,
bronchitis and impairs enzyme function in

respiratory system.
Tobacco smoke Cigarettes, cigars etc Chronic bronchitis, asthma and lung
cancer, irrigation of eyes, nose and throat
Mercury Industries Nervous disorders, insomnia, memory loss,
excitability, irritation, tremor, gingivitis
and minamata disease.
Lead Leaded petrol emissions Damage to brain and central nervous
system, kidneys and brains, impaired
intelligence and interference with
development of RBCs.
Cadmium Industries Affects the heart
Silica dust Silicon quarries Silicosis affects the lungs
Cotton dust Cotton textile factories Byssinosis involves destruction of lung
tissues, chronic cough, bronchitis and
emphysema
Asbestos dust Asbestos mining, asbestos sheet Asbestosis which involves severe
manufacturing respiratory problems and may lead to
cancer.
Radioactive Cosmic rays, x-rays, beta rays, Destroy living tissues and blood cells;
pollutants radon and radium affect cell membrane and cell enzyme
function, leukemia, and permanent genetic
changes.
Coal dust and Coal mines Black lung cancer, pulmonary fibrosis
particles which lead to respiratory failure.
2. Effects on vegetation
Slows down photosynthesis
Sulphur dioxide causes chlorosis, plasmolysis, membrane damage and metabolic inhibition.
Hydrocarbons such as ethylene cause premature leave fall, fruit drop, shedding of floral buds, curling
of petals and discoloring of sepals.
Ozone damages chlorenchyma and thus destructs the foliage in large number of plants.
Control measures:
1. Policy measures by the government.
2. Preventive measures
i) Selection of suitable fuels (e.g., fuel with low sulphur content, load context etc) and its efficient
utilization.
ii) Modification in industrial processes.
iii) Selection of suitable manufacturing sites.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
National Air Quality Index (NAQI)
In India, as in many other countries, the index is centredon five chief pollutants-particulate matter with a
diameter less than 10 micrometers (PM10), particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometer
(PM2.5), Ozone (0.3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Carbon Monoxide (CO).
The concentration of a particular pollutant is given on average over a period of time-for CO and O3 the
average is taken over eight hours, while for other three-it is 24 hours. The unit of measurement is
microgram per cubic meter.
India has set standards of particular colors which are appropriate warming for a particular level of
pollutant.
Colour Sign
Dark green - good
Light green - satisfactory
Yellow - Moderate
Orange - Poor
Bright-Red - Very Poor
Dark Red - Severe
The air quality Index measures eight gases and pollutants in the environment are:
PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and Pb.
AQI is a continuation of Swachh Bharat Mission.
1. WATER POLLUTION
The addition of any substance which degrades the quality of water such that if becomes unfit for
consumption is termed as water pollution. The substances can be organic, inorganic, biological,
radiological, heat etc. water pollution is not only confined to surface water but it has also spread to ground
water, sea and ocean.
Sources of water pollution:

i) Community waste water:
It includes discharges from houses, commercial and industrial establishments, public sewage system.
The sewage contains human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning agents, detergents and other
wastes.
ii) Industrial wastes:
The industries discharge several inorganic and organic pollutants which may prove highly toxic to
the living beings.
iii) Agricultural sources:
Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
Excess fertilizers may reach ground water by leaching or may mixed with surface water of lakes,
rivers, pond by runoff or drainage.
Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, nenoticias, rodenticides and soil
fumigants.
The animal excreta such as dung, wastes from poultry farms, piggeries and slaughter house etc.
reach the water through runoff and surface leaching during rainy season.

iv) Thermal pollution:
The main sources are thermal and nuclear power plants. The power plants use waste as coolant and
release hot waters to the original source. This sudden rise in temperature kills fishes and other
aquatic animals.
v) Underground water pollution:In India, at many places the ground water is threatened
withcontinuation due to seepage from industrial and municipal wastes and effluents, sewage
channels and agricultural runoff.
vi) Marine pollution:
Oceans are the ultimate sink of all natural and human pollutants. All these are dumped into sea.
Besides that navigational discharge of oil, grease, detergents, sewage, garbage and radioactive waste,
off shores oil mining, oil spills etc.
2. EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Effects on aquatic ecosystem:
i) Polluted water reduces dissolved oxygen content thereby eliminates organism like plankton,
molluscs and fish etc.
ii) Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals directly eliminate sensitive aquatic
organism.
iii) Hot waters discharged from industries when added to water bodies, lowers its Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) content.
2. Effect on human health

The polluted water usually contains pathogens like virus, bacteria, parasitic protozoa and worms
therefore it is a source of water borne diseases like jaundice, cholera, typhoid etc.
Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by bacterial action into extremely toxic methyl
mercury which can cause numbers of limbs, lips and tongue, deafness, blurring of vision and
mental derangement.
3. Hazards of ground water pollution:
i) Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for human health as it cause blue-body
syndrome and it may be fatal for infants.
ii) Excess concentration of fluoride in drinking water causes neuro muscular disorders, gastro-
intestinal problems, teeth deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints.
It also causes Biological Magnification.
It also causes Eutrophication
Control measures:
1. Treatment of sewage before dumping in water.
2. Hot water should be cooled down before releasing into water by power plants.
3. Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided.
4. Organic farming and efficient use of animal residue should be increased.
5. Utmost care should be taken during oil drilling or mining.

Water pollution sources table
Type of industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutant
Mining Mine waste: Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulphuric acid,
hydrogen sulphide, ferric hydroxide,
surface wash offs, suspended solids,
chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and Steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, Oil, phenol and neptha
thiocyanate, sulphides, oxides of
copper, chromium, cadmium, and
mercury
Chemical plants Various acids and alkalies, chlrodes, Aromatic compounds solvents, organic
sulphates, nitrates of metals, acids, nitro compound dyes, etc
phosphorus, fluorine, silica and
suspended particles
Pharmaceutical - Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvent
intermediate products, drugs and
antibiotic
Soap and Detergent Tertiary ammonium compounds Flats and fatty acids, glycerol,
alkalies polyphosphates,sulphonated
hydrocarbons.
Food processing - Highly putrescible organic matter and
pathogens
Paper and pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors Cellulose fibres, bark, woods, sugars
organics acid
Dissolved oxygen:
When the organic and inorganic wastes are present in water, they decrease the dissolved oxygen (DO)
content of water. Water having DO content below 8mg/L is contaminated. Water having DO content
4mg/L is considered highly polluted. DO content of water is important for the survival of aquatic
organism. A number of factors like surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, oxygen consumption by
organisms and decomposition of organic matter are the factor which determine the amount of DO present
in water.
Biological oxygen demand:

Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biological oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is the
amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria to decompose the organic waste in water. It is expressed
in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water. The higher amounts of waste increases the rate of
decomposition and O2 consumption thereby decrease the DO content of water. The demand for O2 is
directly related to increasing input of organic waste and is expressed as biological oxygen demand. The
higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of water. Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials
only. Therefore it is not a reliable method of measuring pollution load in water.
Chemical oxygen demand:

It is better mode to measure pollution level in water. It is the measure of oxygen equivalent of the
requirement of oxidation of total organic matter i.e., biodegradable and non-biodegradable present in
water.

3. NOISE POLLUTION
Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water, but it is a problem that affects human
health and can contribute to a general deterioration of environmental quality. Noise is undesirable and
unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise.
Several sources of noise pollution contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise pollution.
Noise emanating from factories, vehicles, loudspeakers, trains, aeroplanes etc., cause outdoor noise
pollution.
Noise emanating from radio played loudly, TV, music system etc., cause indoor noise pollution.
Sound is measured in a unit called decibel (dB)
A persons hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise level over 75dB over a prolonged period of
time.
Effects of noise pollution

1. Annoyance.
2. Loss of hearing.
3. Human performance.
4. Retards nervous system.
5. Cause sleeplessness.
6. May damage to building material.
7. Can cause physiological effects on human body.
Noise control
There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled:
1. Reduce noise at the source.
2. Block the path of noise.
3. Increase the path-length.
4. Protect the recipient.
In general the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the source.
4. SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earths rocky surface. Soil
pollution is defined as the addition of substances to soil which adversely affect physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil and reduces its productivity.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the soil or
which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil.
Causes:
1. Excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.
2. Dumping large qualities of solid waste
3. Deforestation
4. Soil erosion
5. Pollution due to urbanization
6. Discarded materials like plastic bags, leather, glass etc.
7. Discharge of radioactive wastes

Effects of soil pollution on
1. Agriculture
Reduce sol fertility
Reduce nitrogen fixation
Increased erosion
Loss of soil and nutrients
Reduced crop yield
Increased salinity
Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
2. Health
Biomagnifications
Release of pollutant gases
3. Environment
Reduce vegetation
Ecological disbalance
Disbalance in flora and fauna
4. Urban areas
Clogging of drains
Inundation of areas
Foul small and release of gases
Waste management problems
Control measures
Reduce fertilizer and pesticides use
Use of bio-pesticides, bio-fertilizers
Organic farming
Afforestation
Solid waste treatment
Reduction of waste from construction areas
Adoption of four Rs: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
5. RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (-particles), electrons (-particles)
and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to disintegration of atomic nuclei of some
elements. These cause radioactive pollution.
Environmental radiation may be divided into two types: naturally occurring radiation and man-made
radiation Naturally radiation are:
Naturally Radiation.
i) Cosmic radiation from the outer space reaching the earths surface.
ii) Terrestrial radiation from neutral radio-isotope present in earths crust.
Cosmic-ray bombardment of the atmosphere continuously produces a few radioactive materials

of short-half-life. Among them the important nuclides are carbon-14 and hydrogen-3 (tritium).

