MT Classroom Training Handbook

CLASS ROOM TRAINING HANDBOOK
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2 PRINCIPLFB OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
CHAPTER 3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER 4 MEDIUMS AND THEIR PREPARATION
CHAPTER 5 MAGNETIC PARTICLE APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 6 CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES
CHAPTER 7 COMPARISON AND SELECTION OF NDT PROCESSES
APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY
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APPENDIX B. MEASUREMENT CONVERSION CHARTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Paragraph
100 GENERAL. KU
101 PURPOSE.
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102 DESCRIPTION OF CONTENT
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1. Arrangement SM
2. Locators
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103 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING.

104 TFBTING PHILOSOPHY
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105 PERSONNEL.
106 TFBTING CRITERIA.
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107 TEST PROCEDURFB

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108 TEST OBJECTIVES.

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MANGETIC PARTICLE TESTING
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
classification by origin, and
100 GENERAL preservation.
The complexity and expense of today's machines, g. Chapter 7: Comparison and selection
equipment, and tools dictate the use of fabrication of NDT processes.
and testing procedures that will ensure maximum
h. Appendix A: Glossary of terms relating
reliability. Nondestructive testing (testing without
to magnetic particle testing.
destroying) provides many of these procedures.
Of the number of nondestructive test procedures i. Appendix B: Measurement
available, magnetic particle testing -of which this conversion charts (U.S. customary to
handbook is concerned -is one of the oldest and International System (SI) units).
most widely used.
101 PURPOSE 2. Locators

At the front of each chapter is a table of contents
The purpose of this handbook is to provide the
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fundamental knowledge of magnetic particle referencing the major paragraphs in that chapter.
testing required by quality assurance and test Also included is a list of figures and tables, where
applicable.
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personnel to enable them to:
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1) ascertain that the proper test technique, or
combination of techniques, is used to assure the KU 103 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF
quality of the finished product;
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MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
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2) interpret, evaluate, and make a sound decision
as to the results of the test; and
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possible, small particles that are attracted to
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3) recognize those areas exhibiting doubtful test magnetic fields are applied to the surface of the
results that require either retest or assistance in test object after or during induction of a magnetic
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interpretation and evaluation. field, thereby detecting certain discontinuities

which are present in the material. Since magnetic
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particle testing is capable of revealing

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102 DESCRIP110N OF CONTENTS discontinuities (variations in material composition)

economically, it is one of the most used,
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1. Arrangement
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nondestructive test methods. However, this test

The material contained in this handbook is method is limited to disclosing only those
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presented in a logical sequence and consists of: discontinuities that are at or near the surface.
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a. Chapter 1: Introduction and testing

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philosophy.
104 TESTING PHILOSOPHY
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b. Chapter 2: Principles of magnetic

Nondestructive testing is used to assure
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particle testing, describing theory,

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maximum reliability of machines, equipment, and

magnetic fields, current requirements,
tools. To accomplish such reliability, test
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and demagnetization.
standards have been established and test results
c. Chapter 3: Magnetic particle test must meet these standards.
equipment, describing equipment and
accessories, and their operation.
105 PERSONNEL
d. Chapter 4: Mediums, describing their
It is imperative that personnel responsible for
characteristics, application, and
magnetic particle testing be trained and highly
preparation.
qualified with a technical understanding of the test
e. Chapter 5: Magnetic particle equipment, the item under test, and the test
applications, classification of procedures. To make optimum use of magnetic
magnetization methods, surface particle testing, NDT personnel conducting tests
preparation, and demagnetization must continually keep abreast of new
requirements. developments. There is no substitute for
knowledge.
f. Chapter 6: Magnetic particle
indications, their characteristics,
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106 TESTING CRITERIA 108 TEST OBJECTIVE

Modern manufacturing procedures dictate that 1. The objective of magnetic particle testing is to
faulty articles be discovered as early in the ensure maximum reliability by providing a means
manufacturing process as possible. This means of:
that each item must be tested individually before it
a. Obtaining a visual image of an indication
is required to perform in a subassembly and that
related to a discontinuity in or at the
each subassembly be tested before it is required
surface of a material.
to perform in an assembly, etc. This building-
block approach requires that test processes be b. Disclosing the nature of discontinuities
selected and test procedures be generated at the without impairing the material.
lowest level in the manufacturing process in order
that the highest reliability may be obtained with c. Separating acceptable and unacceptable
lowest cost. material in accordance with
predetermined standards.
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107 TEST PROCEDURES
2. No test is successfully completed until an
Approved procedures for magnetic particle testing evaluation of the test results is made. Evaluation
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are formulated from analysis of the test specimen, of test procedures and results requires
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review of its past history, experience and understanding of the test objective as well as an
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information available concerning discontinuities in
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like or similar articles. It is the responsibility of and the manufacturing processes that were
personnel conducting or checking tests to ensure involved in producing that article.
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that test procedures are adequately performed,
and that the test objective is accomplished.
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Procedures found incorrect or inadequate must
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be brought to the attention of responsible

supervision for correction.
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CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
200 GENERAL
201 THEORY OF MAGNEl1SM

1. General
2. Magnetic Poles.
3. Magnetic Field
4. Lines of Force
5. Longitudinal Magnetization
6. Horseshoe Magnet
7. Vector Field
8. Consequent Poles
9. Distorted Field.
10. Leakage Field
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202 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
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203 ELECTRICALLY INDUCED MAGNEl1C FIELDS
1. General
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2. Right-Hand Rule.
3. Coil
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4. Magnetic Flux.
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5. Flux Density.
6. Permeability
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7. Reluctance
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8. Residual Magnetism
9. Retentivity
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10. Coercive Force

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204 HYSTERESIS LOOP

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1. General
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2. Virgin Curve
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4. Coercive Force
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5. Reverse Polarity
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6. Curve Characteristics
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205 CIRCULAR AND LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

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1. General
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2. Circular Magnetization
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206 FIELD DISTRIBUTION IN MAGNEl1C AND NONMAGNEl1C CONDUCTORS

1. General
2. Solid Nonmagnetic Conductor
3. Solid Magnetic Conductor
4. Hollow Nonmagnetic Conductor
5. Hollow Magnetic Conductor
6. Alternating Current Field Distribution
7. Direct Current Residual Fields
8. Alternating Current Residual Fields
207 MAGNETIZING CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

1. General
2. Alternating Current
3. Half-Wave Rectified Current
4. Penetration Characteristics
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208 CURRENT REQUIREMENTS

1. General
4. Prod Magnetization
209 THEORY OF DEMAGNETIZATION

1. General
2. Alternating Current Demagnetization
3. Direct Current Demagnetization
4. Efficiency of Demagnetization
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Orientation of Molecules
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2-2 Attraction and Repulsion
2-3 Magnetic Field Surrounding Bar Magnet
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2-4 Poles in Straight Bar, Horseshoe, and Broken Magnet
2-5 Vector Field Diagram
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2-6 Consequent Poles KU
2-7 Cut-and-Fused Bar Magnet illustrating Opposite Polarity
2-8 Leakage Fields Around Discontinuities
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2-9 Right-Hand Rule
2-10 Longitudinal Field Inside Coil
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2-11 The Hysteresis Curve
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2-12 Hysteresis Loop Characteristics

2-13 Circular Magnetization by Direct and Indirect Current Induction
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2-14 Longitudinal Magnetization

2-15 Field Distribution In and Around a Nonmagnetic Conductor
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2-16 Field Distribution In and Around a Solid Magnetic Conductor

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2-17 Field Distribution In and Around a Hollow Nonmagnetic Conductor

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2-18 Field Distribution In and Around a Hollow Magnetic Conductor

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2-19 Field Distribution In and Around a Hollow Magnetic Cylinder with Central Conductor
2-20 Field Distribution In and Around Solid Magnetic Conductor Carrying Alternating Current
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2-21 Field Distribution In and Around a Hollow Magnetic Conductor Carrying Alternating Current
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2-22 Single Phase Alternating Current Wave-Form

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2-23 Rectification of Alternating Current to Half-Wave Direct Current

2-24 Threshold Sensitivities of Various Methods
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2-25 Circular Magnetization of Typical Articles Using Head-Shot or Central Conductor

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2-26 Demagnetization Flux-Curve Projected from Hysteresis Curve

2-27 Demagnetization Coil
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 Magnetic Characteristics of Materials
2-2 Magnetizing Current for Circular Magnetization of Solid and Tubular Articles
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200 GENERAL
Magnetic particle testing is a relatively simple test
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method that can be applied to finished articles, Repels
billets, hot rolled bars, castings, and forgings. It
can also be used to check that the processing
operations such as heat treat, machining, and N S Unlike Poles N S
grinding did not uncover or cause discontinuities. Attracts
Magnetic particle testing consists of
Figure 2-2. Attraction and Repulsion
magnetization of the article, application of the
particles, and interpretation of the patterns formed
by the particles as they are attracted by magnetic
3. Magnetic Field
leakage fields.
A magnetic field exists within and around a
201 THEOR Y OF MAGNETISM permanent magnet or within and around a
conductor carrying an electric current. The
1. General
magnetic field surrounding a permanent bar
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An object is magnetized when part or all of its magnet has polarity, but the magnetic field
molecules have their north and south poles surrounding a conductor does not. As an
oriented. (See Figure 2-1.) example, the earth itself can be thought of as a
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bar magnet because of its two poles. Quite
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frequently the magnetic field surrounding the
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objects that lie aligned with the earth's poles for
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periods of time.
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RANDOM ORIENTATION OF MOLECULES IN AN 4. Lines of Force

UNMAGNETIZED SPECIMEN
The concept of lines of force is useful for
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describing a magnetic field. As illustrated in

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Figure 2-3, a bar magnet is covered with a sheet

of paper and iron filings are scattered over the
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paper. The iron filings arrange themselves in

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characteristic patterns called lines of force. These

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lines of force, called magnetic flux, never cross;

they seek the path of least magnetic resistance;
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MAGNETICALLY ALIGNED MOLECULES IN A they are most densely packed at the poles of the
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MAGNETIZED SPECIMEN magnet; they flow from north to south poles

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outside the magnet, but from south to north poles

Figure 2-1. Orientation of Molecules within the magnet; and they do not enter or leave
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at the center of the magnetic field.

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2. Magnetic Poles
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A material that has its north and south poles

oriented is called a magnet and will attract iron. 5. Longitudinal Magnetization
Magnets may be permanent-retaining their A permanent bar magnet is the best known
magnetism more or less permanently; or example of longitudinal magnetization. Since the
temporary-retaining their magnetism only as long direction of the magnetic flux in the bar is parallel
as a magnetizing force is being applied. The to the long axis of the bar, it has two poles.
ability of the magnet to attract or repel iron is not Longitudinal magnetization is said to exist in an
uniform over its surface, but is concentrated at object when the flux lines traverse in a direction
local areas called poles. Each magnet has at essentially parallel to one of its axes and may be
least two opposite poles that are attracted by the identified by the existence of the magnetic poles
earth's magnetic poles; hence, the poles are at each end of the selected axis.
respectively called the north and south poles. The
attraction and repulsion of poles are illustrated in
Figure 2-2.
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Figure 2-3. Magnetic Field Surrounding Bar Magnet
6. Horseshoe Magnet
If a bar magnet is bent, it becomes a horseshoe magnet. When the magnet is bent further to make a
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complete loop and the ends fused together, the poles disappear; i.e., a closed magnetic circuit is formed.
The circular field is the closest approach to a leakage-free magnetic field. If the circle is cut, either partially
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or all the way through, poles reappear as shown in Figure 2-4.
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Magnetic Poles will lift or Magnetic field is Magnetic Poles of leakage

Draw a Nail to the magnet entirely within. Thus field will attract
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No external Poles Magnetic Particles

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Figure 2-4. Poles in Straight Bar, Horseshoe, and Broken Magnet

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7. Vector Field 8. Consequent Poles

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Consequent poles exist when more than two

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Two magnetizing forces may be imposed

poles are present simultaneously in a magnetized
simultaneously upon a magnetizable article.
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article. There may be an unequal number of

When this occurs, the two imposed fields do not
poles; i.e., three north and two south, or three
exist independently; a vector field is formed that is
south and one north, but there must always be at
the resultant in direction and strength of the two
least one north and one south. Figure 2-6
imposed fields. The article becomes magnetized
illustrates a series of two north poles and two
in the direction of the vector. This phenomenon is
south poles along the length of an article. Herein
illustrated in Figure 2-5, where F1 is the first
lies the principle of magnetic particle testing,
magnetizing force, F2 the second magnetizing
since, under test, particle buildup will occur at
force. F 1/2 is the magnetizing force that results
each of the poles.
from the vector addition of F1 and F2.
Figure 2-5. Vector Field Diagram Figure 2-6. Consequent Poles
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9. Distorted Field 202 MAGNETIC MATERIALS

While it is normal to conceive of magnetic fields Some materials are attracted by a magnet, while
as being either circular or longitudinal, in many others are repelled. From the definition of
cases the actual field is a combination of the two. magnetism it follows that magnetic materials are
This is known as a distorted field. Distorted fields those that are attracted by magnetism. These
may be produced intentionally, or they may be materials are known as paramagnetic materials,
unavoidable. When produced intentionally, whereas materials that are repelled by a magnetic
distorted fields .are of great value in field are known as diamagnetic materials. In the
accomplishing the desired result, which is to realm of magnetic particle testing, a subdivision of
produce a magnetic field at an angle paramagnetic, called ferromagnetic, is a main
perpendicular to the direction of a possible concern as only ferromagnetic materials can be
discontinuity. Distorted fields are often helpful, strongly magnetized. The characteristics of
and in some instances essential, to the success diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are
of certain magnetic particle test procedures. shown in Table 2-1.
10. Leakage Field