Carbon-14 is formed by the action of cosmic-ray neutrons on atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen-
3 by the splitting of atoms when they are struck by high energy cosmic ray particles. Both these
are oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water as they enter into the biosphere and hydrosphere.
The primary source of natural radiation are the ores of uranium and thorium which contain a wide
variety radioactive nuclides.
Man-made Radioactive
It originates from the use of radioactive materials by human being. These are used for the production of
nuclear weapons, nuclear fuel and for production of eclectic power. One of the most harmful use of
radioactive material is in the nuclear weapons especially in atom bombs. The world has seen its side-
effects when Hiroshima and Nagasaki was bombed by atom bomb. During the last fifty years many
nuclear weapons have been tested which have increased the level of radiation in environment.
Effects:
The effects of radioactive pollution depends upon
1. Half-life.
2. Energy releasing capacity.
3. Rate of diffusion.
4. Rate of deposition of the pollutant.
5. Various environmental factors such as wind, temperature, rainfall etc.
Period of radioactivity:
Each radioactivity nuclide has a constant decay rate. Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to
decay. Half-life of a radio nuclide refers to its period of radioactivity. The half-life may vary from a
fraction of second to thousands of years. The radio nuclides with long half-time are the chief source of
environmental radioactive pollution.
Control measures:
1. All safety measures should be strictly enforced.
2. Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
3. Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and quantitative analysis.
4. Nuclear explosion and use of nuclear weapons should be completely banned.
5. Safety measures against nuclear accidents.
6. E-WASTE:
The discarded and end-of-life electronic products ranging from computers, equipments used in
information and communication technology (ICT), home appliances, audio and video products and all
their peripherals are commonly called as electronic waste (E-waste)
This has posed a serious threat to the global environment. Since technology is enhanced so its products.
Now mobiles and computer gadgets have spreadall over world. But the problem is that people do not
discard E-waste products scientifically. They just throw open since it contains many radioactive elements
which pollutes the environment and cause harmful effects

Source and its health effects:
S. No. Particulars Source Health effects
1. Lead Used in glass panels and Lead causes damage to the central and
gaskets in computer peripheral nervous system, blood system,
monitors. Solder in printed kidney and reproductive system in
circuit boards and other humans. It also effects the endocrine
components system, and impedes brain development
among children. Lead tends to
accumulate in the environment and has
high acute and chronic effects on plants,
animals and microorganism.
2. Cadmium Occurs in SMD chip Toxic cadmium compounds accumulated
resistor, infra-red in the human body, especially the
detectors, and kidney.
semiconductor chip.
Some older cathode ray
tubes contains cadmium.
3. Mercury It is estimated that 22% of Mercury can cause damage to organs
the yearly world including the brain and kidneys, as well
consumption of mercury is as the foetus. The developing foetus is
used in electrical and highly vulnerable to mercury exposure.
electronic equipment. When inorganic mercury spreads out in
Mercury is used in the water, it is transformed to methylated
thermostats, sensors, mercury which bio-accumulates in living
relays, switches, medical organism and concentrates through the
equipment, lamps, mobile food chain, particularly via fish.
phases and in batteries.
Mercury, used in flat panel
displays, will likely
increase as their use
replace cathode ray tubes.
4. Hexavalent Chromium VI is used as Chromium VI can cause damage to DNA
Chromium/Chromiu corrosion protector of and is extremely toxic in the
m VI29 untreated and galvanized environment.
steel plates and as a
decorative or hardener for
steel housing. Plastics
(including PVC); Dioxin is
released when PVC is
burned.
The largest volume of
plastics (26%) used in
electronics has been PVC.
PVC elements are found in
cabling and computer
housing
Many computer modeling
are now made with the
somewhat more benign
ABS plastics.

5. Brominated flame BFRs are used in the
retardants (BFRs) plastic hosing of electronic
equipment and in circuit
boards to prevent
flammability
6. Barium Barium is a soft silvery- Studies have shown that short-term
white metal that is used n exposure to barium causes brain
computers in the front swelling, muscle weakness, damage to
panel of a CRT, to protect the heart, liver, and spleen.
users from radiation.
7. Beryllium Beryllium is commonly Exposure to beryllium can cause lung
found on motherboards and cancer. Beryllium also causes a skin
finger clips. disease that is characterized by poor
It issued as a copper- wound healing and wartlike bumps.
beryllium alloy to Studies have shown that people can
strengthen connectors and develop beryllium disease many years
tinyplugs while following the last exposure.
maintaining electrical
conductivity
8. Tonners Found in the plastic printer Inhalation is the primary exposure
cartridge containing black pathway, and acute exposure may lead to
and color toners. respiratory tract irritation. Carbon black
has been classified as a class 2B
carcinogen, possibly carcinogenic to
humans. Reports indicate that colour
toners (cyan, magenta and yellow)
contain heavy metals.
9. Phosphor and Phosphor is an inorganic The phosphor coating on cathode ray
additives chemical compound that is tubes contains heavy metals, such as
applied as a coat on the cadmium, and other rare earth metals, for
interior of the CRT example, zinc, vanadium as additives.
faceplate. These metals and their compounds are
very toxic. This is a serious hazard posed
for those who dismantle CRTs hand.

CHAPTER-6
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Global warming:
It is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere of the Earths surface which contribute to
climate change. This happens mainly due to rise of temperature in troposphere. Global warming can occur
from a variety of causes both natural and human induced. It is also often refers to warming that can occur
as a result of increased emission of greenhouse gases.
Climate change:
Climate is the long-term average of a regions weather events. The Earth climate is not static. Over the
billions of year of earths existence, it has changed many times in response to natural causes like sun
sport, ice age glaciations etc.
Climate change means a change of climate. Which is attributed directly or indirectly.
Global warming impacts

1. Sea level rises.
2. Rainfall pattern charges.
3. Extreme natural events increase such as heat waves, floods, cyclones, hurricanes etc.
4. Ice caps melting.
5. Decrease of fauna population.
6. Spread of tropical diseases such as malaria, dengue etc.
7. Coral reefs bleaching.
8. Loss of plankton due to warming of seas.
Greenhouse effects
Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon which acts as blanket to earths lower atmosphere
(troposphere) and warms it to maintain the temperature of the earth for the survival of living beings.
Just as green house, which keeps the air warm inside its house, water vapor and greenhouse gases also
keep the earth warm. Green houses play an important role in balance of earths cooling and warming.
Without greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the earth surface would be 19C instead of
present value of 15C. A green house/glass house is small house like glass chambers in which plants are
grown in cold climate areas. There is a continued increase of temperature inside the glass chamber despite
the outside temperature is low. So this effect protects plants from frost.
Some greenhouse gases are natural and some are produced by human which exist in the lower
atmosphere (troposphere).
The sun emits energy in the form of sunlight which is transmitted to the earth. Since the sun is very
hot, the energy transmitted is in the form of high-energy short wavelength that penetrate the earths
atmosphere.
Near about 33% of the suns energy is reflected back into space by the atmospheric clouds, surfaces,
trees, soil etc., of the earth. The rest 67% of energy is absorbed into earths system.
The earth re-exists energy back into the atmosphere. Since the earth is cooler than the sun, the energy
transmitted in the form of infra-red radiation of longer wave length than the incoming solar energy.

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb much of the long wavelength energy (infrared radiation)
emitted from the earths surface thereby it prevents from escaping from the earths system. The
greenhouse gases then re-emits this energy in all directions thereby causing the earths surface and
lower atmosphere warmer.
The natural greenhouse gases like CO2, water vapor, Nitrogen oxide, etc, are good and required to
maintain optimum temperature of the earth. Since natural greenhouse gases (GHGs) are naturally
absorbed by earth system like forest, rivers, oceans etc. acting as carbon sink but the problem arises
due to anthropogenic excessive production of GHGs which are causing global warming and climate
change.
Greenhouse gases:
GHGs allow direct sunlight (short wave energy) to reach the earths surface unimpeded. As the shortwave
energy (that in the visible light and ultraviolet portion of spectra) heats the surface; longer wavelength
energy (infra-red heat energy) is reradiated to the atmosphere. GHGs absorb this energy thereby allowing
less heat to escape back into space and causes warming in the lower atmosphere by trapping heat.
Many GHGs occur naturally in the atmosphere for e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (No) etc.
Human induced GHGs are chloroflurocarbons (CFCs), hydroflurocarbons (HFCs), Hydrofluorochloro
carbons (HCFCs) troposphere ozone (O3), SF6, SO2 etc.
Global warming potential (GWP):

Global warming potential describes the impact of each gas on global warming
The two important characteristics of GHGs in terms of climate impact are how well the gas absorbs
energy and how long the gas stays in the atmosphere.
Global warming potential was developed to allow comparison of global warming impacts of different
green house gases (GHGs) specially, it measures of how much energy the emission of 1 tonne of gas
will absorb over given period of time relative to emission of 1 tonne of CO2
All GHGs have global warming potentials
HFCs, PFCs, CFCs, SF6 are the main high GWP gases. Since they stay thousands of years in the
atmosphere.
As the time passes, GHGs loses their GWP but in case of fluorinated gases their GWP is extremely
high so it takes long time to loose their GWP.
The process to remove these gases from the atmosphere are chemical destruction by hydrology
radicals, photolysis and reaction in mesosphere.
GWP of GHGs
Sl. No. Gas GWP (100 yrs) GWP (500 yrs)
1 CO2 1 1
2. CH4 21 6.5
3. NO 310 170
4. HFCs 11700 9800
5. SF6 23900 34900
Source: UNFCCC data

OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone:
Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen bound together in a non-linear
fashion. The chemical symbol of ozone is O3.
Ozones are naturally found in the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere and it efficiently absorbs
ultraviolet light from the sun, thus acts as sunscreen. In doing so, ozone protects oxygen in the lower
altitude from being broken up by the action of ultraviolet light.
It plays a significant role in protecting the environment even though it constitutes less than one part
per million of gases in the atmosphere.
Ozone formation:
Ozone layers formed very slowly over a period of 2500 million years ago. Several factors such as
geological, hydrological, biological and lithological aspect of evolution have contributed to the formation
of zone layers.
Chemical reaction:
O2 UV

(Energy)
O O
O O2
O3
Ozone is simultaneously being formed and destroyed by naturally occurring chemical reaction i.e.,
sunlight which is responsible for breaking and forming. In this case, O3 molecule is broken into an
oxygen atom(o) an oxygen molecule (O2)
O3
O O2
O O3
O2 O2
Significance of ozone layer
Ozone layer absorb most of the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun, thus prevents them from reaching the
earths surface. The harmful effects of ozone layer depletion on human being is due to action of
ultraviolet rays on layers and skins causing sun burns, cataract etc.
The UN rays cause direct damage to the genetic material or DNA of animal cells. This also affects the
immune system of mammals.
The Ozone Hole:

By ozone hole it does not mean hole in the ozone layer infact it means there is significance decrease in the
concentration of ozone layer in a particular region of the atmosphere. The best example is ozone hole over
the Antarctica.
Factors accelerating ozone depletion:

The main factors responsible for ozone depletion are generally products or emissions from industries. The
main sources are; chloroflurocarbons (CFs) and hydrochloric fluorocarbons (HCFCs) for e.g.,
Dichlorodifluro methane (freon 12), Trichlorofluoro methane (freon 11) etc.
The properties of CFCs like non-corrosiveness, non-inflammable, low toxicity and chemical stability are
very useful. Hence CFCs find wide and varied applications. There are used in refrigerators, air
conditioner, aerosol sprays, fire extinguishers etc. These CFCs stay longer in the atmosphere due to its

longer stability life. During this period these CFCs move by random diffusion from troposphere to
stratosphere.
The CFCs are thermally stable in troposphere but when it reach stratosphere they dissociate by UN
rays. These cause breaking of CFCs and release chlorine atoms.
A free chlorine atom reacts with ozone (O3) forming an oxygen molecule and molecule of chlorine
monoxide (ClO)
The ClO further react with an atom of oxygen. This reaction results in the formation of an oxygen
molecule (O2).
Cl O3
UV
ClO O2
ClO O
UV
Cl O2
O3 O
UV
O2 O2
A single chlorine atom destroys thousands of ozone layer or molecule before encountering reactive
nitrogen or hydrogen compounds that eventually return chlorine to its reservoirs.
Acid Rain
When rain falls through polluted air, it comes across more acid forming substances and in higher
concentrations than otherwise. Among the chemicals frequently occurring in polluted air at higher than
normal concentrations are sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxides. In some situations hydrochloric acid
vapours and mists of other acids such as phosphoric acid may also be present. These gases dissolve in
falling rain making it more acidic than natural rain. This leads to acid rain. Acid fogs are formed when
chemical pollutants are dissolved in very moist air. This causes changes in the pH of the air in the same
way that acid rain changes the pH of the soil or water in lakes and rivers.
Causes of acid rain:

There are three main compounds that cause acidification of rain in the atmosphere.
1. Sulphur compounds and radicals
i) Sulphur dioxide (SO2).
ii) Sulphur trioxide (SO3).
iii) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
iv) Sulphate ions (SO4 ).
v) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
2. Nitrogen compounds and radicals

i) Nitric oxide (NO).
ii) Nitrous oxide (N2O).
iii) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
iv) Nitrate (NO3).
v) Nitric acid (HNO3).
3. Chlorine and hydrochloric acid

Substances such as ammonia, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate that neutralize acids are
also present in the atmosphere and the net acidity of the rain depends on the chemicals present or
suspended in the air through the rain falls.

In addition to these principal ions bicarbonate ions (HCO3), carbonate ions (CO3 ), potassium (k+)
+
and sodium (Na ) ions also play a part in influencing the pH of the rain.
Steps involved in the acid rain

1. The atmospheres receives oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from natural and man-made resources
2. Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as dry deposition either close to the place of
origin or some distance away.
3. Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-oxideants (such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
4. These photo-oxidants interact with the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen to produce H2SO4 and HNO3
by oxidation.
5. The oxides of nitrogen and sulphr, photo-oxidants and other gases (like NH3) dissolve in the droplets
of cloud and rain to produce acidic cations (hydrogen ions, H+ and ammonium ions, NH4+) and anions
(sulphates, SO4 and nitrates NO3 )
6. Acid rain containing ions of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium and hydrogen falls as wet deposition.
2SO2 +2H2O+O2
2H2SO4 , H 600kJ
The reaction is slow in clean air but is catalyzed by aerosols containing metal ions like those of
Manganese (Mn2+) and iron (Fe2+). Surface such as buildings may also act as catalytic centres.
The reaction suites in places whereas relative humidity is more than 32 percent. The solubility of SO2 in
water is a function of pH and can be described by the equilibria.

SO 2 (aq)
SO 2 (g) + H 2 O

H 2SO 3 (aq)
SO 2 (aq) + H 2 O

H 3 O +HSO 3
H 2SO 3 + H 2 O

H 3 O +SO 3 2
HSO 3 + H 2 O

2HSO 3
S 2 O 5 +H 2 O
Impacts of climate change:

1. It affects the agriculture and food security as it affects the cropping pattern.
2. It increases the ocean water temperature so marine animals as wall plants die
3. It causes flood sometimes and drought sometimes
4. Loss of biodiversity since it becomes difficult to survive for flaura and fauna in hard or harsh climate
5. It increases the conditions suitable for diseases spreading bacteria/virus.
Mitigation:
1. Carbon sequestration:
The process of carbon capture and storage to tackle global warming by capturing CO2 at power
stations, industrial sites or even directly from air and permanently stored it in underground.
It is a long-term storage of CO2 or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global
warming.
Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping carbon into carbon sinks an area that
absorbs carbon.
(a.) Natural sink ocean, forests, soil etc
(b.) Artificial sink depleted oil resource, mines etc.

CARBON SINK
Green carbon sink: Green carbon sink is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants and
soil of natural ecosystem and is a vital part of the global carbon cycle.
Blue carbon sink: Blue carbon sink refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the
indicative vegetation, marine organism as well as water.
Coastal ecosystem have been found to store huge quantities of carbon in organic rich sediments upto 5
times more carbon than many temperate and tropical forests.
Carbon credit
A carbon credit is a tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon
dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent gases (t CO2e)
One carbon credit is equal to one tone of carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent gases.
In this company can act in two ways to reduce emissions.
(a.) It can reduce the GHGs by adopting new technology or improving upon the existing technology
to attain new norms for emission of gases.
(b.) Developed countries can help developing countries by technology to reduce GHGs emission and
in return they get permit to exit GHGs.
Carbon tax:
Carbon tax is the potential alternative to the cap and trade method.
This tax is based on the amount of carbon contained in a fuel such a coal etc.
The air is to cause less fossil fuel use and hopefully case an incentive to use other sources of energy.

CHAPTER-7
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS
FUNDAMENTAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS:
Brundtland report:
Brundtland, the Ugoslavian prime minister, who headed the world commission on Environment and
Development coined the term sustainable development in its seminal 1987 report caring for the earth: A
strategy for sustain living. According to the report, sustainable development is the development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their
own needs. It also stated that environment and development have to be read together in order to have
human development.
Meaning:
In other words, it is the development that uses the natural resources in such a way that does not harm
the environment and continue for a long time.
It is an integration of development and environmental considerations.
The necessary conditions for achieving sustainable development are ecological security, economic
efficiency and social equity.
Sustainable development is in fact, a multi dimensional concept involving three interacting aspects,
ecology, economy and ethics.
Sustainable development is the only path for conserving and promoting socio-economic well-being of
the people.
Some of the principles of sustainable developments are;
1. Inter-generational equity.
2. Intra-generational equity.
3. Use and conservation of natural resources.
4. Environmental protection.
5. The precautionary principle.
6. TePolluter Pays Principle.
7. Obligation to assist and co-operate
8. Eradication of poverty
9. Financial assistance to developing/underdeveloped countries
Indian constitution and environment

Indian constitution is one of the few constitutions in the world which obligates citizen as well as state to
protect and improve the environment. It is a commitment for a country which is weded to the idea of
welfare state. The Indian constitution contains specific provisions for environment protection under the
preamble, centre-state relations, fundamental rights, fundamental duties and directive principles of state
policy.
Preamble:
In preamble to the constitution of India the words socialist, Democratic, Republic, Justice and Equality
deal with environmental issues.