The magnetic field around a bar magnet is shown Table 2-1. Magnetic Characteristics of Materials
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in Figure 2-3. If a bar magnet is broken in two, Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Materials
each piece immediately becomes a bar magnet Materials
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with a north and a south pole. If the two bars are
again fused together, with opposite magnetic Cannot Be Can Be Magnetized
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Magnetized
poles adjacent, a small, concentrated leakage
field will remain in the fusion area. (See Figure 2-
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7.) Similarly, if the bar is cut only partially through, Are Repelled Fields
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By Magnetism
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two opposite poles will appear and a leakage field
will exist in the area of the cut. From Figure 2-8 it
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can be seen that leakage fields are actually of Paramagnetic) Materials
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magnetic lines of force that leave the bar and Can Be Strongly
pass through the air from one pole to another of Magnetized Are Strongly
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opposite polarity. Since the new poles were Attracted to Magnetic

created by the interruption of the normal paths of
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Fields
the lines of force within the magnet, it follows that
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nonmetallic inclusions in a magnetized article, or Can Be Magnetic Particle

Tested
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changes in the material of the article, will also

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cause the creation of two opposite poles and a

resultant leakage field. Magnetic particle testing is
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a process used to detect the presence of leakage 203 ELECTRICALLY INDUCED MAGNETIC
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fields and thereby the presence of discontinuities FIELDS

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(either voids such as cracks, tears, lack of fusion, 1. General

and porosity or inclusions).
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When an electric current passes through a

conductor, a magnetic field is formed in and
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around the conductor. If the conductor has a

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uniform shape (a copper rod), the density of the

external field, i.e., number of lines of force per unit
area, is uniform at any point along the length of
the conductor. At any point on the conductor the
magnetic field is strongest at the surface of the
conductor and uniformly decreases as the
Leakage field in Area of distance from the conductor increases. Direction
Fusion
of the magnetic field (lines of force), is t a 90
Figure 2-7. Cut-and-Fused Bar Magnet illustrating angle to that of the current in the conductor.
Opposite Polarity
Note:
For the purpose of simplicity throughout this
hand-book, magnetizing force is considered to be
the total electrical force required to set up a flux in
a magnetic circuit. It is usually designated by the
letter (H).
Figure 2-8. Leakage Fields
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2. Right-Hand Rule 5. Flux Density

An easy method for determining the direction of This is the flux-per-unit area through an element
an electrically induced magnetic field is to imagine which cuts the unit area at right angles to the
grasping the conductor in the right hand with the direction of the flux. Flux density is usually
thumb pointing in the direction of current flow. The designated by the letter B, and its unit is the
fingers will then point in the direction of the lines gauss.
of force. This is the right-hand rule and is shown
in Figure 2-9. Note that the current flow in the 6. Permeability
conductor creates circular lines of force (a circular The ease with which a magnetic flux is
magnetic field). The field thus induced is at right established in a given material is referred to as
angles to the conductor as shown. Not shown is permeability. Permeability is numerically equal to
the fact that the field actually surrounds the entire B/H, or the ratio of flux density to magnetizing
length of the conductor. force.
7. Reluctance
Reluctance is the opposition of a magnetic
material to the establishment of magnetic flux.
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Thus, a material which has high permeability has
low reluctance, and vice versa. The reluctance of
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the material determines the magnitude of the flux
Direction of the produced by a given magnetic force. Reluctance
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magnetic field (Lines
of force)
is analogous to the resistance in an electric
circuit.
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Figure 2-9. Right-Hand Rule
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Residual magnetism is the amount of magnetism
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3. Coil
that a magnetic material retains after the
When a current-carrying conductor is formed into
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magnetizing force is removed.

a loop, the lines of force circling the conductor
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form a magnetic field inside and outside the loop,

9. Retentivity
as illustrated in Figure 2-10. Inside the loop the
The retentivity of a particular magnetic material is
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field is similar to that of a bar magnet and is said

its property to retain, to a greater or lesser
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to be a longitudinal magnetic field. When a coil

degree, a certain amount of residual magnetism.
consists of several loops the magnetic field within
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the coil is strengthened in proportion to the

10. Coercive Force
number of loops. The field is also strengthened if
Coercive force is defined as the reverse
the amount of current is increased.
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magnetizing force necessary to remove the

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residual magnetism so as to demagnetize an

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article.
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204 HYSTERFBIS LOOP

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1. General
The hysteresis loop (curve) is illustrated in Figure
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2-11. This curve is a plot of flux density (B) vs.

magnetizing force (H). The test specimen used to
plot this curve is a piece of unmagnetized
ferromagnetic steel.
Figure 2-10. Longitudinal Field Inside Coil
2. Virgin Curve
4. Magnetic Flux Starting from zero (0) with the specimen in the
The lines of force in a magnetic circuit always unmagnetized condition and increasing the
form closed loops or paths; hence, a magnetic magnetic force in small increments, the total flux
circuit is always closed. The magnetic lines in the specimen increases quite rapidly at first,
existing in a magnetic circuit are called magnetic then more slowly until it reaches
flux. Its unit is a single line force called the
Maxwell, usually designated by the Greek letter
phi ().
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to diminish. The flux does not become zero until

point c is reached, at which time the reverse
magnetizing force is represented by c-o. The line
c-o graphically designates the coercive force in
the material; i.e., the magnetizing force required
to remove the residual magnetism.
5. Reversed Polarity
As the reversed magnetizing force is increased
beyond c to point d, the specimen is again
saturated. If the magnetizing force is now
decreased to zero, the d-e line is formed
Figure 2-11. The Hysteresis Curve indicating the reverse polarity residual magnetism
a point beyond which any increase in the in the specimen. Again increasing the
Q1agnetizing force does not increase the flux magnetizing force in the original direction
density. This initial magnetization is shown by the completes the curve e-f-a. Now the cycle is
dotted line o-a, and is referred to as the "virgin complete, and the loop (abcdefa) is called the
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curve" of the steel. The specimen is magnetically hysteresis curve.
saturated when it reaches the point where an
increase in magnetizing force does not increase
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6. Curve Characteristics
the flux density. The definite lag between the magnetization force
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3. Residual Magnetism KU and the flux throughout the cycle is called
hysteresis. Two hysteresis loops are shown in
If the magnetizing force is then gradually reduced Figure 2-12. The wide hysteresis loop indicates
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to zero, the curve a-b results. The amount of
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that the material has high reluctance and is
magnetism which the steel retains at point b, is
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called residual magnetism. The amount of material contains a considerable residual field,
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residual magnetism is indicated by the length of has high retentivity, and will make a good
o-b. permanent magnet. The slender loop means the
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material has low retentivity (low residual field) and

4. Coercive Force is easy to magnetize (low reluctance).
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If the magnetizing current is then reversed and

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gradually increased in value, the flux will continue

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LOOP SHOWS: LOOP SHOWS:

LOW PERMEABILITY HIGH PERMEABILITY
HIGH RETENTIVITY LOW RETENTIVITY
HIGH COERCIVE FORCE LOW COERCIVE FORCE
HIGH RELUCTANCE LOW RELUCTANCE
HIGH RESIDUAL MAGNETISM LOW RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
Figure 2-12. Hysteresis Loop Characteristics
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205 CIRCULAR AND LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

1. General
Either circular or longitudinal magnetization is used with magnetic particle testing. Methods of inducing these
types of magnetization in an article are discussed in the following paragraphs.
A circular magnetic field is induced into an article either by passing current directly through the article (direct
magnetization) or by passing current through a conductor surrounded by the article (indirect magnetization)
or by the use of prods. In direct magnetization the magnetic field will be uniform throughout the length of the
article if the article is uniform in all respects.
a. Direct Induction. Direct induction of a circular field is accomplished by passing a current through the
article as shown in view A of Figure 2-13. The method illustrated is called a "head shot."
b. Direct Induction Using Prods. Another direct method of inducing a circular field is by the use of prods.
Prod magnetization is used where the size or location of the article does not permit the use of a head shot or
central conductor. Current flow and field distribution are shown in view B of Figure 2-13. The field between
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the prods is distorted somewhat by the interaction of the two fields produced. Prod magnetization is most
effective when the prods are spaced 6 to 8 inches apart.
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c. Indirect Induction. In the indirect method of inducing a circular field, the article to be magnetized is placed
so that a current carrying conductor induces a magnetic field into the article. This method is known as the
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"central conductor technique" and is illustrated in view C of Figure 2-13. The use of a central conductor also
eliminates the possibility of an article being burned by the flow of excess current if poor contact is made with
the heads.
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Figure 2-13. Circular Magnetization by Direct and Indirect Current Induction
Longitudinal magnetization of an article is accomplished by the use of longitudinal fields set up by a coil or
solenoid.
a. Coil (Solenoid). When the length of an article is several times its diameter, the article may be successfully
magnetized by placing it lengthwise in the field of a coil or solenoid. This is referred to as a "coil shot," and is
shown in view A of Figure 2-14.
Note: In a coil the field strength is approximately proportiona1 to the current (in amperes) times the number
of turns of the coil. Thus, field strength in a coil is usually indicated in units of ampere-turns.
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b. Yoke. A yoke may be used to magnetize an article longitudinally. Essentially, it is a temporary horseshoe
magnet made of soft, low retentivity iron which is magnetized by a small coil wound around its horizontal
bar. When the energized yoke is placed on an article (see view B of Figure 2-14), the flux flowing from the
yoke's north pole through the article to the south pole induces a local longitudinal field in the article.
However, the magnetic field produced by the yoke does not lie entirely within the article. An external field is
present that is a deterrent to locating subsurface discontinuities. If magnetic particles are applied sparingly
at the area between the poles, indications of surface discontinuities are easily seen.
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Figure 2-14. Longitudinal Magnetization
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206 FIELD DISTRIBUTION IN MAGNETIC AND

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NONMAGNETIC CONDUCTORS 3. Solid Magnetic Conductor
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The strength of a field within a solid magnetic

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1. General conductor, such as ferromagnetic steel, is much

Either a solid or hollow central conductor is used greater than in a solid nonmagnetic conductor
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in magnetic particle testing of hollow articles such because of the permeability of steel. The field
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as pipe, tubing, rings, flanges, nuts, etc. The strength outside a solid magnetic conductor is
magnetic field strength within and around a exactly the same as with a nonmagnetic
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current-carrying conductor varies with the type, conductor if the current and radius are
size, and shape of the conductor, i.e., length, unchanged. (See Figure 2-16.)
diameter, and material.
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2. Solid Nonmagnetic Conductor

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When current is passed directly through a solid,

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nonmagnetic conductor, such as a copper bar,

the following observations hold true:
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a. The magnetic field strength varies from zero at

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the center to a maximum at the surface.

b. The field strength at the surface of the
conductor decreases as the radius of the
conductor increases; for example, if the current is
held constant and the radius of the conductor is
doubled, the field strength at the surface is
halved. However, the larger conductor is capable
Figure 2-15. Field Distribution In and Around a
of carrying more current.
Nonmagnetic Conductor
c. When current is increased, the field strength
increases in proportion, i.e., doubling the current
doubles the field strength.
d. The field strength outside the conductor
diminishes with the distance from the center of
the central conductor. For example, the field at
two times the radius from the center is half the
field at the surface. (See Figure 2-15.)
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concentrate in the cylinder rather than in the

surrounding air.
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Solid Magnetic Conductor
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Hollow Magnetic Conductor
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4. Hollow Nonmagnetic Conductor
In a hollow, nonmagnetic, circular conductor there
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is no current flow within the void. The field, zero at
the center of the void, increases to maximum at
the outer surface. If a hollow nonmagnetic and a
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solid nonmagnetic conductor have the same outer
diameter and the same current flow, their outer
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surface field strengths are equal. Figure 2-17
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illustrates the field distribution in and around a

hollow nonmagnetic conductor.
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Hollow Magnetic Cylinder With Central Conductor
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Figure 2-17. Field Distribution In and Around a 6. Alternating Current Field Distribution
Hollow Nonmagnetic Conductor In the foregoing discussion the use of direct
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current (dc) magnetization has been assumed;

5. Hollow Magnetic Conductor however, most of the rules concerning field
When a hollow magnetic conductor is used, the distribution do not hold true when alternating
permeability factor is again considered. Referring current (ac) magnetization is used. Alternating
to Figure 2-18, the field strength at the outer current tends to flow near the surface of a
surface of a hollow magnetic conductor is the conductor. Even at commercial frequencies (60
same as that for the solid magnetic conductor -if Hz) this tendency is appreciable. This phenomena
their outer diameter and current flow are identical. is known as "skin effect."
The field strength at the inner surface is slight and a. Solid Magnetic Conductor. In the case of a
the field outside the conductor is the same as for solid magnetic conductor carrying alternating
other conductors. Figure 2-19 shows- the current, the field distribution is similar to that
distribution of the magnetic field that occurs when shown in Figure 2-20. The field strength outside
a hollow magnetic cylinder is placed around a the conductor at any instant decreases in exactly
solid nonmagnetic central conductor. Since the the same way as when direct current is used as
cylinder has high permeability, the field tends to the magnetizing force. It must be remembered
however, that while alternating current is flowing,
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the field is constantly varying both in strength and specimen. These transient currents may slightly
direction. modify the strength and direction of the residual
field.
8. Alternating Current Residual Fields

When alternating current used for magnetization
is gradually reduced to zero no residual field
remains in the magnetized article. The article will
be completely demagf1etized. When the ac is
suddenly interrupted, a residual field may remain
depending upon the point in the current cycle
where the interruption occurs. Distribution of any
residual circular field remaining after the
interruption of the magnetizing ac will be
approximately the same as that shown in Figures
2-20 and 2-21.
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207 Magnetizing Current Characteristics
1. General
Figure 2-20. Field Distribution In and Around Solid
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Direct current, alternating current, and half-wave
Magnetic Conductor Carrying Alternating Current rectified current (HWDC) are used as magnetizing
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b. Hollow Magnetic Conductor. Similar differences KU currents in magnetic particle testing. Only one
type is required for a test. It is generally accepted
in field distribution also occur with a hollow that the best types of magnetizing current for
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magnetic conductor, when alternating current is
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magnetic particle testing are alternating and half-
used for magnetization. This is shown in Figure 2- wave rectified currents. Alternating current is best
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21. suited for locating surface discontinuities
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(because of skin effect). HWDC is best suited for

locating below-the-surface discontinuities.
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2. Alternating Current
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Alternating current is most often available from

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utility services at voltages ranging from 110 volts

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through 440 volts. Commonly used single-phase

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alternating current usually alternates direction of

current flow at 60 Hz. This type of current creates
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a maximum flux at the surface of the magnetized

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article, and has relatively little penetrating ability.