In cases, where the social problems are given priority over individual problem. The constitution requires
state to ensure a social order for welfares of people which can be obtained by an unpolluted and clean
environment only by public participation having right to know to obtain justice for the public welfare.
Centre-state relations (Art 245-Art 263)

Part XI of the constitution of India, deals with the legislative relations between the Union and the state.
Art 246 marks division of the legislative areas between the Union and the States with reference to three
lists; i.e.
The Union List, the state list and the concurrent list.
In the concurrent list, 42nd amendment Act 1976 to the constitution inserted
a) Entry 17-A providing for forests
b) Entry 17-B to protect wild animals and birds
c) Entry 20-A regarding population control and family planning
Art-248: It gives residuary powers to the parliament of India, to make laws with respect to any matter not
enumerated in state list or concurrent list.
Art-253: It authorizes the parliament to make laws for the implementation of international treaties
conventions or decisions taken at the international conferences.
Parliament has thus enacted the following laws:
i) The Air (Preventation and control of pollution) Act, 1981
ii) The water (Preventation and control of pollution) act, 1974
iii) The Environment (Preventation and control of pollution) Act, 1986
Fundamental rights:
Fundamental rights as of right to environmental is not expressly provided in part-III (Fundamental rights)
of the constitution but by a series of judicial decision, judiciary has expressed the scope of Article 21 as to
the right to clean environment is necessary to fulfill the right to life. By this, the courts have justified
principle I of the Stockholm declaration which states that man has fundamental right to life in an
environment of equality.
So Art-14, Art-19 and Art-21 have been used for environmental protection.
Fundamental duties:
The 42nd constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 imposed responsibility on every citizen in the form of
fundamental duty by adding Article 51 A(g) to the constitution, which states that, it is the duty of every
citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forest, lake, river and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creature.
The court has also explained that right and duty co-exists. There cannot be any right without any duty and
there cannot be any duty without any right.
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP):

Through the directive principles of state policy every country seeks to achieve socio-economic goals. As
India was a party to Stockholm Declaration so an amendment was made to the constitution by 42nd
Amendment Act, 1976 which inserted Art48A to the Constitution. It states, the state shall endeavors to
protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.

The Directive of Art 48A requires the state not only to adopt a protectionist policy but also to provide for
the improvement of polluted environment.
Environmental laws:
1. The Air (Preventation and control of pollution) Act, 1981:
The Air Act was enacted by the parliament under Art 253 of the constitution to implement the
decision taken at the Stockholm conference in 1972. The Act is lenspecialis i.e., specialized piece of
legislation.
Objective:
i) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
ii) To establish the central and state pollution control board to fulfill the aforesaid purpose.
iii) To provide such powers and functions to the boards.
iv) To lay down the standards to maintain the quality of air.
Scopes and Application:

The Air Act came into force on 16 May, 1981 and it extends to the whole of India.
2. The water (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974

The water Act represents one of Indias first attempts to deal with an environmental issue
comprehensively. It was first amended in 1978 then again in 1988 to conform to the provisions of
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The water Act is comprehensive in its coverage, applying to
streams, inland water, subterranean water and sea or tidal water.
Objectives:
i) To prevent and control of water pollution and to maintain or restore wholesomeness of water.
ii) To establish central and state pollution control board
iii) To provide functions and powers to such pollution control board
iv) To provide penalties for the contravention of provisions of the act
v) To establish central and state water laboratories to check water samples.
Scopes and applications

It extends to whole of India with some exceptions.
3. Noise pollution (Regulation and control) Rules, 2000

There was no direct provisions for noise pollution under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 or
any other legislation. The increasing ambient noise levels in public places from various sources like
industrial activity, construction activity, generator sets, automobiles, factories, vehicular horns, music
system etc. posed harmful effects on human health. So the Central Government framed noise
pollution (Regulation and control) Rules, 2000 to deal with above mentioned problems.
Noise level standard Areawise
Sl. No. Area/zone Noise level limits in dB
Day time 6am to 10pm Night time 10am to 6am
1. Industrial area 75 70
2. Commercial area 65 55
3. Residential area 55 45
4. Silence zone 50 40

4. The Environment Protection Act, 1986

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 is the most comprehensive Act relating to Environment
Protection. It is a general legislation for the protection of environment. It was enacted under Art 253
of the constitution.
Salient features of the act:
i) The Environment Protection Act is mother legislation or umbrella legislation
ii) It was enacted to provide co-ordination between the central and state authorities established
under the water Act, 1974 and the Air Act, 1981
iii) The purpose of the Act is to implement the decision made at the United Nations Conference of
human environment held at Stockholm in June 1972
iv) It covers areas like Eco-sensitive or Biosphere Reserves area
v) It came into force eon 19th November, 1986 and applies to whole India
5. Indian Forest Act, 1927

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 consolidated the pre-existing laws. The Act places emphasis on
regulation of transit of forest produce.
5.1. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
This Act has been passed with a view to check deforestation which took place on a large scale and
caused ecological imbalance. It simply aimed at putting restriction on the desertification of forest or
use of forest-land for non-forest purposes.
5.2. The National Forest Policy 1988
It stressed the peoples involvement as one of the essential components of forest management in the
development and protection of forests. The principal aim was to ensure environmental stability and
maintenance of ecological balance including atmospheric equilibrium.
6. The wild-life (Protection) Act, 1972

The wildlife (Protection) Act was enacted as the result of UN Conference at Stockholm, 1972. This
Act was enacted to protect wild animals, birds and plants and their habitat. This Act has been
amended many times viz in 1982, 1986, 1991, 1993 and 2003. The recently in 2006 with changing
demands in terms of meeting with new challenges of the global community. This Act prohibits
hunting of animals specified in schedules I to IV.
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The Biological diversity Act, 2002 has been exacted to provide for conservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out
of the use of biological resources, knowledge and for other matters connected therewith. It also
protects and rehabilitate the threatened species.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring use of natural
resources for sustainable development. The International Association for Impact Assessment defines an
environmental impact assessment as the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the
biophysical, social and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being
taken and commitments made.
The phrase environmental impact assessment has been taken from National Environmental Policy Act,
1969, USA and principle of the Rio declaration, 1992 which has defined as Environmental Impact
Assessment, as a national instrument shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a
significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national
authority.
Important points
A beginning in the direction of EIA, was made in India with the impact assessment of river valley
projects in 1978-79 and the scope has subsequently been enhanced to cover other developmental sectors
such as industries, thermal power projects, mining schemes etc.
EIA has now been made mandatory under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for 29 categories
of developmental activities involving investment of Rs. 50cr and above.
The technique of EIA finds it origin from the Precautionary principle which requires refusal of
consent or approval of the developmental activity by the competent authority, if such project poses
threat of serious or irreversible environmental damage.
To determine the serious or irreversible nature of the environment effects on the development
activity, EIA is necessary.
The precautionary principle mandates that EIA should be carried out not only at the time of
commencement.
Industrial Estates with Constituent units of various types which could cumulatively cause significant
environmental damage.
Basic of preparation of EIA:

EIA should be prepared on the basis of the existing background pollution levels vis--vis contributions of
pollutants from the proposed plant.
EIA should address some of the basic factors like:
Meteorology and air quality
Ambient levels of pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of Nitrogen, carbon monoxide and
suspended particulate matter (SPM).
Additional contribution of pollutants at the locations are required to be predicted after taking into
account the emission rates of pollutants from the stacks of the proposed plant under different
meteorological conditions prevailing in the area of developing projects but even during the operation
of the project.
EIA involves continuing assessment and evaluation of the environmental effects on the development
projects as long as the project is in operation and is not confined to pre-project evolution of possible
environmental effects.

Projects which comes under EIA:
Those Projects which can significantly after the landscape, land use pattern and bad to concentration
of working as service population
Those which need upstream development activity like assured mineral and forest products supply or
downstream industrial process development
Those involving manufacture, handling and use of hazardous materials
Those which are sited near ecological, sensitive area, urban centre, hill resorts, places of scientific and
religious importance.
Hydrology and water quality
Site ad its surroundings
Occupational safety and health
Details of the treatment and disposal of effluents (liquid, air and solid) and the methods of alternative
use.
Transporting of raw material and details of material handling
Control equipment and measures proposed to the adopted
Preparation of Environmental Management plan is required for formulation, implementation, and
monitoring of environmental protection measures during and after the commissioning of projects.
New Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines, 2006

The central Government, on September 14, 2006 notified the new Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) norms, relaxing the norms for obtaining environmental clearance from the Centre. This will
supersede the EIA, 1994 guidelines.
While the new notification, gives concession to the building and construction sector, several sectors
including automobile and biomedical industry will now be cleared at the state level.
According to the new notification, projects will now receive environmental clearance at the centre
and state level depending upon the built-up area instead of the cost of the project.
Development projects with a built-up area of between 20,000 to 1,00,000 square meters will be given
environmental clearance by the state pollution control board and those with a built-up area of over a
lakh square meters will have to cleared by the central government.
Salient features of the EIA Rule, 2006

1. Requirement of prior Environmental clearance:
The projects or activities shall require prior environmental clearance from the concurred regulatory
authority which shall hereinafter shall be referred to be as the central government, in the ministry of
environment, forest and climate change (MOEFCC) for matters falling under category A in the
schedule and at state level, the State Environment Impact assessment Authority (SEIAA) for matters
falling under category B in the schedule, before any construction work or preparation of land by the
project management except for securing land, is started on the project or activity;
i) All new projects or activities listed in the schedule
ii) Expansion and modernization of existing projects.
iii) Any change in the product-mix in an existing manufacturing unit included in the schedule beyond
the specified range.

2. State level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA):
SEIAA shall be constituted by the Central Government under section 3 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 comprising of three members including a chairman and members-secretary to
be nominated by the State Government or Union territory Administration concerned.
3. Categorization of projects and activities:

i) All projects and activities are broadly categorized into two category-category A and category B
based on the spatial extent of potential impacts and potential impacts on human health and natural
and manmade resource.
Sl. No. Category A Projects Category B Projects
1. Mining of Mineral 50ha 5 and 50ha
Asbestos mining irrespective of area
2. Offshore and onshore oil and gas Not applicable
exploration, development and
production
3. River valley project, <50MW 25MW hydroelectric power
i) 50MW hydroelectric power generation
generations
ii) 10,000ha of culturable common
area
4. Thermal power plants i) < 500MW (Coal/lignite/naptha/gas
i) 500MW (Coal/liginite/naptha/gas based)
based) j) < 50MW and 5MW (Pet coke,
ii) 50HW (Pet coke, diesel and other diesel and other fuel)
fuels)
5. All Nuclear Projects Not applicable
4. Stages in the Prior clearance process for new projects:

The environmental clearance process for new projects will comprise of a minimum four stages, all of
which may not apply to particular cases.
Four stages in sequential order are:
i) Stage 1 Screening (only for Category B projects and activities)
ii) Stage 2 scoping
iii) Stage 3 Public consultation
iv) Stage 4 Appraisal
Environmental Appraisal Committees:

To ensure multi-disciplinary input required for environmental appraisal of development projects, expert
committees have been constituted for the following sectors:
Mining sectors
Industrial projects
Nuclear power projects
Thermal power projects
River valley, Multipurpose irrigation and hydro-electric projects
Infrastructure development and Miscellaneous projects

Summary of EIA process:

CHAPTER-6
IMPORTANT CLIMATE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
United Nation Conference on Human Environment, 1972 or Stockholm Declaration:

This declaration is Magna Carta to environmental issues. The Stockholm declaration marked a watershed
in international relations and placed the issues of the protection of biosphere on the officinal agenda of
international policy and law. It established the United Nation environment Programme (UNEP) to provide
financial support to the developing countries.
Vienna convention on protection of ozone layer (1985)

To protect the ozone layer Vienna convention was signed with the objective to further develop
scientific knowledge of ozone layers and check the possible adverse effects resulting from its
depletion.
It also stated that states shall adopt appropriate legislative or administrative measures and co-operate
to control, limit, reduce and prevent human activities which have adverse effect on the ozone layer.
Vienna convention did not set any targets or timetables for action and only required appropriate
measures from member countries.
Montreal Protocol, 1987

It set the firm target for reducing consumption and production of ozone depleting substances like
CFCs
The standards set forth in this protocol were strengthened and expanded to cover additional ozone
depleting substances through amendments adopted later.
One of the major innovations of this protocol was that it recognized all nations should not be treated
equally.
The latest amendment has been done by Kigali protocol, 2016 which have added emission of GHGs
to be controlled having high Global warming potential (GWP), which warms the atmosphere of earth.
Brundtland report (WCED)

Brundtland the Ugoslavian Prime Minster who headed the world Commission on Environment and
Development brought into the term sustainable Development in its seminal report 1987. Caring for the
Earth: A strategy for sustainable living.
The report stated that sustainable development is development that meets the need of the present
without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
United Nation Conference on Environment and Development 1992 Earth Summit, 1992
United Nation Conference on Environment and Development was held at Rio de Jenerio (Brazil),
1992
Its objective was to provide principle of economic and environmental behavior for individuals and
nations.
This was the largest UN Conference ever held and it put the world on a path of sustainable
development which aimed at meeting the needs of the present without comprising the needs of the
future.
The Earth Summit was inspired and guided by a remarkable document of 1987 Brundtland report.

The Earth Summit produced five documents:-
a) The Rio declaration on Environment and Development
b) Agenda 21
c) Declaration on principles in forestry conservation or Forest Principles
d) Biodiversity convention
e) Climate convention
Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a dynamic programme and have voluntary action plans
It provided a blue print for environmental friendly development to cover issues of hazardous waste,
ocean pollution, human health and upliftment of women conditions
It is intended to provide an agenda for local, regional, national and global actions in 21st century.
This is why it is named as Agenda 21.
The United Nation Framework, convention on climate change (UNFCCC):

The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty that was produced at the United Nation
conference on Environment Development (UNCED) or Earth Summit, 1992
The United Nation climate change conferences are yearly conferences held in the framework of
United Nation Framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC)
They serve as the formal meeting of UNFCCC parties to assess progress in dealing with climate
change.
From 2005, the conferences have also served as the conference of parties serving as the meeting of
parties to the keyoto protocol (CPM)
A key element of the UNFCCC is that parties should act to protect the climate system on the basis of
equality and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities (BDR).
Conference of the parties (COP)

COP is the Supreme decision making body of the convention
All states that are parties to the UNFCCC are represented at COP
They review the implementation of the convention and another legal instrument that the COP adopts
and take decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the convention including
institutional and administrative arrangements.
Chronology of conference of the parties (COP)

1. 1995: COP1, The Berlin Mandate
2. 1996: COP 2, Geneva, Switzerland
3. 1997: COP 3, The Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change
4. 1998: COP 4, Buenos Aires, Argentina
5. 1999: COP 5, Bonn, Germany
6. 2000: COP 6, The Hague, Netherlands
7. 2001: COP 6, Bonn, Germany, COP6 happened in two years as the Hague summit remained
unresolved so it was continued to Bonn the next year.
8. 2001: COP 7, Marrakech, Morocco
9. 2002: COP 8, New Delhi, India

10. 2003: COP 9, Milan, Italy.
11. 2004: COP 10, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
12. 2005: COP 11/CMP 1, Montreal, Canada.
13. 2006: COP 12/CMP 2, Nairobi, Kenya.
14. 2007: COP 13/CMP 3, Bali, Indonesia.
15. 2008: COP 14/CMP 4, Pozna, Poland.
16. 2009: COP 15/CMP 5, Copenhagen, Denmark.
17. 2010: COP 16/CMP 6, Cancn, Mexico.
18. 2011: COP 17/CMP 7, Durban, South Africa.
19. 2012: COP 18/CMP 8, Doha, Qatar.
20. 2013: COP 19/CMP 9, Warsaw, Poland.
21. 2014: COP 20/CMP 10, Lima, Peru.
22. 2015: COP 21/CMP 11, Paris, France.
23. 2016: COP 22/CMP 12, Marrakesh, Morocco.
#LEITMOTIF @UNFCCC COPS

The first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties took place from 28 March - 7 April 1995
in Berlin, Germany. It voiced concerns about the adequacy of countries' abilities to meet commitments
under the Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for
Implementation (SBI).
1995: COP 1, The Berlin Mandate

The first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties took place from 28 March to 7 April 1995 in Berlin,
Germany. It voiced concerns about the adequacy of countries' abilities to meet commitments under the
Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation
(SBI).
1996: COP 2, Geneva, Switzerland

COP 2 took place in July 1996 in Geneva.
Accepted the scientific findings on climate change proffered by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) in its second assessment (1995);
Rejected uniform "harmonized policies" in favor of flexibility;
Called for "legally binding mid-term targets".
1997: COP 3, the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change

COP 3 took place in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. After intensive negotiations, it adopted the Kyoto
Protocol, which outlined the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation for Annex I countries, along
with what came to be known as Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development
mechanism and joint implementation. Most industrialized countries and some central European
economies in transition (all defined as Annex B countries) agreed to legally binding reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions of an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between the years 20082012,
defined as the first emissions budget period.

1998: COP 4, Buenos Aires, Argentina
COP 4 took place in November 1998 in Buenos Aires. It had been expected that the remaining issues
unresolved in Kyoto would be finalized at this meeting. However, the complexity and difficulty of finding
agreement on these issues proved insurmountable, and instead the parties adopted a 2-year "Plan of
Action" to advance efforts and to devise mechanisms for implementing the Kyoto Protocol, to be
completed by 2000. During COP4.
1999: COP 5, Bonn, Germany

It was primarily a technical meeting, and did not reach major conclusions.
2000: COP 6, The Hague, Netherlands

COP 6, suspended COP-6 without agreement, with the expectation that negotiations would later
resume.[3] It was later announced that the COP 6 meetings (termed "COP 6 bis") would be resumed in
Bonn, Germany, in the second half of July. The next regularly scheduled meeting of the parties to the
UNFCCC, COP 7, had been set for Marrakech, Morocco, in OctoberNovember 2001.
2001: COP 6, Bonn, Germany

Agreement was reached on most of the major political issues, to the surprise of most observers, given the
low expectations that preceded the meeting. The agreements included:
Flexible mechanisms: The "flexibility mechanisms" including emissions trading, joint implementation
(JI), and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) which allows industrialized countries to fund
emissions reduction activities in developing countries as an alternative to domestic emission reductions.
Carbon sinks: It was agreed that credit would be granted for broad activities that absorb carbon from the
atmosphere or store it, including forest and cropland management, and re-vegetation, with no over-all cap
on the amount of credit that a country could claim for sinks activities.
Compliance:Suspension of the right to sell credits for surplus emissions reductions, and a required
compliance action plan for those not meeting their targets.
Financing: There was agreement on the establishment of three new funds to provide assistance for needs
associated with climate change: (1) a fund for climate change that supports a series of climate measures;
(2) a least-developed-country fund to support National Adaptation Programs of Action; and (3) a Kyoto
Protocol adaptation fund supported by a CDM levy and voluntary contributions.
2001: COP 7, Marrakech, Morocco