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a. The advantage of using ac is that the voltage

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can be stepped up or down. Also, the reversal of

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magnetic fields due to the alternating current,

makes the magnetic particles more mobile
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facilitating their collection at leakage fields.
Figure 2-21. Field Distribution In and Around a b. The underlying principle of ac is explained by
Hollow Magnetic Conductor Carrying Alternating referring to Figure 2-22. In Figure 2-22, "a" is the
Current zero point at the
beginning of the current cycle; "b," the maximum
7. Direct Current Residual Fields value of the current in one direction at the peak of
Internal residual circular fields remaining in the cycle; "c," the mid-point of the cycle at which
magnetic conductors after dc magnetizing current the direction of the current is reversed; and "d,"
is removed will be distributed in much the same the peak value of the current in the reverse
pattern as when the current was flowing. When direction; with "e," completing the cycle.
the dc is reduced to zero, the external field will be
reduced to zero. When longitudinal magnetization 3. Half-Wave Rectified Current
is used, interruption of the magnetizing dc results Low-voltage heavy-current rectifiers to supply
in transient currents being induced inside the rectified current for magnetic particle testing
purposes were developed some years ago. The
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basic half-wave rectifier circuit consists of a

rectifier connected in series between the ac
voltage source and the load resistance. The
rectifier permits current to flow only during the
positive half cycles of the applied ac voltage; the
current thus becomes a pulsating dc as illustrated
in Figure 2-23. The use of rectified current has the
following advantages:
RELATIVE DEPTH DF DISCONTINUITY

Figure 2-24. Threshold Sensitivities of Various
Test Methods
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Figure 2-22. Single Phase Alternating Current 208 CURRENT REQUIREMENTS
Wave-Form 1. General
The required amount of magnetizing current is
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affected by the permeability of the material, the
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shape and thickness of the test specimen, and
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is not uniform in section, it is necessary to use
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one value of current for the thinner sections and a
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heavier sections. In circular magnetization the
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Figure 2-23. Rectification of Alternating Current to length of the test specimen does not affect the
Half-Wave Direct Current current requirement. The electrical resistance will,
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however, increase with length and so will require

more electrical energy to develop the required
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a. Alternating current at any commercial

frequency may be used (if three-phase, the load amperage. In longitudinal magnetization,
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may be distributed over the three phases). specimen length is a factor to be considered. It is
always proper to use the smaller current value
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b. Penetration is comparable to that of straight dc.

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c. The pulsating effect of the rectified wave is first to test the thinner section and then proceed
helpful in adding mobility to the magnetic with successively higher currents to test the
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particles. increasingly larger sections. This avoids over

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d. There is a definite advantage in locating deep- magnetization of the thinner sections to the point
where the residual field is higher than the field
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lying discontinuities.
e. It can be combined in the same equipment with required for that section. Whenever a higher field
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ac. has been imposed than is required for a

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subsequent test, it is necessary to demagnetize

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4. Penetration Characteristics the specimen before applying the lower

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As has been previously stated -the ac method is amperage.

more sensitive than dc, or HWDC, in showing
surface discontinuities. Figure 2-24 compares the 2. Circular Magnetization
abilities of various methods to detect subsurface The authority on the amount of current to use in
discontinuities. The graph plots amperage against circularly magnetizing a test specimen is the
depth of discontinuity. This experiment was TEST SPECIFICATION for the test being
performed using the test specimen shown at the performed. In the paragraphs that follow, current
lower right in Figure 2-24. The lowest amperage values have been arbitrarily selected that reflect
that gave a minimum threshold indication at the specifications in use today. Always refer to the
various discontinuity depths was recorded. applicable test specification for actual values.
Only enough current to show the indication is

used. The best gauge of magnetizing current
strength is a test specimen with a typical
indication. The test specimen is kept and used as
a reference and the current required to reproduce
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the indication is checked from time to time. The Table 2-2. Magnetizing Current for Circular
recommended values for circular magnetization Magnetization of Solid and Tubular Articles
vary because of the different factors involved. An
acceptable rule is to use from 700 -1200 amperes Tubular* and Solid Articles
per inch (280 to 480 amperes per centimeter) Greatest Width or Magnetizing
diameter or greatest diagonal width of cross Diameter Current Current
section. The amperages shown in Table 2-2, In Inches In (Approx)
therefore, are only suggested averages for centimeters In Amperes
various diameters and widths, and may be 0.4 1.0 280 -480
incorrect for certain alloys and shapes. 0.5 1.3 350 -600
0.75 1.9 525 -900
a. Figure 2-25 shows test specimens of several 0.8 2.0 560 -960
sizes and shapes. 1.0 2.5 700 -1200
(1) View A of Figure 2-25 shows a multiple 1.2 3.0 840 -1440
diameter, solid specimen, the smaller diameter 1.5 3.8 1050 -1800
being 2 inches, and the 1.6 4.0 1120 -1920
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2.0 5.0 1400 -2400
larger 3 inches. Following Table 2-2, and recalling 2.4 6.0 1680 -2880
the foregoing discussion, the thinner section is 2.5 6.3 1750 -3000
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magnetic particle tested first, requiring 1400 to 2.8 7.0 1960 -3360
2400 amperes. The second "shot", for the 3-inch 3.0 7.6 2100-3600
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diameter section, requires 2100 to 3600 amperes. KU 3.2
3.5
8.0
8.9
2240 -3840
2450 -4200
(2) Views Band C of Figure 2-25 illustrate a
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tubular section first to be tested by a head shot 3.6 9.0 2520 -4320
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and then by use of a central conductor. It can be 4.0 10.0 2800 -4800
*With or Without Central Conductor;
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seen from Table 2-2, that in either case, the
Measurement Must be Made on the
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current required is the same, i.e., 2800 to 4800

amperes. I Outside Diameter of the Article.
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(A) MULTIPLE DIAMETER SOLID ARTICLE. 1/4 IN. WALL (C) CYLINDRICAL ARTICLE
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USING
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SOLID CENTRAL CONDUCTOR

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(B) CYLINDRICAL ARTICLE (D) MULTIPLE ARTICLES USING

CI RCULAR CENTRAL CONDUCTOR.
Figure 2-25. Circular Magnetization of Typical Specimens Using Head-Shot or Central Conductor
(3) View D of Figure 2-25 illustrates a number of smaller articles (nuts) requiring testing on a central
conductor.
The maximum outer diameter is 4 centimeters. Table 2-2 shows that 1120 to 1920 amperes will be required.
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3. Longitudinal Magnetization 45000 D 45000 x 4

When a coil is used, the strength of the field is = =1500 Amperes
determined by the product of the number of LT 24 x5
amperes and the number of turns in the coil. For
example, a current of 800 amperes through a five- Note: The formula may be used for any number of
turn coil creates a magnetizing force of 4,000 coil turns. Theoretically, the more turns of cable,
ampere turns; it is necessary to know how many the stronger the field though there is a limit to the
turns there are in a coil to calculate the number of turns (5 when using ac) that will
magnetizing force. On most stationary equipment, increase the flux density. Also, an excessive
this information is usually shown on the coil; if not, number of turns will have a heating effect. Since
it may be obtained from the equipment the effective field is limited by the size of the coil
manufacturer. Another type of coil used is the several shots may be required when testing a
wrapped cable. This is frequently used when an long article.
article is either odd-shaped or too big to handle in
the equipment. 4. Prod Magnetization
The correct flux density is somewhat easier to
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a. L/D Ratio. For reliable coil magnetization determine when using prods because it is
(longitudinal), the article to be magnetized must possible to vary either the current setting on the
equipment or the spacing between the prods. If
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be at least twice as long as its diameter, or width.
This relationship is known as the length-diameter the accumulation of particles between the points
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of the prods is too heavy, the particles tend to
(L/D) ratio. The L/D ratio and the number of turns
in a coil determines the required amperage for
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coil shots, providing the following conditions are strength is too great and should be reduced by
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met.
(1) The article has an LID ratio of between 2 and space between the prods. Spacing between the
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15. prods varies, depending on the size and thickness
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(2) The article or section thereof, to be of the article to be tested; 6- to 8-inch (15 to 20
magnetized is not greater than 18 inches (26 cm) cm) spacing is found to be moot effective on
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long. larger articles.

(3) The cross-sectional area of the article is not
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greater than 1/10 the area of the coil opening. 209 THEORY OF DEMAGNETIZATION
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(4) The article is held against the inside wall of the 1. General
Ferrous materials usually retain some residual
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coil and not positioned in the center of the coil.

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magnetism after the magnetizing current is shut

b. Finding Correct Amperage. If the foregoing off. The strength of the residual field depends
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conditions are met, then the formula for upon the permeability of the material, and the
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determining a correct amperage is: strength and direction of the magnetizing force.
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Complete demagnetization is difficult, if not

45,000 1 45000 D impossible, to obtain; thus, the demagnetization
AMP= x or
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L/ D T LT process is limited to reducing the residual field to

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an acceptable level. The basis for all

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where:
45,000 = constant demagnetization methods is the subjecting of the
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L = length magnetized article to the influence of a

D = diameter continuously reversing magnetic field that
T = number of turns in coil gradually reduces in strength causing a
corresponding reversal and reduction of the field
c. Use of L/D Ratio. Assuming a solid article, 12 in the article. Although some residual
inches long (L) by 3 inches in diameter (D), and a magnetization will remain, the method quickly
coil consisting of 5 turns (T) was available, then reduces the field to insignificant proportions.
the required amperage is determined as follows: Figure 2-26 shows graphically how the method
works. On the right the graph represents the
45000 D 45000 x3
= =2250 Amperes reversing and reducing magnetic field in the
LT 12 x5 article. On the left are the hysteresis curves
Or, assuming another article where the length (L) corresponding to this action.
is 24 centimeters and the diameter (D) is 4
centimeters, and we use the same 5-turn coil, 2. Alternating Current Demagnetization
then: The most convenient method of demagnetization
uses a specially built demagnetization coil. (See
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Figure 2-27.) When such a coil is energized by effective than alternating current demagnetization.
passing the current through its windings, it Some magnetic particle testing equipment is
induces a magnetic field in the article placed in provided with facilities for dc demagnetization.
the coil. Since current direction reverses itself, the Without such equipment, dc demagnetization is a
polarity of the induced magnetic field also slow operation. Demagnetization is preferably
reverses with each reversal of the current. As the done on individual articles rather than on groups
article is withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic of articles.
field becomes weaker the further the article is
withdrawn from the coil. Demagnetization is a. To demagnetize with direct current, the article
accomplished only if the article is removed from is placed in a coil connected to a source of direct
the influence of the demagnetizing coil while the current. The current is adjusted to a value at least
current is flowing; if the current is stopped while as great (but usually greater) than that initially
the article is still in the influence of the magnetic used to magnetize the article. A magnetizing shot
field the article may still retain some magnetism. is given at this initial value. The direction of the
current is then reversed, the current value
reduced, and a magnetizing shot is given at the
new value. This process of reversing and
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reducing the current is continued until the lowest
value is reached.
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b. For best results in demagnetization, the
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enough to accommodate the article. If
demagnetization of a small article is performed in
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a large coil, the article is placed close to the
inside wall or corner of the coil, since the
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demagnetization force is strongest in that area.
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Figure 2-26. Demagnetization Flux-Curve 4.Efficiency of Demagnetization

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Projected from Hysteresis Curve For practical purposes, it is always correct to

utilize a field indicator after performing
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demagnetization to determine that residual field

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strength has been reduced to a desired level. The

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field indicator is a small, pocket-sized device that

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measures the strength of a field against a set of

small enclosed permanent magnets which
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restricts the needle movement on a relative scale.

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Whether to demagnetize an article or not depends

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on a number of factors.
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a. Demagnetization is usually required if:

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(1) A strong residual field might interfere with

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subsequent operations, such as welding or

machining. Strong fields can "flow" the weld metal
as it is deposited; or magnetic chips may cling to
Figure 2-27. Demagnetization Coil the cutting tool and interfere with machining.
(2) The article is a moving part of an assembly
3. Direct Current Demagnetization
and a deposit of accumulated magnetized
Since the magnetic field produced by alternating
particles might cause wear.
current does not penetrate very deeply below the
surface of the material, some articles may be (3) Leakage fields might interfere with nearby
difficult to demagnetize completely. This is instruments that work on magnetic principles; for
particularly true with large, heavy, or unusually example, compasses
shaped articles. Direct current can be used to
or indicators of various types.
demagnetize if provisions for controlling the
amount of current and for reversing the direction (4) Residual fields might interfere with proper
of the current are made. Direct current cleaning of the article.
demagnetization is usually more complete and
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(5) The article is to be magnetized at a lower (3) On large castings, weldments, or vessels
magnetizing force in a different direction than the where residual fields will have no material effect.
original or previous test.
(4) If the article is to be magnetized again in
(6) Specified by procedural standards. another direction at the same or higher
amperage.
b. Demagnetization is usually not required or
(5) If the article is likely to become remagnetized
necessary:
during handling by being placed on a magnetic
(1) On articles of soft steel or iron where chuck, or lifted with an electromagnetic lifting
retentivity is low. fixture.
(2) If, after the magnetic particle test, the article is
to be heat-treated.
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CHAPTER 3: MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST EQUIPMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
300 GENERAL
301 MEDIUM
1. General
2. Equipment Consideration.
302 WET HORIZONTAL EQUIPMENT
303 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
1. Current and Voltage Selection
2. Methods Used with Mobile Equipment
3. Operation of Mobile Equipment
304 PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
305 DEMAGNETIZATION EQUIPMENT.
306 ACCESSORIES
307 WHITE (VISIBLE) LIGHT.
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308 BLACK LIGHT.
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LIST OF FIGURES
3-1 Wet Horizontal Magnetic Particle Test Equipment
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3-2 Mobile Magnetic Particle Test Equipment.
3-3 Portable Magnetic Particle Test Equipment
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3-4 Stationary Demagnetization Equipment
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LIST OF TABLES
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3-1 Item List for Figure 3-1
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3-2 Accessories and Their Use

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300 GENERAL a. Wet or dry method.

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The equipment used to process articles for b. Magnetization method (ac, dc, or both).
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magnetic particle testing ranges from heavy, c. Degree of automation.

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complex, and automated handling systems d. Incorporated or separate demagnetization

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weighing several tons to small, lightweight, capability.

portable units. e. Amperage required.
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f. Tank capacity for wet horizontal equipment.

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301 MEDIUM g. Air supply requirements.

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1. General h. Line voltage requirements.

Medium, in magnetic particle testing, refers to i. Accessories required.
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particles that have the ability to be strongly

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attracted to leakage fields. The particles may be 302. WET HORIZONTAL EQUIPMENT
in the form of a dry powder or they may be Wet magnetic particle equipment is available or
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suspended in a liquid carrier. can be built to handle articles of almost any

length. The type of equipment illustrated in
2. Equipment Consideration Figure 3-1 enables magnetization of articles
The following are requirements to be considered ranging from a few inches (centimeters to
when selecting equipment magnetic particle approximately ten feet (3 meters) in length.
testing: During tests, the article is clamped between the
head and tail stocks for circular magnetization.
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1 DC PI LOT LI GHT 16 CURRENT REGULATING SWITCH

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2 AC PILOT LIGHT 17 TAILSTOCK LOCKING HANDLE

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3 COIL 18 DC TRANSFER SWITCH

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4 COIL LOCKING HANDLE 19 DC AC SELECTOR SWITCH

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5 BLACK LIGHT 20 FOOT SWITCH

6 TAILSTOCK CONTACT PLATE 21 CONTROL CABLE RECEPTACLE
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7 TAlLSTOCK CRANK HANDLE 22 110V AC OUTLET

8 NOZZLE 23 CURRENT CONTROL
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9 HOOD 24 LINE PILOT LIGHT

10 CURTAIN 25 PUMP SWITCH
11 FLOW CONTROL VALVE 26 ACTUATOR
12 DEMAG CURRENT PILOT LIGHT 27 HEADSTOCK AND TAILSTOCK LEDGES
13 AC TRANSFER SWITCH 28 HEADSTOCK CONTACT PLATE
14 MAGNETIZING CURRENT CONTROL 29 AC AMMETER
15 30 POINT SWITCH START BUTTON 30 MAGNETIZING CURRENT PILOT LIGHT
31 DC AMMETER
Figure 3-1. Wet Horizontal Magnetic Particle Test Equipment
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Table 3-1. Item List for Figure 3-1
Index Item Function

No.
1 DC Pilot Light Indicates DC Output Current "ON"
2 AC Pilot Light Indicates AC Output Current "ON"
3 Coil Longitudinal Magnetization or Demagnetization
4 Coil Locking Handle Locks Coil Position on Rails
5 Black Light
6 Tailstock Contact Plate Circuit Connection for Circular Magnetization or Demagnetization, or
Contact Block Connector-Adjustable to Accommodate Article Up to
96 Inches (2.44 Meters) Long
7 Tailstock Crank Handle Controls Tailstock Position on Rails
8 Nozzle Inspection Bath Application Control
9 Hood Incloses Inspection Booth
10 Curtain Incloses Inspection Booth
11 Flow Control Valve Controls Flow Quantity
12 Demag Current Pilot Light Indicates Demagnetization Output Current "ON"
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13 AC Transfer Switch Selection of Contacts or Coil Connection of AC Output Current
14 Magnetizing Current Control Applies Timed Magnetizing Current
15 30 Point Switch Start Button Starts Automatic Demagnetization Cycle
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16 Current Regulating Switch Controls Demagnetization by Reducing AC Output in 30 Motor-
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Driven Steps; Controls Manual Selection of AC Current Output for
17 Tailstock Locking Handle

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Magnetization
Locks Tailstock Position on Rails
18 DC Transfer Switch Controls Selection of Contacts or Coil Connection of DC Output
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Current
19 DC/ AC Selector Switch Controls Output Current Selection
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20 Foot switch Operates Solenoid Air Valve to Clamp or to Release
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Air Pressure Actuated Headstock Contact Plate;

Press and Release Required for Each Action
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21 Control Cable Receptacle Connection for External Control Switch

22 110V AC Outlet Convenience Outlet
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23 Current Control Controls Selection of DC Amperage (8 Positions)

24 Line Pilot Light Supply Voltage Indicator
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25 Pump Switch Controls Inspection Bath Pump

26 Actuator Push Bar Application to Control Timed Magnetizing
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Current; Presses on a Magnetizing Current Control

27 Headstock and Tailstock Ledges Support of Materials
28 Headstock Contact Plate Circuit Connection for Circular Magnetization or
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Demagnetization or Contact Block Connector. 3-lnch Stroke to

Clamp Material for Good Electrical Contact
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29 AC Ammeter Indicates Strength of AC Output Current

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30 Magnetizing Current Pilot Light Indicates Magnetizing Current Output "ON"

31 DC Ammeter Indicates Strength of DC Output Current
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For longitudinal magnetization, the coil is moved so that the area to be tested is encircled by the coil. The
magnetizing current cycle is energized by means of either a push-button or a bar. The bar usually extends
across the front of the equipment and can be made inactive by a switch. An air-operated contact, controlled
by a foot pedal, clamps the article securely in place between the heads. The equipment also incorporates
an automatic shot-duration timer, usually factory-set for one-half second. When using an accessory, a
manually controlled shot timer bypasses the automatic timer, and an overload relay protects the equipment
if the designed duty cycle is exceeded. The amperage and duty cycle of the equipment varies between
models and manufacturer's types. Maximum output ratings of such equipment usually range from
approximately 3000 amperes to 6000 amperes. Equipment with considerably lower or I higher range is
available. Some "wet" equipment of this type also incorporates provisions for both ac and HWDC
magnetizing currents and a step switch demagnetizing system. Most equipment has a thermal circuit
breaker which interrupts the operation if an overload occurs and, after sufficient cooling time, restores it
again. Figure 3-1 with Table 3-1 describes the components which make up the wet horizontal equipment.
303. MOBILE EQUIPMENT

Often it is necessary to bring the test equipment to an article located in another area. The type of equipment
used is mobile and sturdy, and is able to provide various types and methods of required tests. The following
paragraphs deal with mobile equipment and its capabilities.
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1. Current and Voltage Selection feet by additional lengths. When extension

A typical mobile piece of magnetic particle cables are used, a decrease in current output
equipment is illustrated in Figure 3-2. This type of occurs that is dependent on the current output of
equipment operates on 220 or 440 volt ac and the equipment. For example, using 25 to 30-foot
provides both ac and half-wave dc variable up to cables with a maximum current setting of 3000
approximately 3000 amperes. Selection of ac or amperes gives approximately 2600 to 2700
half-wave dc is easily changed by switching amperes at the contact point. With 90 to 100-foot
cables on output lugs located on the front of the lengths of cable, the current may drop to 600-700
unit. Cables ranging in length from 15 to 30 feet amperes at the contact point.
may be further extended to as much as 90 to 100
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Figure 3-2. Mobile Magnetic Particle Test Equipment

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2. Methods Used with Mobile Equipment ac output value. An outlet (10) is provided for a
Prods are usually used with mobile equipment; cable to the micro switch on the prod handle, and
however, clamps and magnetic leeches serve another outlet (14) for a 110-volt ac extension
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the same purpose. Yokes or the wrapping of a cable to a multiple outlet terminal box used for
cable into a coil can be used. Also a central emergency lights, electric powder blower,
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conductor may be hooked up between the two sprayer, etc. Current value is selected by turning
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cables if needed. While the dry magnetic particle knob (6) to the desired value. Demagnetization is
powder is most frequently used with this type performed by first selecting a current value
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equipment, the wet method can also be slightly higher than the one used to magnetize;
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employed by the use of an external tank or then pushing button (5) while micro switch on
expendable, one-time materials. prod handle is depressed.
Demagnetization automatically takes
3. Operation of Mobile Equipment place; the switch steps counterclockwise until the
The equipment illustrated in Figure 3-2 can be selector handle reaches the lowest value. An
operated from either 220 or 440 volt ac. The identification plate (2), located at the upper right
power hookup to the terminals is accessible side of the equipment, contains information as to
through a small door on the side of the the type, model, serial number, current input,
equipment (9). An ON/OFF switch on the same phase, output, etc. A carrying rack (1)
side controls application of power to the accommodates storage of accessories; a cable
equipment. Two lights, (8) and (16), located on hook (3) keeps cables neatly coiled when not in
the front panel, indicate (red) input power on, use. The equipment is air-cooled and the blower
(green) output current on; (11), (12) and (13) are starts when the ON/OFF switch next to the
cable lugs, with (11) being the ground terminal. power-in terminal is switched on. Cooling intake
Hookup of cables for ac is accomplished by (15) requires frequent cleaning to avoid dust and
fastening one cable to lug (11), the other to lug grease buildup. It is important that the vent
(13). Dc output is obtained by fastening cables to remains uncovered. The cooling fan is always
lugs (11) and (12). Two ammeters show current operated between tests to avoid overheating of
values, (4) being the dc output value and (7) the the components in the equipment.
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304. PORTABLE EQUIPMENT on model and type. Some models provide only
Figure 3-3 shows a typical portable magnetic ac output, others provide only dc output, and
particle testing unit. Portable equipment is others have the capability of providing both ac
available in a variety of sizes, shapes, and and dc. The main difference between stationary
weights, with a variety of input voltages and equipment and portable equipment, besides the
amperage outputs. Portable equipment makes lower amperage rating, is the omission of the
testing in formerly inaccessible areas possible. step-down transformer used for demagnetization.
Portable equipment operates on the same This does not limit the use of the equipment
principles as stationary equipment; however, the since demagnetization still can be accomplished
compactness and ample amperage output, by other means; for instance, small articles can
makes portable equipment a prime tool for be wrapped in a coil and the current decreased
testing a variety of articles. Portable equipment is manually, or the number of windings can be
usually operated on 110/220 volt ac, and is rated reduced one by one.
between 500 to 1000 amperes output depending
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Figure 3-3. Portable Magnetic Particle Test Equipment

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305. DEMAGNETIZING EQUIPMENT 306. ACCESSORIES

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Most common types of demagnetization The number of accessories available for use in
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equipment consist of an open, tunnel-like coil magnetic particle testing is extensive. Some are
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utilizing ac at the incoming frequency, usually 60 available from the manufacturers of magnetic
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Hz. The larger equipment incorporates a track or particle equipment; others are made up for
carriage to facilitate moving large and heavy specific purposes. The need for accessories
articles (see Figure 3-4) where (2) is the usually depends on the type and method or
demagnetization coil, (1) the track, (3) the application of the test selected. An accessory
carriage, (4) the timer and switch, and (5) an may speed up a procedure but, if its use in any
indicator light. Smaller demagnetization way impairs the quality of the test, the accessory
equipment such as table-top units, yokes, or defeats its purpose. Table 3-2 illustrates some
plug-in cable coils, may be feasible for frequently used accessories and their
demagnetization of small articles; however, the application.
large stationary equipment is preferable when
multidimensional articles are involved.
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Figure 3-4. Stationary Demagnetization Equipment
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307. WHITE (VISIBLE) LIGHT filter. The bulb and filter are contained in a
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When nonfluorescent particles are being used, reflector lamp unit and the transformer is housed
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an illumination level of at least 200 foot candles separately. For correct test results the lamp
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(2152 lux) of visible light is required at the should produce an intensity of 800 W/cm in a
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surface of the test specimen. The illumination 3-inch circle, 15 inches distant from the front
level must be checked periodically to assure that surface of the filter. The deep red-purple filter is
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the proper illumination level is being maintained. designed to pass only those wavelengths of light
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that will activate the fluorescent material. Since