The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords.
The main decisions at COP 7 included:
Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the
CDM and joint implementation;
A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but
deferred to the parties to the Protocol, once it came into force, the decision on whether those
consequences would be legally binding;
Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms;

A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that
might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries.
2002: COP 8, New Delhi, India

COP 8 adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that, amongst others, called for efforts by developed
countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries.
2003: COP 9, Milan, Italy

The parties agreed to use the Adaptation Fund established at COP7 in 2001 primarily in supporting
developing countries better adapt to climate change. The fund would also be used for capacity-building
through technology transfer. At COP9, the parties also agreed to review the first national reports
submitted by 110 non-Annex I countries.
2004: COP 10, Buenos Aires, Argentina

To promote developing countries better adapt to climate change, the Buenos Aires Plan of Action was
adopted. The parties also began discussing the post-Kyoto mechanism, on how to allocate emission
reduction obligation following 2012, when the first commitment period ends.
2005: COP 11/CMP 1, Montreal, Canada

It was the first Meeting of the Parties (CMP 1) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting in Kyoto
in 1997. It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever. The event
marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to
"extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in
greenhouse-gas emissions". Canada's environment minister, at the time, Stphane Dion, said the
agreement provides a "map for the future"
2006: COP 12/CMP 2, Nairobi, Kenya

Certain strides were made at COP12, including in the areas of support for developing countries and clean
development mechanism. The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change
adaptation by developing countries, and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund.
They also agreed to improve the projects for clean development mechanism.
2007: COP 13/CMP 3, Bali, Indonesia

Bali Action Plan (Decision 1/CP.13). The Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action
under the Convention (AWG-LCA) was established as a new subsidiary body to conduct the negotiations
aimed at urgently enhancing the implementation of the Convention up to and beyond 2012. Decision
9/CP.13 is an Amended to the New Delhi work programme. These negotiations took place during 2008
(leading to COP 14/CMP 4 in Poznan, Poland) and 2009 (leading to COP 15/CMP 5 in Copenhagen).
2008: COP 14/CMP 4, Pozna, Poland

Agreed on principles for the financing of a fund to help the poorest nations cope with the effects of
climate change and they approved a mechanism to incorporate forest protection into the efforts of the
international community to combat climate change.
Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol were the primary focus of the conference.

2009: COP 15/CMP 5, Copenhagen, Denmark

COP 15 took place in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 7-18 December 2009.
The overall goal for the COP 15/CMP 5 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Denmark was to
establish an ambitious global climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment
period under the Kyoto Protocol expires.
The accord was notable in that it referred to a collective commitment by developed countries for new and
additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions that will
approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010-2012.
2010: COP 16/CMP 6, Cancn, Mexico

The outcome of the summit was an agreement adopted by the states' parties that called for the 100 billion
USD per annum "Green Climate Fund", and a "Climate Technology Centre" and network. However the
funding of the Green Climate Fund was not agreed upon. Nor was a commitment to a second period of the
Kyoto Protocol agreed upon, but it was concluded that the base year shall be 1990 and the global
warming potentials shall be those provided by the IPCC.
It recognizes the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report goal of a maximum 2C global warming and all parties
should take urgent action to meet this goal.
2011: COP 17/CMP 7, Durban, South Africa

The conference agreed to a start negotiations on a legally binding deal comprising all countries, to be
adopted in 2015, governing the period post 2020.There was also progress regarding the creation of a
Green Climate Fund (GCF) for which a management framework was adopted. The fund is to distribute
US$100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts.
2012: COP 18/CMP 8, Doha, Qatar

The Conference produced a package of documents collectively titled The Doha Climate Gateway. The
documents collectively contained:
An Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol (to be accepted before entering into force) featuring a second
commitment period running from 2012 until 2020 limited in scope to 15% of the global carbon dioxide
Language on loss and damage, formalized for the first time in the conference documents.
2013: COP 19/CMP 9, Warsaw, Poland

COP 19 was the 19th yearly session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 9th session of the Meeting of the Parties
(CMP) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (the protocol having been developed under the UNFCCC's charter).
The conference was held in Warsaw, Poland from 11 to 23 November 2013.
2014: COP 20/CMP 10, Lima, Peru

On 112 December 2014, Lima, Peru hosted the 20th yearly session of the Conference of the Parties
(COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 10th
session of the Meeting of the Parties (CMP) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (the protocol having been
developed under the UNFCCC's charter). The pre-COP conference was held in Venezuela.

Paris agreement or COP-21
COP-21 i.e., conference of parties to the UNFCCC also known as the 2015 Paris climate conference was
held in Paris in Dec2-Dec12, 2015. This conference was attended by 196 countries which is universal in
character.
The political response to climate change began with earth summit 1992 or Rio conference 1992 with the
adoption of United Nation Framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC). The convention set out
a framework for action aimed at stabilizing atmospheric concentration of Green House Gases. The
UNFCCC entered into force on 21st March, 1994. The countries which are members of UNFCCC are also
member of COP. COP is annual conference under UNFCCC to chalk out plan and review the progress
made by the earlier commitment.
1. COP-21 aims to achieve a 1st legally binding and universal agreement on climate change with the
aim of keeping global warming below 2C. The agreement would be open for signature in New
York from 22nd April, 2016 to 21st April, 2017.
2. The agreement shall entry into force on the 30th day after the date on which at least 55 parties to the
convention account for total estimated 55% of the total global greenhouse Gas emission have
deposited their instrument of ratification acceptance, approval or accession.
3. The provision is also made to withdraw from the agreement of any country after three years from
the data on which the agreement has entered into force.
4. The agreement was published in 6 language i.e, English, Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and
Spanish.
COP-21 Has adopted the following methods or proposals or pledges to mitigate the climate change
are:-
1. A pledge was taken to hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2C above
pre-industrial level and to purpose efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5C above pre-
industrial level.
2. The methods would be taken to enhance sustainable development and eradicate poverty.
3. To promote universal access to sustainable energy in developing countries and in particular Africa
through the enhanced deployment of removable energy.
4. It was agreed to include parties, non-parties stake holders, including civil society, the private sector,
financial institutions, cities, local communities and indigenous people to promote regional and
international cooperation to mitigate the climate change effects.
5. The agreement adopted the Intended Nationally Determined contributions (INDC)submitted by all the
countries in accordance with decisions by COP-19
6. It intended to curb GHG by 55 Gigatonnes by 2030 by INDC norms.
7. IPCC to give report on climate change in 2018 on the impacts of global warming of 1.5C above pre-
industrial level and related GHG emissions pathways.
8. The developed countries will provide $100 by 2020 to developing countries to mitigate and adopt
technology to combat the climate change effect.
9. The first global evaluation of the implementation of the Paris agreement is to take place in 2023 and
thereafter every five years to help all countries.
10. Pledges by countries with end date of 2025 or 2030 will need to be updated by 2020.
11. A facilities dialogue of counties to be held in 2018 to review the collective efforts.
12. The agreement also establishes system of technology transfer for developing countries through a new
technology framework for both reductions of their carbon emissions and adaption programmes.

13. Transparency has been laid down in separate framework. It will require countries to regularly provide
a standardized national inventory of manmade greenhouse gases emissions by severs and the ways in
which they are being removed.
(i) The Paris agreement is based on the principle adopted by UNFCCC is Common But
Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR).
(ii) Besides the agreement pledges, many countries took the initiative to combat climate change.
Such as Germany, Norway, Surden and Switzerland announced a new $500hn to award as
incentives to developing countries for the reduced emission of GHG.
(iii) Beside this the transformative carbon assets facility will operate in 2016 in developing
countries to reduce GHG emissions.
(iv) The least developed countries fund (LDCF) hosted by global environment facility (GEF) will
have contribution from Canada, Denmark, Finland, France and USA and other.
(v) India launch Inter Solar alliance a group of 172 countries and took pledge to achieve 175GW
of energy by 2022 by renewable sources.
(vi) Microsoft took the pledges the $7bn for research and clean energy.
Indias Intended Nationally Determined Contribution

(i) Indias INDC was submitted on 2nd October, 2015 and it was based on Mahatma Gandhis
famous exhortation Earth has enough resource to meet peoples needs but will never have
enough to satisfy peoples greed.
(ii) COP of UNFCCC of 19th session i.e., warsaw poet in 2013 invited all parties to initiate
domestic preparation for their INDC towards achieving the objective of convention and to
communicate them of COP-21.
(iii) The concept of INDC is the outcomes of both warsaw COP-19 and Lima, COP-20 to reflect
the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR) and the
countrys contribution to be seen in balanced and comprehensive context.
(iv) INDC would outline post 2020 climate actions they intend to take under a new international
agreement.
(v) Indias INDC is prepared by MOEFCC by adopting the principle of sustainable lifestyle and
climate justice to protect the poor and cultural from adverse impacts of climate change.
(vi) Indias INDC reflects all issues of mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer and
capacity building. The proposals are on the following:
1. Sustainable lifestyle.
2. Cleaner Economic Development.
3. Reduce Emission intensity of GDP. (EI CO2 emission per unit of GD).
4. Increase in share of Non-Fossil fuel based electricity.
5. Enhancing carbon sinks (Forests).
6. Adaption.
7. Mobilizing Finance.
8. Technology transfer and capacity building.
India has 17% of worlds pollution. As third largest emitters of GHG after US and China and 4 th place
after USA, china, and EU and 3rd largest producer of Coal. Its total emissions are only 5% of the global
emissions.