308. BLACK LIGHT dust, dirt, and oil greatly reduce the intensity of
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Black light equipment is standard when the emitted light, the filter and lamp must be
performing fluorescent inspections. In some cleaned frequently. The full intensity of the lamp
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instances, more than one black light may is not attained until the mercury arc is sufficiently
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facilitate the test. A portable black light may be heated. At least 5 minutes warm-up time is
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used with mobile or portable equipment when required to reach the required arc temperature.
fluorescent testing is performed. The black light Once turned on, the lamp is usually left on during
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equipment usually consists of a current the entire test or working period, because
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regulating transformer, a mercury arc bulb, and a switching on and off shortens the life of the bulb.
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Table 3-2. Accessories and Their Use

Cables Used with Mobile or Portable Magnetic Particle Equipment to Carry the Current
to Prod or Solenoid
Centrifuge Used in Measuring Concentration and Strength of the Liquid Testing Medium
Clamps Used Instead of Prods to Facilitate Good Contact with Article or when One-Man
Operation is Required
Contact Blocks Used to Facilitate Cable Connection from Stationary Equipment for External
Use of Prods or Coils
Demagnetizing Unit Used to Demagnetize Ferrous Metals Containing Residual Magnetism
Field Indicator Used in Measuring Residual Magnetism in an Article
leeches Used as Prods or Clamps
Liquid Applicator Used in Applying Fluorescent or Nonfluorescent Test Medium: Can be Either
Mesh Manual, Electric, or Air Operated
Powder Applicator Used Between Contact Points and Article Tested to Avoid Sparking and Burns
Used to Apply Magnetic Particle Powder to the Test Area: Can be a Powder-
Puff, or Powder Blower, Hand Operated, Electric, or Air
Prods Used for Magnetizing of Welds, Sheet, or Plate
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CHAPTER 4: MEDIUMS AND THEIR PREPARATION
T ABLE OF CONTENTS
400 GENERAL
401 TESTING METHODS
1. General
2. Magnetic Properties
3. Geometric Properties
4. Mobility
5. Visibility
6. Methods of Application
7. Particle Requirements
402 WET SUSPENSIONS (BATH)
1. General
2. Agitation
3. Settling Test
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4. Bath Maintenance
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LIST OF FIGURES
4-1. Settling Test Procedure
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LIST OF TABLES
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4-1 Concentration for West Suspensions
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400. GENERAL property which causes particles to retain, to a

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The success of magnetic particle testing is greater or lesser degree, a certain amount of
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dependent upon selection of the proper material residual magnetism. Particles incorporating high
(medium) and method used to conduct the test. permeability and low retentivity are strongly
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The medium comes in either powder or paste attracted to leakage fields, but do not remain
form. In the dry method, the powder is applied in magnetized when removed from the influence of
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its dry form by dusting or blowing over the the magnetic field.
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specimen. When the wet method is used, the

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medium, usually a paste, is first mixed with a 3. Geometric Properties

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liquid (kerosene or light oil) to make a bath, The spherical shaped particle offers a high
which is then flowed or sprayed onto the surface degree of mobility but is not as strongly attracted
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of the specimen. When the medium, whether dry to leakage fields because of its shape. On the
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or liquid, is applied to the test specimen while the other hand, the long slender jagged particle is
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magnetizing current is flowing, the procedure is strongly attracted to leakage fields but has low
known as the continuous method. If the medium mobility. A multi-facet, nugget-shaped particle is
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is applied after the magnetizing current is shut a good compromise in that it reasonably
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off, the procedure is known as the residual combines the optimum qualities of the other two
method. No one medium or method is best for shapes. Particle size is an important
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detection of all conditions or types of consideration. Small particles are required to

discontinuities. detect weak leakage fields, larger sizes are used
only when specifications allow their use since a
401. TESTING METHODS weak leakage field is unable to hold a large
particle but is able to retain one of smaller size.
1. General Thus, dry powder magnetic particles are made
Knowledge of available detecting mediums and up in a wide range of sizes though all will pass
their effect on the indications obtained is through a 100-mesh screen.
essential to successful testing. Four properties
enter into the selection of a satisfactory medium: In the wet method, oxides of iron are used as
magnetic, geometric, mobility, and visibility. magnetic particles. They are of lower
permeability than the metallic dry particles and
2. Magnetic Properties have neither the most desirable shape nor
The particles of the testing medium must variety of sizes. They are extremely fine in size
possess two important magnetic properties: high so that they will remain in suspension to maintain
permeability and low retentivity. Permeability is mobility as long as possible before settling out.
defined as the degree of ease with which a Even so, the bath must be continually agitated to
particle is magnetized; retentivity, as that maintain the particles in suspension.
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4. Mobility a. Be non-toxic.
When the particles are applied to a test b. Be finely divided and within correct size range.
specimen they must be applied in such a way c. Be ferromagnetic.
that they are free to form a pattern or indication d. Be free of contaminants.
in the presence of leakage fields. e. Possess high permeability.
a. In the dry method, mobility is obtained by f. Possess low retentivity.
dusting or blowing the particles over the surface g. Provide high color contrast (visibility).
of the article. The ideal procedure, from the point
of mobility, is to float a cloud of particles with
very low velocity up to the surface being tested. 402. WET SUSPENSIONS (BATH)
This condition is obtainable only with special
1. General
equipment. The floating action permits the
leakage field at the discontinuity to catch and The bath used with the wet method of magnetic
hold some particles as they move by. Mobility is particle testing consists of a liquid vehicle in
also obtained by vibrating the article after the which the particles are suspended. The liquid
particles have been applied. Since the influence vehicles used are usually kerosene, or a similar
of an alternating field causes the particles to light oil. Water, suitably treated with anti-
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"dance," ac is used advantageously to provide corrosion, anti-foam, or wetting agents, may also
mobility. be used. The vehicle must be non fluorescent
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and, for safety purposes, non-toxic and
b. The principal advantage of the wet method is nonvolatile, with a low flashpoint. The particles
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the excellent mobility of the suspended particles.KU
A low viscosity liquid is used so that the mobility
used are obtainable in a dry form, a paste form,
or in a highly concentrated liquid form and may
of the suspended particles is not impeded by the be either fluorescent or nonfluorescent. To
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liquid. achieve the required test sensitivity, the degree
of particle concentration in the bath must be
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5. Visibility correct too light a concentration leads to very
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light indications of discontinuities; too heavy a

An indication must be readily visible. A good light
concentration results in too much overall surface
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source is essential. The choice of particle color is

coverage, which may mask or cause incorrect
entirely dependent on visibility. With various
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interpretation of discontinuity indications. Table

types of surfaces, from highly polished articles to
4-1 lists the preferred concentration of wet
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rough castings, no one color is always

suspensions. Check applicable specifications for
satisfactory. The most widely used particles are
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allowable concentrations.
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colored grey, red, and black. The grey powder

has excellent contrast against practically all
Table 4-1 Concentration for wet suspensions
surfaces, with exception of certain silver-grey
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Type Particles Oz. Particles/Gal ML or CC

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sandblasted surfaces. The fluorescent powders

Suspension Particles 100ML
and pastes are particles coated with a dye that
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or 100CC
fluoresces brilliantly under an ultraviolet or black
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Nonfluorescent 1.0 2.4

light, thereby increasing visibility. Particles See Manufacturers
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Instructions
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6. Methods of AE.I2lication Fluorescent 0.1 0.5

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Dry magnetic particles are commonly applied

from shaker cans or bulbs. This method is the
simplest, but not necessarily the best. Automatic 2. Agitation
particle-blowing equipment is usually economical While the bath is in use, it must be constantly
in its use of particles and, in most instances is agitated to maintain the particles in suspension.
the most satisfactory way of floating the dry A short period of agitation prior to use is
particles to the test surface with minimum desirable. Agitation is usually accomplished by
velocity. Wet suspensions are caused to flow electrically driven pumps or by compressed air.
over the surface to be examined, or, the article is Compressed air agitation, while effective, is the
immersed in a bath of the suspension. Flow less desirable since moisture and foreign matter
application is usually used with continuous carried by the air may contaminate the bath and
magnetic particle testing, and the immersion bath shorten its useful life. The particle concentration
with residual testing. should be checked periodically since the vehicle
evaporates and particles are lost as they are
7. Particle Requirements removed from the bath on the test specimens.
To function properly, the particles composing the
medium in both the wet and dry method must:
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3. Settling Test test. In adding paste, a thin "slurry" is first made.

This procedure is identical to the procedure used
The suspension is agitated for 30 minutes to
in the initial preparation of the bath. Paste is
assure an even distribution of the particles in the
never directly added to the bath because it does
vehicle. Then, 100 cc (ml) of the bath is pumped
not disperse properly. When in use, the bath
through the hose nozzle into the pear-shaped
eventually becomes contaminated by dirt, lint,
centrifuge tube and allowed to settle for thirty
and chips to a degree that efficient formation of
minutes (see Figure 4-1). The amount of
discontinuity indications is hindered. Degree of
particles (measured in cc or ml) settling in the
contamination is determined by the amount of
bottom of the centrifuge indicates the
foreign matter settling with the paste in the
concentration of solid matter (particles) in the
bottom of the centrifuge tube during the settling
bath. In measuring the solid matter in the
test. The bath should be checked on a regular
centrifuge, foreign material such as lint and dirt,
schedule depending on the inspection volume:
which settles on top of the particles, is not
weekly if the volume is high; monthly if the
considered. If the particle reading is high, liquid
volume is low. When the bath is contaminated
(vehicle) is added, if low, paste or liquid
beyond usefulness it is discarded, the bath tank
concentrate containing particles is added.
and the liquid system is thoroughly cleaned, and
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a new bath is mixed. Contamination can be
4. Bath Maintenance
minimized by keeping the bath covered when not
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The strength of the bath is maintained by adding in use.
paste or oil as indicated by results of the settling
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1. Agitate the suspension thoroughly to assure

particle distribution
2. Fill 100cc (100ML) sample from the
delivery hose into a 100cc (100ML)
graduated centrifuge tube or graduate.
3. Place centrifuge in stand
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4. Demagnetize, if necessary (if clumping

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occurs)
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5. Allow to settle for 30 minutes.

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6. Take reading and record in the log.

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7. Adjust bath either by adding particles or

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vehicle as necessary.
Figure 4-1 Setting Test Procedure
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CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC PARTICLE APPLICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph
500 GENERAL
501 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIZING METHODS
502 RESIDUAL METHOD
503 CONTINUOUS METHOB
504 CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES
505 LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES
506 DIRECT CURRENT
507 ALTERNATING CURRENT
508 SPECIAL MAGNETIZING METHODS
1. Induced Current Magnetization
2. Swinging-Field Magnetization
509 TESTING MEDIUM
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1. General
2. Dry Powder.
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3. Wet Bath Medium (Nonfluorescent)
4. Wet Bath Medium (Fluorescent).
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5. Bath Strength.
510 SURFACE PREPARATION.
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511 LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES
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512 DEMAGNETIZATION REQUIREMENTS
513 FINAL CLEANING
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514 MAGNETIC RUBBER INSPECTION
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
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5-1 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Solid Cylindrical Articles.

5-2 Magnetization of Multiple-Diameter Articles
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5-3 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Large Diameter Discs, Gears, etc.

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5-4 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Very Short, Hollow Cylindrical Articles.

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5-5 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Hollow Cylindrical Articles

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5-6 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Irregularly Shaped Articles.

5-7 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Solid Article with Hole Through End.
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5-8 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Springs.

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5-9 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Heavy Plate Welds.

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5-10 Magnetic Particle Inspection by Means of Cables.

5-11 Flux Density Curve.
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5-12 Induced Current Magnetization -Longitudinal Field

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5-13 Induced Current Magnetization -Circular Field

5-14 Magnetic Rubber Inspection Procedure
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CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC PARTICLE APPLICATION
500 GENERAL the test specimen. These methods also result in

The procedures for the application of magnetic showing more of the discontinuities at one time.
particle testing are covered in this chapter.
Complete coverage of all the procedures for all
magnetic materials and all shapes of test 502 RESIDUAL METHOD
specimens is impossible; however, the methods In the residual method, the medium is applied
and techniques shown in Figures 5-1 through 5- after the test specimen has been magnetized and
10 can be readily adapted to most ferromagnetic the magnetizing force removed. This method,
articles. The comments given adjacent to each which relies entirely on the amount of residual
illustration facilitate understanding the magnetism retained in the test specimen, is not
recommended procedures. A short recap of used on articles made from low alloy steel, which
previously discussed or related matters is also have low retentivity. The residual method is less
given in the following paragraphs. sensitive than the continuous method so it is used
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when higher sensitivity serves no useful purpose.
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501 CLASSIFICA110N OF MAGNEl1ZING
METHODS 503 CONl1NUOUS METHOD
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Several different bases are used for classifying
magnetizing methods. The first, based on whether
KU In this method, the application of the medium is
conducted simultaneously with the magnetizing
or not the magnetizing force is maintained during operation, i.e., the medium is in contact with the
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application of the medium, includes the residual test specimen while current is being applied. The
method and the continuous method. The second procedure is best accomplished by giving two
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is based on the character of the field utilized for shots of current, the last given after the hose (or
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the magnetic operation and includes the circular whatever applicator is used) is removed, thus
and longitudinal methods. The third is based on avoiding the possibility of indications being
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the type of magnetizing current used; ac, dc, or washed away by the heavy flow. Figure 5-11
HWDC. Also of importance are special illustrates a flux density curve that occurs during
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magnetizing methods used to obtain stronger and immediately after a magnetizing shot and
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magnetic fields and better field distribution within shows when the particles are to be applied.
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Figure 5-2. Magnetization of Multiple-Diameter Articles

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504 CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES

Where it is necessary to pass current through the test specimen, care is exercised to prevent arcing or
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overheating at the contact areas. All contact areas are clean, and the test specimen is mounted horizontally
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between the contact plates. Suitable head pressure is exerted to ensure good electrical contact. Large,
heavy articles are mounted in suitable fixtures to ensure proper orientation. Where it is necessary to pass
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current through large, cylindrically-shaped articles, contact balls are recommended. When protective
coatings interfere with flow of current, they are removed at the area of contact. A central conductor is used
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where testing of internal surfaces of enclosed or cylindrically shaped articles of small diameter is required. A
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central conductor is also used for circular magnetization of other shapes when applicable. The diameter of
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the conductor is as near the size of the openings as practicable and multiple test specimens on a single
conductor are spread to avoid contact with each other.
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STEP NO.1 -HEAD SHOT (WITH CENTRAL CONDUCTOR)
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CENTRAL CONDUCTOR IS USED FOR CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION TO LOCATE DISCONTINUITIES

ACROSS GEAR AND DISCONTINUITIES ON GEAR TEETH. INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS
SHOWING DISCONTINUITIES -MARK ALL INDICATIONS.
NOTE:
ON LARGE DIAMETER RINGS WITH LARGE CENTER HOLE, REST ON CONDUCTOR, INSPECT ONLY
NEAR CONDUCTOR (4XDIAMETER OF CENTRAL CONDUCTOR). REPEAT AROUND
CIRCUMFERENCE FIELD DISCONTINUITIES.
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STEP NO.2 -FIRST HEAD SHOT STEP NO.3 -SECOND HEAD SHOT
ACROSS GEAR
CURRENT PASSING ACROSS DIAMETER
KU ACROSS GEAR
TURN THE GEAR 90 AND MAGNETIZE AGAIN
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THROUGH GEAR LOCATES DISCONTINUTIES ACROSS DIAMETER.
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EXTENDING AROUND THE GEAR SM

USE COPPER-BRAID, NEOPRENE.BACKED INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS
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CONTACTS ON HEADS TO AVOID BURNING SHOWING DISCONTINUITIES -MARK ALL

GEAR TEETH AT CONTACT POINTS DISCONTINUITIES.
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INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS TURNING THE GEAR 90AND MAGNETIZING

SHOWING DISCONTINUITIES -MARK WILL REVEAL ALL DISCONTINUITIES
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ALL DISCONTINUITIES. EXTENDING AROUND GEAR.

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Figure 5-3. Magnetic Particle Inspection of Large Diameter

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INSPECT ARTICLE AFTER EACH SHOT -TURN TURN ARTICLE 90 BETWEEN SHOTS
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STRING SHORT CYLINDERS ON CENTRAL CONDUCTOR FOR CIRCULAR SHOT AND,

IF REQUIRED, FOLLOW WITH TWO HEAD SHOTS ACROSS THE DIAMETERS.
CENTRAL CONDUCTOR EXAMPLES
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1.0 INCH OD NUTS -700 TO 1200 AMPS
2.0 INCH OD RINGS -1400 TO 2400 AMPS
3.0 INCH OD SPACERS -2100 TO 3600 AMPS
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2 CM OD NUTS -560 TO 960 AMPS
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5 CM OD RINGS -1400 TO 2400 AMPS
7 CM OD SPACERS -1960 TO 3360 AMPS KU
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Figure 5-4. Magnetic Particle Inspection of Very Short, Hollow Cylindrical Articles
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505 LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES
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When a solenoid is used to magnetize the test specimen, the solenoid is to be no larger than necessary to
accommodate the specimen, which is oriented within the solenoid to ensure adequate field strength. Since
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the flux density is greatest at the inner surface of the coil, the specimen is held against this surface. If the
specimen is not placed on the surface, it will be attracted with considerable force. (If the article is not
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attracted, it is not ferromagnetic material.)

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506 DIRECT CURRENT

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To obtain indications of subsurface discontinuities, direct current or half-wave rectified current (pulsating dc)
is used.
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507 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current is used for detecting surface discontinuities only.
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Circular magnetization with central conductor.

Apply both, inside and outside.
Magnetize
Inspect for particle Indications showing longitudinal discontinuities Inside and Outside Mark
discontinuities.
Note: On Cylinders with large ID., Rest on conductor, Inspect only near conductor (4X diameter of central
conductor). Repeat around circumference.
35 of 56
Hollow Cylindrical Articles

Approximate Current*
Example Head Shot Coil Shot**
Amperes Ampere-
Turns
1in OD tube 18 in 700 1200 2500
long
3 in OD tube 15 in 2100 9000
long 3600
1.5 in D. wrist pins 1050 22500
3 in long 1800
5cm OD tube 1400 5625
40cm long 2400 Longitudinal Magnetization by Coil.
Apply bath, both inside and outside.
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*Control the amperage according to applicable
specifications. Magnetize
**Divide by No. of coil turns to obtain amperes Inspect for particle indications showing transverse
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discontinuities Inside and Outside Mark
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discontinuities.
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KU Irregularly Shaped Articles
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Approximate Current*
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Housings Step No. 1 Step Nos. 2 & Step No.4
Amperes 3 Amperes Ampere
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4 In. dia 2800 4800 Use Formula

2800
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6 In. dia 4200 7200 Increasing Amp = 45000

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8 In. dia 5600 9600 with size and

thickness
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Step No.1 Head Shot with Central Conductor.

12 In. dia 8400 14400
Central conductor, inserted through holes in
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housing, is used for circular magnetization to *Control the amperage according to applicable
locate discontinuities in the direction sown. specifications.
**Divide by No. of coil turns to obtain amperes
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Note:
Rest article on conductor. Inspect only near conductor (4X diameter of conductor). Repeat around
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circumference. Inspect for particle indications showing discontinuities.

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Step No.2 First Head Shot Across a Diameter

Magnetizes article circularly as shown. Current passing across diameter through article locates
discontinuities in direction shown when bath is applied. Inspect for particle indications showing
discontinuities.
36 of 56
Step No.1 Head Shot

Circular Magnetization Locates Longitudinal
discontinuities
Apply bath
Current passed through article magnetizes it
circularly to find longitudinal discontinuities.
Inspect for particle indications mark
discontinuities.
Step No.3 Second Head Shot Across Diameter

Same as Step No.2, Except Article is rotated 90.
Shoot across a second diameter and apply bath,
to locate all discontinuities as shown.
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Step No.2 Head Shot (with central conductor)
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SM Used to detect discontinuities around hole.

Step No.4 Coil Shot
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Provides longitudinal Magnetization for articles

with long dimension.
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Note: This shot is used when shape of housing

approaches that of a cylinder. If longitudinal field
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is not to be applied, article should be

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demagnetized.
Figure 5-6. Magnetic Particle Inspection of
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Irregularly Shaped Articles

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Step No.3 Coil shot

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Longitudinal Magnetization Locates Transverse

Discontinuities
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Apply bath
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Current passed through coil magnetizes

longitudinally.
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Inspect for particle indications of transverse

discontinuities mark discontinuities.
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SOLID ARTICLES WITH HOLE THROUGH END

APPROXIMATE CURRENT
Example Step No.2
Connecting Step No. 1 (Central Step No.3
Rods Amperes conductor Amperes
Amperes)
1 in. max.web.
700 1200 800 1500
OD
3 in. Cross Use Formula
2100 3600 2500 Max
section
Amps = 45,000
Rocker Arms 500 2500 500 2000 LT
Wind Hinges 2000 Max 1500 2500
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Terminal Fittings 200 800 500 1500
CONTROL THE AMPERAGE BY APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS.
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Figure 5-7. Magnetic Particle Inspection of Solid Article With Hole Through End
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Step No.1 Head Shot

Apply bath
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Current passed through spring from end to end locates longitudinal discontinuities in the wire that forms the
spring.
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Inspect for particle indications of longitudinal discontinuities mark discontinuities.

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SPRING STEP No.1

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Diameter of wire Approximate Current

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Amperes
in 175 300
in 350 600
1 in 700 1200
2 in 560 960
Control the amperage according to
applicable specifications.
38 of 56
Step No.2 Head Shot (with central conductor)

Apply bath.
Current passed through s central conductor magnetizes spring and locates transverse discontinuities in the
wire that forms the spring.
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Inspect for particle indications of transverse discontinuities mark discontinuities.
SPRING STEP No.2
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Diameter of Approximate Current
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spring coil Amperes KU
1 in 700 1200
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2 in 1400 2400 SM
3 in 2100 3600
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2 cm 560 960
5 cm 140 2400
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Note Springs are usually inspected by the continuous method and using fluorescent medium and black light.
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Figure 5-8. Magnetic Particle Inspection of Springs

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FOR EFFICIENT COVERAGE OF WELDS THE PRODS MUST BE CRISS-CROSSED (A -B THEN C -D,
ETC.) USING THE AMPERAGE RECOMMENDED IN THE CHART BELOW. WHERE WELDING
REQUIRES MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING OF EACH LAYER OR ROOT PASS AND EACH PASS
FOLLOWING, CARE MUST BE EXERCISED TO PLACE THE PRODS CORRECTLY TO OBTAIN THE
RIGHT FIELDS AND TO AVOID SPARKS AND BURNS WHICH MAY RESULT IN CRACKING OF WELD
MATERIAL
39 of 56
Prod Spacing Inches Section Thickness, Inches (millimeters)

Inches (millimeters) Under (19) (19) and over
2 to 4 (51 to 102) 200 to 300 Amps 300 to 400 Amps
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THE SAMPLE ARTICLE SHOWN ABOVE, BEING A SOLID, MACHINED PIVOT-PIN 3 INCHES IN
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DIAMETER AND 30 INCHES LONG, WILL REQUIRE 2 SHOTS. SINCE THE EFFECTIVE FIELD ONLY
EXTENDS A FEW INCHES OUTSIDE THE COIL, A PRACTICAL AREA COVERAGE AT ANY ONE TIME
ND
KU
SHOULD NOT EXCEED 12-18 INCHES (30 TO 45 CM). APPLYING THE FORMULA DISCUSSED
45,000
PREVIOUSLY IN THIS HANDBOOK AND DIVIDING THIS BY THE NUMBER OF CABLE
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L/D
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WRAPS, WILL RESULT IN THE REQUIRED AMPERAGE TO BE USED. USING 5 TURNS, THE
SM
AMPERAGE FOR THE ARTICLE SHOWN WILL BE 1800 AMPERES, WHERE:
IP
IN INCHES IN CENTIMETERS
L = 30 : 2 = 15 L = 76 : 2 = 38
CO
D=3 D = 7.6
A
LID = 5 LID = 5
45,000 : 5 = 9000 45,000 : 5 = 9000
IS
9000: 5 (Turn table) = 1800 AMP 9000: 5 = 1800 AMP

DT
Figure 5-10. Magnetic Particle Inspection by Means of Cables

UM
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UK
Flux density
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during current flow

P
IP
Retained flux
density
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Figure 5-11. Flux Density Curve
508 SPECIAL MAGNETIZING METHODS

1. Induced Current Magnetization
When an article capable of carrying current lies in a magnetic field and the field is caused to collapse
quickly, a current is induced in the article. The current thus induced is at right angles to the collapsing field.
Its strength depends upon the strength of the original field and the speed with which it collapses. The
circulating current, in turn, causes its own magnetic field within the article. In longitudinal magnetization of an
article the induced field runs the full length of the article with no leakage occurring except at the ends of the
article (see Figure 5-12). Thus, the field is improved for the purposes of magnetic particle inspection.
40 of 56
Figure 5-12. Induced Current Magnetization -Longitudinal Field
Induced current magnetization may also be used 509 TESTING MEDIUM

to induce within a ring-shaped article an electrical 1. General
SA
current that flows circumferentially around the The testing medium employed in magnetic
ring. This current flow causes a magnetic field at particle testing shall be dry powder, with various
MI
right angles to the current flow resulting in a colors for contrast; liquid paste, black or red for
T
circular field being formed in the article as shown contrast; or fluorescent liquid paste for use with
ND
in Figure 5-13. In this manner any discontinuitiesKU black light.
that lay along the circumference of the article will
be disclosed. The ring-shaped article is placed 2. Dry Powder
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inside of, and concentric with, the coil. A high Dry powder is normally used for testing
permeability, iron core is placed inside the article weldments where the prod method is employed.
SM
to serve as a low-reluctance path for the field. The The powder is dusted or blown over the surface of
IP
magnetic field is then caused to collapse quickly. the article while the magnetizing current is flowing
The magnetic field caused by the induced current between the prods.
CO
is a circular field surrounding the object and

around the circumference of the object. 3. Wet Bath Medium (Nonfluorescent)
A
The non fluorescent wet bath is used in both the

IS
wet residual and wet continuous methods. The

bath is applied either by flowing, spraying,
DT
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brushing (continuous method only), or

submersing the article in the suspension. Contrast
-N
colors of particles are black for light machined

UK
surfaces and red for articles that have been heat

MO
discolored or have received black oxide surface

treatment.
P
IP
4. Wet Bath Medium (Fluorescent)

S
The fluorescent wet bath is used with both the wet

CO
residual and wet continuous methods, and is

applied to the test specimen by flowing, spraying,
Figure 5-13. Induced Current Magnetization - brushing (continuous method only), or immersion
Circular Field of the article into the bath. The particles are
coated with a fluorescent dye that, when
2. Swinging- Field Magnetization inspected under a black light, fluoresces
Swinging-field magnetization is, in effect, overall brilliantly. For proper viewing, the intensity of the
magnetization of the article in one operation. The black light at the surface of the specimen must be
2
swinging field is achieved by setting up fields in a minimum of 800 J.W/cm .
more than one direction in the article then shifting
rapidly back and forth between them. No two 5. Bath Strength
fields are applied simultaneously since this would The strength of the bath used with wet magnetic
result in a vector field as described earlier. The particle testing is checked by the settling test
swinging field permits detection of differently described in paragraph 402.3. The frequency of
oriented discontinuities in one operation. the test is determined by the degree of bath
usage but the test must be accomplished at least
once daily, usually at the beginning of the working
day.
41 of 56
510 SURFACE PREPARATION preceding magnetization, provided that the