Indias stated objective in INDC are:-
(i) To bring down GDP intensity reduction of 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 level
(ii) To have 40% non fossil fuel based electricity capacity.
(iii) To add carbon sink for 2.5-3 billion tones of CO2 by 2030
According to Indias Green House Gas inventory 2007, electricity has 37% share, Agriculture 17%,
cement 6.8%, Iron and steel-6.8%, Transprot-7.50% and Rediential-7.2%
(iv) The energy efficiency of thermal power plants will be systematically and mandatorily improved
along with zero effect and zero Defect scheme.
(v) Urban Transport facility will focus on Mass Rapid Transit system.
(vi) The Switch from Bharat Stage IV (BSIV) to BSV and BSVI norms to improve fuel standards across
the country.
(vii) To achieve 175GW of energy by renewable sources by 2021-22 out of 175GW, 100GW will be
from solar sources, 40 by wind and 35GW by hydropower.
(viii) India has also decided to establish International solar alliance of all countries (172) located in
between tropic of cancer and tropic of capricon.
(ix) A scheme for development of 25 solar parks, Ultra Mega power projects, canal top solar projects
one thousand solar pumps for frames.
(x) To increase forest cover through a planned aforestation drive which includes number of
programmes and initiatives like green India mission, green highway policy, financial incentives for
forests, plantation along rivers, REDD plus and others
(xi) To setup a National adoption Fund with an initial allocation of Rs. 3500 million to combat adaption
needs in key sector. This fund will assist the national and state level activities to meet the cost of
adaption measure.
Indias INDC focuses on all elements i.e., mitigation, adaptation finance, technology transfer and
capacity building. Therefore the implementation of the INDC will promote achievement of the
Government plans for socio-economic development. To that effect, all the efforts outlined in INDC are
targeted at creating opportunities for sustainable livelihoods and sustained development for the power
throughout India.
Kigali Pact, 2016

It was signed at Kigali, Rwanda in Oct, 2016
It is a legally binding agreement which aims to reduce climate damaging GHGs in products ranging from
air conditioners and refrigerators to shaving fromfoams a pact which will come into effect from
January 2019
The agreement will come into force from January, 2019 for developed countries.
It was agreed to an amendment to include HFCs phase down under Montreal Protocol.
It aims to reduce the production and consumption of HFCs.
HFCs is not ozone depleting substances but its GWP is thousands of times that of CO2 which warms
the atmosphere.
It creates three categories of countries with different schedules and timetables for reduction.
1. Developed countries led by USA, Japan, EU etc
2. Developing countries led by China, Brazil, South Africa etc
3. Developing countries led by of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc

HFCs phase down schedules

Category Baseline Freezing Maximum %
reduction
1. 2011 2019 85% by 2036
2. 2020-22 2024 80% by 2045
3. 2024-26 2028 85% by 2047
Note: Freezing year is the year when use of HFCs will peak before being rapidly scaled down and finally
phased out together.
Baseline year is the year for which the average production/consumption quantity of HFCs is taken as the
upper limit. So it serves as a level.
HFCs are considered as super GHGs because of high GWP
This will help to reduce 0.5C temperature to complement the Paris agreement.
Note: India signed the Kigali Pact, 2016
International Solar Alliance (ISA)

There are 121 countries in this group. Those countries which fall between tropic of cancer and
tropic of capricon can become the member of this group. Other countries can become the partners
only.
This alliance is focused on the generation of solar energy and solar technology transfer and sharing
among the countries.
Its HQ, is in Gurugram (Haryana), India.
The HQ of ISA would be IstHQ of any international organization in India.

CHAPTER-7
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster:
A disaster may arise suddenly or it may be an outcome of a simmering problem or issue which was not
controlled. A crisis may degenerate into a disaster if it is not properly managed resulting in avoidable loss
of human life and property on a large scale.
The National Policy on Disaster Management defines disaster as A disaster refers to a catastrophe,
mishap, clarity or grave occurrence from natural or man-made causes, which is beyond the coping
capacity of the affected community.
The policy also defines Disaster Management in the broadest sense as Disaster Management involves a
continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures
which are necessary or expedient for:-
Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.
Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences.
Capacity building including research and knowledge management.
Preparedness to deal with any disaster.
Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster.
Evacuation, rescue and relief.
Rehabilitation and reconstruction.
So we can say that disaster is a result of from the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce the potential chances of risk.
Disaster = Hazard + Risk Vulnerability
Hazard
Strictly speaking there is no such thing as a natural disaster, but there are natural hazards. A hazard in
simple terms is a potential disaster. It is an event that may lead to a disaster. For e.g, flood is a hazard.
When it occurs and if people are not prepared to face it, may cause loss to life and property. Then the
flood becomes a disaster. But if people are evacuated on time, the flood remains a hazard and does not
becomes a disaster.
Types of Hazards:
1. Natural Hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural phenomena for e.g., cyclones,
tsunamis, earthquake, floods, volcanoes etc.
2. Manmade Hazardsare hazards which are caused due to human negligence. Manmade hazards are
associated with industries or energy generation facilities and include explosion, leakage of toxic
wastes, pollution etc.
Water and climate related disasters

Cyclone.
Tornado and hurricane.
Floods.

Drought.
Hailstoom.
Cloudburst.
Landslide.
Heat and cold wave.
Snow avalanche.
Sea erosion.
Geological related disasters

Earthquake.
Tsunami.
Volcanic eruption.
Dam burst.
Landslide.
Mine fire.
Environmental Hazards
Environmental pollution.
Deforestation.
Desertification.
Pest infection.
Biological Hazards
Human/Animal Epidemics.
Pest attacks.
Food poisoning.
Weapons of mass destruction.
Chemical, Industrial and nuclear related disaster

1. Chemical disasters.
2. Industrial disasters.
3. Oil skills/fires.
4. Nuclear/radiation.
Accident related disasters

Train, Bus, Aeroplane accidents.
Building collapse.
Crowd stampede.
Mine flooding.
Accident by hostile elements war, terrorism, extremission, insurgency.

Management at Central, State and Local Level

Disaster can be managed effectively by close coordination with various government and non-government
agencies. The response from the central Government considers the following factors:-
1. The gravity of the disasters
2. The scale of the relief operations
3. The requirements of the central assistance for augmenting financial resources and logistics support at
the disposal of the State Government.
4. The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal agency or Ministry at the Centre for coordinating disaster
management activities for all natural hazards except drought which is taken care by Ministry of
agriculture under department of agriculture and cooperation.
A National Disaster Management Authority has been formed under Home Ministry.
The following decision making bodies are responsible for disaster management at the Central level:-
1. Union cabinet headed by the Prime Minister
2. Group of Ministers, headed by the Minister
3. National crisis Management Committee under the chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

On 23rd December, 2005 the Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act, which
envisaged the creation of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime
Minister and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by respective Chief Ministers to
spearhead and implement a holistic and integrated approach to Disaster Management in India.
Functions:
1. Lay down policies on disaster management.
2. Approve the National Plan.
3. Approve the plans prepared by the Ministries.
4. Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Disaster Management.
5. Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plans for disaster management.
6. Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation.
7. Provide such support to other countries affected by major disaster as may be determined by the
Central Government.
8. Take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, mitigation, preparedness and capacity
building for dealing with threatening disaster situations.
9. Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of National Institute of Disaster
Management.
10. The Disaster Management in India is headed at three levels i.e.,
(i) At Central level NDMA headed by the Prime Minister
(ii) At State level - SDMA headed by the Chief Minister
(iii) At District level headed by the District Magistrate.

8. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Genetically engineered cotton plants which are pest resistant have been created by inserting the
game from a: [IES, 2013]
(a.) Bacterium
(b.) Fungus
(c.) Insect
(d.) Protozoan
2. Which of the following can help in reducing the Carbon footprint?

I. Using fly-ash based cement in building constructions
II. Using LED-based electric lamps instead of incandescent lamps
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: [IES, 2013]
(a.) I only
(b.) II only
(c.) Both I and II
(d.) Neither I and II
3. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:- [IES, 2014]

(a.) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b.) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c.) Pollution assay in aquatic systems
(d.) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
4. Which of the following is an appropriate description of mangrove plants? [IES, 2014]

(a.) Large wood-yielding trees of the tropical forest
(b.) Plants in marshy areas with breathing roots
(c.) Succulent plants that can thrive in arid/desert areas
(d.) Vast grassland areas interspersed with deciduous trees and thorny bushes
5. Which one among the following is the most widespread type of forest in India? [IES, 2014]
(a.) Tropical wet evergreen
(b.) Thorn-scrub
(c.) Mangrove
(d.) Tropical dry deciduous
6. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of the various stages in the food chain?
[IES, 2014]
(a.) Grasshopper, snakes, frogs, vultures
(b.) Grasshoppers, frogs, snakes, vultures
(c.) Frogs, vultures, snakes, Grasshoppers
(d.) Vultures, snakes, Grasshoppers, Frogs

7. Frocking technology frequently in news is related to [IES, 2014]

(a.) Food processing
(b.) Beverage industry
(c.) Shale gas technology
(d.) Bauxite extraction
8. Consider the following