Prior to magnetic particle testing, the test magnetizing force last applied is equal to or of
specimen is thoroughly cleaned. Cleaning may higher magnitude than the previous one.
involve removal of flake, slag, and heavy buildup Demagnetization is required, however, if the
of paint, rust, grease, or other organic materials second field will not be as strong as the first field.
that interfere with the final test results. This rule also applies when remagnetizing in the
Sandblasting equipment, wire brushes, files, same direction with a weaker field (as would be
chipping hammers, etc., are suitable for removal the case if the article was over-magnetized with
of interfering substances. Approved chemical the first shot and required another shot at a
cleaning methods are also acceptable. The significantly reduced amperage). Paragraph 209.4
smoother the surface, and the more uniform its details other situations where demagnetization is
color, the more favorable are the conditions for required. A field indicator is used after
formation and examination of the particle pattern. demagnetization of an article to assure that the
When it is necessary to perform magnetic particle residual field strength has been reduced to the
testing on specimens that have been covered with desired level. In some instances demagnetization
anti-corrosive protective coatings such as of large articles such as a rocket motor casing
primers, paints, or cadmium-, chromium-, nickel- has been found to be extremely difficult. Shifting
SA
or zinc-plating, the coatings do not necessarily the article to align it in an east-west position from
have to be removed, since discontinuity an original north-south position facilitates the
MI
T
indications are not usually affected. The demagnetization because of the influence of the
acceptable thickness limit of such coatings is up earth's north-south magnetic field.
ND
to and including 0.005 inch (0.125mm). All holes
and openings leading to internal areas where
KU 513 FIN AL CLEANING
complete removal of magnetic substances or Magnetic particles are completely removed from
O-
PU
other matter cannot be readily accomplished are all articles after test and demagnetization.
plugged. Any material which can be completely Cleaning is accomplished by use of air, solvents,
SM
removed and is not detrimental to the part may be washes, and wiping equipment suitable to the
IP
used for plugging. When necessary, all faying size and complexity of the task. After cleaning,
surfaces or component parts that can be the article is returned to its original state by the
CO
damaged by the bath are masked. removal of all plugs used to seal holes and
cavities during the testing process.
A
511 LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES

IS
Discontinuities are located either on or below the 514 MAGNETIC RUBBER INSPECTION
DT
surface of the test specimen. Discontinuities Magnetic rubber inspection, developed to aid in
UM
located on the surface appear as sharp distinct locating discontinuities in holes, recesses, and
lines, whereas discontinuities located below the other hard-to-get-to places, utilizes a room-
-N
surface appear as irregular, rough, hazy temperature-curing liquid rubber containing

UK
indications. The width of a subsurface magnetic particles in suspension. A mold,

MO
discontinuity indication varies with the depth of its constructed of mylar or cellophane tape,
location below the surface. Correct interpretation aluminum foil, and putty, is constructed around
P
of indications caused by subsurface the area to be inspected. A catalyst is then added

IP
discontinuities requires a certain amount of skill to the magnetic rubber and the two are mixed to
on the part of the operator. start curing. The mixture is then poured into the
CO
mold and a magnetic field is applied. Any leakage

512 DEMAGNETIZATION REQUIREMENTS fields present attract the magnetic particles which
A common error is to assume that if an article is are thereafter held in position by the rubber as it
to be magnetized in a second direction, i.e., solidifies. After curing is complete, the rubber
circular magnetization followed by longitudinal replica of the hole or recess is removed and the
magnetization, it is necessary to demagnetize the indications thereon interpreted. The rubber replica
article between the two operations. This is not so, of the hole will also reveal surface conditions. The
since the fields are not impressed simultaneously material is also available in a spray to be used to
and two variant magnetic fields cannot exist in the cover broad areas not suitable for casting. Figure
same area at the same time. The last applied field 5-14 illustrates the use of magnetic rubber in a
will drive out the residual field caused by the casting.
42 of 56
CHAPTER 6: CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
600 GENERAL.
601 DISCONTINUITIES.
1. General
2. Surface Indications.
3. Subsurface Indications.
4. Nonrelevant Indications.
602 CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES BY ORIGIN.

1. General
2. Inherent Discontinuities.
3. Processing Discontinuities
4. Service Discontinuities.
603 PRESERVATION OF INDICATIONS.
SA
1. General
2. Lacquer Transfer Technique.
MI
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3. Photographic Technique (Nonfluorescent).
4. Photographic Technique (Fluorescent)
ND
5. Transparent Tape Transfer Technique. KU
LIST OF FIGURES
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Figure Page
6-1 Surface Discontinuities in Steel Flange.
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6-2 Subsurface Discontinuities in Weld.
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6-3 Inherent Discontinuity -Inclusion.

6-4 Forging Bursts.
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6-5 Laminations in Rolled Plate.

6-6 Seams
A
6-7 Lamination
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6-8 Crack in Weldment.

DT
6-9 Grinding Cracks.

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6-10 Heat Treat Cracks.

6-11 Fatigue Cracks.
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6-12 Photographing Fluorescent Indications.

UK
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
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6-1 Primary Processing Discontinuities.

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6-2 Finish Processing Discontinuities.

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CHAPTER 6: CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES

600 GENERAL
In the previous chapters attention has been focused on properly producing indications of discontinuities in
ferromagnetic articles. Much depends on the test technique used, but the end result of the test is to
determine whether the test specimen is used, requires rework before it is suitable for use, or cannot be used
and must be scrapped. Once the discontinuities are indicated, the next step is to determine their nature and
extent, i.e., the indication is to be interpreted. The greatest aid in interpretation is a knowledge of
discontinuities that are likely to be present in any given instance. Knowing the history of a particular test
specimen, what it is made of, and what processes it has been through serves to form a logical starting point
for interpretation of an indication. Knowing what to look for, when, and where to look for it, requires
understanding of the discontinuities, their character, and likely locations. Every magnetic particle pattern
produced is due to some disturbance set up in a magnetic field, but the pattern cannot, in itself, reveal what
the discontinuity is. Therefore, the inspector must be able to determine whether there is a serious
discontinuity, warranting rejection of the test specimen; some insignificant discontinuity; or some nonrelevant
magnetic disturbance. It is difficult to overstate the importance of locating all discontinuities since any
discontinuity may constitute a stress riser leading to ultimate failure of an article destined for service where it
will be highly and repeatedly stressed. So the use to which the test specimen will be put, as well as the
severity of the condition found, has a definite bearing on the inspection findings.
43 of 56
601 DISCONTINUITIES leakage field; or may be caused by rough

1. General surfaces that cause a mechanical rather than a
Whether a discontinuity is a defect is a matter of magnetic hold on the testing medium; or a variety
degree, frequency, and location, but in all cases it of other reasons. These indications are similar to
is a defect only when its presence interferes, or is those of discontinuities, but closer examination
likely to interfere, with the use for which the article will reveal that they are nonrelevant. The most
is designed. common cause of nonrelevant indications is over-
magnetization. An article with a given permeability
2. Surface Indications can only contain a certain magnetic field. When
Surface discontinuities, as a class, produce this saturation point is exceeded, the excessive
sharp, distinct, clean cut, and tightly held flux is forced out of the article. These flux lines
indication patterns. This is particularly true of the attract particles like any other leakage field. When
closed-lipped surface discontinuities, which are patterns are formed (sometimes circular) that
difficult to see and are objectionable from the cover the test specimen, it must be retested at
standpoint of service or subsequent processing lower amperage.
requirements. (See Figure 6-1.) A discontinuity
SA
open to the surface is more likely to be harmful to 602 CLASSIFICA TION OF DISCONTINUITIES
an article than a subsurface discontinuity. BY ORIGIN
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1. General
In a comprehensive view of the entire list of
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KU discontinuities that can be located by magnetic
particle testing, it is logical to consider the life
history of the metal from the time it first solidifies
O-
PU
from the fluid state, down through its fabrication
into useful form, and ending when it has simply
SM
worn out or has fractured as a result of fatigue or
IP
other causes. The formation of discontinuities can

be grouped into three stages: inherent,
CO
processing, and in-service.

A
Figure 6-1. Surface Discontinuities in Steel

Flange 2. Inherent Discontinuities
IS
Inherent discontinuities (see Figure 6-3) are

DT
3. Subsurface Indications related to the melting and original solidification of

UM
Subsurface discontinuities tend to produce the metal in the ingot. As the metal is poured, gas
indications which are less distinct, diffused, or bubbles and slag are entrapped in the ingot. The
-N
fuzzy rather than sharp-outlined indications ingot is then cropped, which removes most of the
UK
observed with surface discontinuities. (See Figure impurities gathered in the top; however, some
MO
6-2.). entrapped discontinuities find their way into the

finished product. Following is a list of the more
P
common inherent discontinuities that may occur.

IP
a. Inclusions. These are nonmetallic impurities,

CO
such as slag, oxides, and sulphides that are

present in the original ingot. In the rolling of billets
and bar stock, these materials are rolled out
lengthwise to form long stringers, or lines, of
nonmagnetic foreign materials. In bar stock and
forgings they are called nonmetallic inclusions or
Figure 6-2. Subsurface Discontinuities in Weld
nonmetallic stringers. Inclusions in bar stock are
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the material and
4. Nonrelevant Indications
usually appear as fine lines. Often they are short
and are likely to occur in groups. They seldom
A group of nonrelevant magnetic disturbances,
appear on the original bar surface, but are
which are not due to discontinuities in the metal,
commonly found on machined surfaces. In
must be recognized; otherwise, wrong
forgings, inclusions lie parallel to the grain flow
interpretations lead to attempted repair or
lines. They are not, in general, objectionable
scrapping of perfectly sound articles. The causes
except when they occur in critical areas, on highly
of nonrelevant indications are numerous. They
stressed surfaces, or in unusual numbers.
may be caused by abrupt variation in the article
shape or changes in permeability causing a
44 of 56
rolling, forging, and drawing; and finish

processing discontinuities, which include those
caused by machining, final forming, grinding,
welding, heat treating, and plating.
a. Primary Processing Discontinuities. Table 6-1

lists those discontinuities that are sometimes
formed during the primary processing of metals,
gives the cause of the discontinuity and gives
their likely location. Figures 6-4 through 6-7 show
some of the discontinuities encountered.
Figure 6-3. Inherent Discontinuity -Inclusion

b. Finish Processing Discontinuities. Table 6-2
b. Porosity. Porosity is formed by gas which is lists those discontinuities that are sometimes
formed by the processes required to complete the
SA
insoluble in the molten metal and is trapped within
the metal when it solidifies. As the ingot is worked manufacture of an item. Of course, any
into fabricated products, the porosity, which is discontinuities that were present in the parent
MI
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open to the surface, is elongated and its sides metal will be present in the finished item. At times
a subsurface discontinuity will become a surface
ND
brought closer together. In finished articles,
porosity often appears as seams or laminations,
depending on its location.
KU discontinuity as metal is removed. Figures 6-8
through 6-10 show some of the discontinuities
encountered.
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c. Pipe. Pipe is a discontinuity in the center of the

SM
ingot, caused by internal shrinks, or cavities,
formed during solidification. Pipe will become 4. Service Discontinuities
IP
elongated in the rolling operations. In fabricated Service or fatigue discontinuities are important
discontinuities to be considered. The articles that
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articles, pipe is usually found a considerable

distance below the surface. are in service, which may develop defects due to
metal fatigue, are considered extremely critical
A
d. Segregations. When an ingot solidifies, the and demand the close attention of nondestructive
IS
distribution of the various elements or compounds testing personnel.