1. KeoladeoGhara National Park
2. Nudurmalai wildlife sumptuary
3. Suttanpur National Park
Which of the above is/are wetlands? [IES, 2014]
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 3 only
(c.) 1 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
9. An ecosystem comprises:- [IES, 2014]

(a.) Only trees, shrubs and herbs in an area
(b.) Only animals in an area
(c.) All plants and animals in an area
(d.) All living and non-living things in an area
10. Which of the following place is known for salt water crocodiles? [IES, 2014]
(a.) Bhitarkanika
(b.) Machilipatnam
(c.) Pulicate lake
(d.) Rann of kutch
11. The last stronghold of Indian Lions in their natural habitat is located in:- [IES, 2014]
(a.) Gujarat
(b.) Rajasthan
(c.) Maharashtra
(d.) West-Bengal
12. The decomposition and recycling of organic matter from dead organic is made possible to a large
extent by:- [IES, 2014]
(a.) Bacteria
(b.) Protozoa
(c.) Virus
(d.) None of the above
13. Biodiversity is highest in [IES, 2014]

(a.) Alpine meadows
(b.) Coniferous forests
(c.) Deciduous monsoon forests

(d.) Wet evergreen equational forests
14. Consider the following which can be found in the ambient atmosphere:- [IES, 2014]
1. Soot
2. Sulphure hexafluoride
3. Water
Which of the above contribute to the warming up of the atmosphere?
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 3 only
(c.) 2 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
15. Consider the following statements:- [IES, 2014]

1. LED-based lamps do not contain mercury
2. LED-based lamps cannot be used as street-lights
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
(d.) Neither 1 nor 2
16. Which one of the following is spread over three states?

(a.) Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary
(b.) National Chambal sanctuary
(c.) Eraukulean National Park
(d.) Bandavgarh National Park
17. Which one of the following became extinct in India a few decades ago and is proposed to be re-
introduced? [IES, 2014]
(a.) Cheetah
(b.) Gharial
(c.) Salt water crocodile
(d.) Snow leopard
18. Which of the following are sources of methane, a green house gas? [IES, 2014]
1. Domestic Animals
2. Coal mining
3. Wetlands
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) 1 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3

19. Consider the following [IES, 2015]

1. Adjutant stork
2. Emperor penguin
3. Rattle snake
Which of the above is/are naturally found in India?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 and 3 only
(c.) 1 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
20. In the Earths atmosphere, which of the following have the property of absorbing the heat and
contribute to the warming of atmosphere? [IES, 2015]
1. Carbon monoxide
2. Oxygen
3. Soot
4. Water vapor
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c.) 3 and 4 only
(d.) 1, 2, 3 and 4
21. Which of the following faura of India is an ape? [IES, 2015]
(a.) HoolakGibben
(b.) Golden Langur
(c.) Lion tailed Macaque
(d.) Slow Loins
22. Consider the following [IES, 2015]

1. Solid waste treatment
2. Natural wetlands
3. Ruminant animals
Which of the above can cause methane emissions and thus can contribute warming?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 and 3 only
(c.) 1 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
23. Consider the following Pairs:- [IES, 2015]
National Park - Region
1. Bandavgarh National Park - Western India
2. Banipus National Park - Southern India
3. Manas National Park - North-Eastern India
Which of the following pair is/are correctly matched?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 and 3 only
(c.) 1 and 3 only

(d.) 1, 2 and 3
24. Which one of the following is the National animal of India? [IES, 2015]
(a.) Elephant
(b.) Rhinoceros
(c.) Lion
(d.) Tiger
25. Most of the ozone in the atmosphere is found in:-

(a.) Ionosphere
(b.) Mesosphere
(c.) Stratosphere
(d.) Troposphere
26. The wild goat ibex is found in: [IES, 2015]

(a.) Coromandel coast
(b.) Himalayas
(c.) Maikal hills
(d.) Thar desert
27. The Great Barris Reef sometimes in news, is located along; [IES, 2015]
(a.) Australia
(b.) Madagascal
(c.) South Africa
(d.) Vietram
28. With reference to the wildlife of India, what is Dugong? [IES, 2015]
(a.) Desert gazelle
(b.) Marine animal
(c.) Migratory raptor
(d.) Salt water crocodile
29. With reference to refrigerants, consider the following statements: [IES, 2015]
1. Hydroflurocarbons can be the alternatives to ozone-depleting chlorofluro carbon in
refrigeration
2. Hydroflurocarbon do not have any global warming potential?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
30. The term Bali Action Plan is sometimes seen in news in the context of:- [IES, 2016]
(a.) Global climate change
(b.) Global terrorism
(c.) Global wildlife trafficking

(d.) World trade
31. Consider the following pairs: [IES, 2016]
Lake : State
1. Chilika lake : Odisha
2. Kolleru lake : Kerala
3. Pulicate lake : Karnataka
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 and 3
(c.) 1 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
32. Consider the following statements: [IES, 2016]
1. Snakes are always at the end of a food chain
2. Some snakes are viviparous
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
1. Red Panda in its natural habitat is found in Eastern Himalayas.
2. Gharial in its natural habitat is found in Bhitarkanika mangroves
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
(d.) Neither 1 and 2
34. With reference to Carbon dioxide, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is released from the interior of the earth during volcanic eruption
2. It corrodes the metal surfaces
3. It is required for ht green plants for their survival
Select the correct answer using the code given below [IES, 2016]
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 3 only
(c.) 2 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
35. Which of the following statements is/are correct? [IES, 2016]

1. Shale gas is extensively produced in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
2. Frocking technology used in the extraction of this gas requires large quantities of water.
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2

(d.) Nether 1and 2
36. Consider the following: [IES, 2016]

1. Patrn Civet
2. Purra
3. Cheetah
Which of the above is/are found in India in their natural habitat?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 and 3 only
(c.) 1 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
37. There is a growing concern about the release of a particular gas into the atmosphere from the
permafrost of Arctic region. Which one of the followings is that gas [IES, 2016]
(a.) Carbon monoxide
(b.) Ethane
(c.) Methane
(d.) Sulphur dioxide
38. With reference to Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve which of the following statements is/are
correct? [IES, 2016]
1. It is located in Eastern ghats
2. It is a unique tropical rain forest
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
39. Which one of the following is associated with the issue of control and phase out of the use of
ozone depleting substances? [IES, 2016]
(a.) Bretton woods conference
(b.) Doha development agenda
(c.) Geneva conference
(d.) Montreal protocol
40. At which of the following places is the Marine National Park located? [IES, 2016]
(a.) Chandipur-on-sea
(b.) Jamnagar
(c.) Pondicherry
(d.) Visakhapatnam
41. Fly Ash which can be used in making bricks, is emitted from: [IES, 2016]
(a.) Burning of agriculture waste
(b.) Burning of municipal waste
(c.) Mining of aluminum and iron ores

(d.) Thermal power plants

1. Snowline occurs at a higher altitude in eastern Himalayas than in western Himalayas
2. Mangroves forests in India occurs along the coastal areas of West Bengal and Odisha only
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
43. Which of the following is/are world Heritage Properties as per UNESCO? [IES, 2016]
1. Bhitarkanika National Park
2. Bandhavgarh National park
3. Suderban National park
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 3 only
(c.) 2 and 3
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
44. Which of the following places have nuclear power plants? [IES, 2016]
1. Amarkantak
2. Kaiga
3. Rawathata
4. Vishakhapatnam
(a.) 1 and 2 only
(b.) 2 and 3 only
(c.) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d.) 1, 2, 3 and 4


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GENERAL STUDIES

1. ETHICS AND VALUES IN ENGINEERING PROFESSION

2. BASICS OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

10. Ethics and values in Engineering profession

GENERAL STUDIES: ETHICS

GENERAL STUDIES: ETHICS

GENERAL STUDIES: ETHICS

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

Head office : 28B/7 Jiasarai Near IIT New Delhi

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

3. ETHICS IN HUMAN ACTION .. 20-21

5. ENGINEERING ETHICS OR ROLE OF ETHICS IN

ENGINEERING PROFESSION .. 27-42

6. ETHICS AND MORAL REASONING 43-46

7. ETHICAL PROBLEMS . 47-51

8. RISK AND SAFETY IN ENGINEERING .. 52-54

9. THE RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ENGINEERS 55-57

10. MCQ PRACTICE: ETHICS . 58-62

11. TEST YOURSELF. 63-68

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Engineering Services Examination-2017

Ethics and values in Engineering Profession

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

1.1 Content of Human values:

1.2 Basic human values

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

1.3 Human values applied in practice

1.4 Technique to adhere to human values

1.5 Classification of values

Affective values: It is concerned with or arousing the emotion or affection. It includes

1.6 Modern classification of values

1.7 Characteristics of values

1.8 Function of values:

1.9 Principles of preference of values

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

2.1 Technique for developing values:

4. Profitable association method:

2.2 How to inculcate human values

ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

2.2.1 These are some common ways to inculcate values:

2.2.2 Period of value development:

2. The modeling period:

3. The socialization period:

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ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIANew Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com

f) Ethics and cultural norms

Consequences of ethics in human action:

2.3 Why ethics is important?

2.4 Determinants of ethics in governance:

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2.5 Branches of ethics

2.5.1 Meta ethics:

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2.5.2 Normative ethics

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So relativism and absolutism dont work. Any choice/judgement based on these

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Civil services reform and public administration.

(iii) Ethical relativism:

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or whether morality is nearly matter of cultural taste. This difference in moral

John Rawlss Theory of Justice gives two principles.