DT
UM
is generally not uniform throughout the mass of

the ingot. When this happens, marked a. Fatigue Cracks. Fatigue cracks normally
segregations of some constituents may occur. As develop in, or adjacent to, areas of stress
-N
the ingot is forged, and then rolled, these concentration. These stress concentration
UK
segregations are elongated and reduced in cross areas may include holes, fillets, keyways,
MO
section. Upon subsequent processing, they may splines, and threads. These areas are
usually designed to withstand the
P
appear as very thin parallel lines or bands known

as banding. Banding is not usually considered stresses imposed; however, faulty design,
IP
significant. such as holes with sharp edges, or poorly

finished or insufficient fillets, often result
CO
3. Processing Discontinuities in a concentrated stress much higher

Processing discontinuities are those produced by than expected. Also, the presence of any
forming or fabrication operations. These discontinuities in an area of stress
discontinuities are divided into two main concentration greatly increases the
categories: primary processing discontinuities, possibilities of fatigue failure. (See Figure
which include those caused during casting, 6-11.)
45 of 56
Table 6-1. Primary Processing Discontinuities
Process Discontinuity Caused By location

lack of Fusion Between Two
Casting Cold Shut Intercepting Surfaces of Metal as it Surface
Flows Into the Cast
Difference in Cooling Rates
Hot Tear Between Thin Sections and Thick Surface
Sections
lack of Enough Molten Metal to
Shrinkage
Fill the Space Created by Subsurface
Cavity Shrinkage
Improperly Designed Mold Causing
Microshrinkage Subsurface
Premature Blockage at Mold Gate
SA
Inability of External Gasses to
Blow Holes Surface
Escape from the Mold
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Surface or
Porosity Entrapped Internal Gasses
ND
Subsurface
Forging lap
KU
Folding of Metal in a Thin Plate
Surface
on the Surface of the Forging
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Surface or
Burst Forging at Improper Temperature
Subsurface
SM
laminations Flattening and lengthening of
IP
Rolling Subsurface
(Flat Plate) Discontinuities in Parent Metal
CO
Stringers Flattening and lengthening of

A
Discontinuities Found in Parent Subsurface

(Bar Stock)
Metal
IS
Seams lengthening of Surface Cracks

DT
Surface
UM
(Bar Stock) Found in Parent Metal

Surface
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Welded
lack of Fusion Incomplete Weld (Inner or
UK
Pipe Outer)
MO
Present in the Parent Metal

P
laminations Subsurface
(Sheet or Plate Material)
IP
Seamless Seams Present in the Parent Metal Outer

CO
Pipes and (Round Bar Stock) Surface

Tubes
Inner
Slugs Metal Buildup on Piercing Mandrel
Surface
Inner
Gouges Sizing Mandrel Dragging
Surface
Extrusions Seams Present in Parent Metal Surface
Surface or
Porosity Present in Parent Metal
Subsurface
Galling Improper Metal Flow Through
Surface
(Cracks) the Die
46 of 56
External Burst
Figure 6-7. Lamination
(1) A fatigue failure is progressive in that it starts

as a fine submicroscopic crack or an
SA
accumulation of such cracks, and spreads under
the action of repeated stressing. This spreading
MI
action, called propagation, continues until the
T
cross section of the article has been reduced to
ND
KU such an extent that the article ultimately fractures
statically under a low load. Once a crack has
started, its ability to progress is greatly increased
O-
PU
by the stress concentration resulting from the
crack itself. It is interesting to note that the rate of
SM
Internal Burst propagation of fatigue cracks may vary,
IP
Figure 6-4. Forging Bursts depending on the stress condition. In some

instances the progress of the crack may be slow.
CO
This has been observed in some types of articles,

which have appeared to operate for many hours
A
or days in a cracked condition. In other instances

IS
where high stresses are continually applied,

DT
particularly to brittle materials, the progress of the

UM
crack may be practically instantaneous.

-N
(2) Since cracked articles are always a potential

UK
source of failure, crack detection during

MO
inspection is of prime importance. The rapidly

rotating and reciprocating parts of an engine or
P
the vibrations of missile structures produce many

IP
Figure 6-5. Laminations in Rolled Plate applications of repeated stress. Fatigue cracks
start as fine submicroscopic cracks and become
CO
detectable by inspection as soon as they reach

measurable length. Since a small fatigue crack
may be confused with a much less significant
discontinuity, particular care is to be exercised in
evaluating all indications. Fatigue cracks are
always cause for rejection, unless the article can
be salvaged by rework. A fatigue crack is often
identified by its direction in relation to the applied
stresses. For example, primary discontinuities,
such as seams and inclusions, normally run in the
direction of the grain flow, while fatigue cracks in
most areas run transverse to the grain flow.
Figure 6-6. Seams
47 of 56
Table 6-2. Finish Processing Discontinuities
Process Discontinuity Caused location

Excess localized Heat Created
Grinding Cracks Between Grinding Wheel and Surface
Material
Heat Stresses Built up by Improper
Stress Cracks Processing - Unequal Heating Surface
Treating
or Cooling
Explosive Cracks and Extreme Deformation Overstresses
Surface
Forming Tears the Material
Welding Crater Cracks Surface
(Star, Transverse, Improper Use of Heat Source or
SA
longitudinal) Subsurface
Stresses Built Up by Weld
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Stress Cracks Contraction (if Material is Surface
Restrained)
ND
Porosity
KU
Entrapped Gasses
Surface or
Subsurface
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Slag Incomplete Cleaning of Slag

SM Surface or
Inclusions from the Weld Between Passes Subsurface
IP
Tungsten Excessive Current Used During

Subsurface
CO
Inclusions Tungsten-Arc Welding

lack of Surface or
A
Improper Welding Technique

Penetration Subsurface
IS
lack of
DT
Improper Welding Technique Subsurface

UM
Fusion
Undercut Improper Welding Technique Surface
-N
UK
Weld Overlaps Parent Metal - Not

MO
Overlapping Surface
Fused
P
Bending Cracks Overstress of Material Surface

IP
Working with Dull Tools or

CO
Machining Tears Surface

Cutting Too Deep
Pickling and Cracks Reject of Internal Stresses Surface
Etching
Electro-
Cracks Relief of Internal Stresses Surface
plating
48 of 56
603 PRESERVATION OF INDICATIONS

1. General
There are a number of methods by which
magnetic particle indications are preserved for
future reference.
2. Lacquer Transfer Technique

If it is desired to retain the indication in place on
the test specimen, a transparent lacquer is
sprayed over the indication. Spraying or dipping
are more effective than brushing because the
latter, no matter how carefully done, tends to
disturb and mar the pattern. Stock lacquers are
Figure 6-8. Crack in Weldment thinned at least three-to-one before being used
for this purpose.
a. Wet Method. When the wet method has been
SA
used, the surface is allowed to dry before the
lacquer is applied.
MI
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b. Lacquer Mixtures. There is another method
using lacquer that employs a colored lacquer as a
ND
KU suspensoid for a ferromagnetic powder of a
different color. The lacquer-particle mixture is
applied, the magnetic field is induced before the
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lacquer sets, and the pattern becomes
permanently fixed after the lacquer dries. A white
SM
lacquer with black ferromagnetic powder in
IP
suspension gives a black pattern on a white

background and can be applied on practically any
CO
surface, or the lacquer can be applied first,

A
Figure 6-9. Grinding Cracks allowed to dry, and the ferromagnetic powder
applied afterwards. The resultant patterns are
IS
then photographed.
DT
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3. Photographic Technique (Nonfluorescent)

Direct photography makes an excellent record of
-N
nonfluorescent powder patterns for future

UK
reference.
MO
4. Photographic Technique (Fluorescent)

P
When photographing fluorescent indications, a K2

IP
or G filter over the lens of the camera is essential

to filter out black light. Test specimens require
CO
thorough cleaning of random fluorescent smears.

Another requirement is a darkened room with two
100-watt black lights placed to bring out the
brilliance of the fluorescent indications with as
Figure 6-10. Heat Treat Cracks little reflective highlighting of the article as
possible. (See Figure 6-12.) A light-colored,
nonfluorescent background is desirable so that
the black outline of the article shows in silhouette.
Figure 6-11. Fatigue Cracks
49 of 56
Figure 6-12. Photographing Fluorescent Indications
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a. Self-Developing Film. Some existing camera
MI
equipment can use one of the various film d. Printing. Printing can be handled normally;
T
adapters on the market which will accommodate a usually on a medium grade paper. The object is to
ND
self-developing film pack. This film is available in
KU get a very dark impression of the article as it is
various speeds and in both color and black and seen visually under black light, with clear white
white. Where adaptable, it is suggested that this indications in the picture where fluorescent
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method of documentation be considered since indications appear on the article.
test results are immediately recorded.
SM
5. Transparent Tape Transfer Technique
IP
b. Panchromatic Film Exposure Time. Exposure Probably the most convenient and, by far, the
time varies greatly with the brilliance of the most widely used method of preserving
CO
indications. With a G filter, exposures may vary indications and patterns is the transparent tape
widely depending on the brilliance of the method. If the dry magnetic particle method is
A
indications. If the thinner K2 filter is used, the used, the excess powder is carefully blown away
IS
exposure time is cut about half but undesirable or otherwise removed. If the wet method is
highlights from black light may come through employed, sufficient time is allowed for the liquid
DT
UM
stronger. A white light may be used to illuminate vehicle to evaporate from the particles composing
the background. The white light is to be placed so the indication. Then a strip of transparent tape is
-N
that the indication areas are not illuminated, either carefully laid over the indication and gently
UK
directly or by the highlight from the white light. pressed down with the fingers or a rounded stick.
MO
When the tape is peeled off, it brings the

c. Negative Quality. Since there is no scientific indication with it. The strip is then laid on white
P
means for calculating black light exposure, a test paper for photographing, on tracing paper for
IP
negative is made for each setup. The negative, blueprinting, or on a page of a permanent record
S
after normal development, should show the book. With care, the transferred pattern remains
CO
indications in solid black with the article clearly well-defined and accurate in every detail, and
defined. The negative should be checked may serve as well as the original pattern as a
especially for highlights interfering with, or basis for judging and studying the indication.
resembling, the indications. Such highlights can
often be moved, weakened or diffused, or
eliminated by repositioning the lights.
50 of 56
GLOSSARY
Air Gap When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the magnetic flux must cross, the
space is referred to as an air gap. Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of an article.
Alternating Current Electric current periodically reversing in polarity or direction of flow.
Ampere The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current that flows through a conductor
having a resistance of one ohm at a potential of one volt.
Ampere Turns The product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes flowing through it.
A measure of the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil.
Bath The suspension of iron oxide particles in a liquid vehicle (light oil or Water).
Black Light Radiant energy in the near ultraviolet range. This light has a wavelength of 3200 to 4000
angstrom units (A), peaking at 3650 A, on the spectrum. This is between visible light and
ultraviolet light.
SA
Black Light Filter A filter that transmits black light while suppressing the transmission of visible light and
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
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Carbon Steel Steel which does not contain significant amounts of alloying elements other than carbon
ND
and manganese.
Carrier Fluid
KU
The fluid in which fluorescent and nonfluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to
O-
facilitate their application in the wet method.
PU
Central Conductor An electrical conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in
SM
an article, for the purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around the hole.
IP
Circular Field See "Field, Circular Magnetic.

CO
Coercive Force The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove residual magnetism in demagnetizing
an article.
A
Coil Shot A pulse of magnetizing current passed through a coil surrounding an article for the purpose
IS
of longitudinal magnetization.
DT
UM
Contact Head The electrode, fixed to the magnetic particle testing unit, through which the magnetizing
current is drawn.
-N
Contact Pads Replaceable metal pads, usually of copper braid, placed on contact heads to give good
UK
electrical contact thereby preventing damage to the article under test.

MO
Continuous Method An inspection method in which ample amounts of magnetic particles are applied, or are
P
present on the piece, during the time the magnetizing current is applied.
IP
Circular Magnetization A method of inducing a magnetic field in an article so that the magnetic lines of force take
CO
the form of concentric rings about the axis of the current. This is accomplished by passing
the current directly through the article or through a conductor which passes into or through
a hole in the article. The circular method is applicable for the detection of discontinuities
with axes approximately parallel to the axis of the current through the article.
Core That part of the magnetic circuit which is within the electrical winding.
Curie Point The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can no longer be magnetized by outside
forces, and at which they lose their residual magnetism: approximately 1200 to 16000F
(649 to 8710C) for many metals.
Current Flow Method A method of circular magnetization by passing a current through an article via prods or
contact heads. The current may be alternating, half-wave rectified, rectified alternating, or
direct.
Current Induction A method of magnetization in which a circulating current is induced in a ring
Method shaped component by a fluctuating magnetic field.
51 of 56
Defect A discontinuity that interferes with the usefulness of an article or exceeds acceptability
limits established by applicable specifications. A fault in any material or part which is
detrimental to its serviceability. Note that all cracks, seams, laps, etc., are not necessarily
defects as they may not affect the serviceability of the part in which they exist.
Demagnetization The reduction in the degree of residual magnetism in ferromagnetic materials to an
acceptable level.
Diffuse Indications Indications that are not clearly defined as, for example, indications of subsurface defects.
Direct Current An electric current which flows steadily in one direction.
Discontinuity An interruption (cracks, forging laps, seams, inclusions, porosity, etc.) in the normal
physical structure of configuration of an article. A discontinuity mayor may not affect the
usefulness of the article.
Distorted Field The direction of a magnetic field in a symetrical object will be substantially uniform if
produced by a uniformly applied magnetizing force. But if the article being magnetized is
irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a straight path or have a
SA
uniform distribution.
Dry Method Magnetic particle inspection in which the particles employed are in the dry powder form.
MI
T
Dry Powder Finely divided ferromagnetic particles suitably selected and prepared for magnetic
ND
(Dry Method) particle inspection by the dry method.
Electromagnet
KU
A magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core within, or near, a magnetizing field
O-
formed by passing electric current through a coil of insulated wire.
PU
Etching The process of exposing subsurface conditions of metal articles by removal of the outside
SM
surface through the use of chemical agents. Due to the action of the chemicals in eating
IP
away the surface, various surface or subsurface conditions are exposed or exaggerated and
made visible to the eye. For example -forging flow lines, discontinuities, and defects.
CO
Ferromagnetic A term applied to materials which can be magnetized and strongly attracted by a magnetic
A
field.
IS
Field, Bipolar Longitudinal magnetic field within an article that creates two poles.
DT
UM
Field, Generally, the magnetic field in and surrounding any electrical conductor or article
Circular Magnetic resulting from a current being passed through the conductor or article or from prods.
-N
Field, The magnetic field that leaves or enters the surface of an article at a magnetic
UK
Magnetic Leakage pole.

MO
Field, A magnetic field wherein the flux lines traverse the component in a direction
P
Longitudinal Magnetic essentially parallel with the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two
poles at the magnetizing yoke.
IP
Field, Magnetic The space within and surrounding a magnetized article, or a conductor carrying current, in
CO
which the magnetic force is present.

Field, The field that remains in magnetizable material after the magnetizing force has
Residual Magnetic been removed.
Field, A magnetic field that is the result of two magnetic forces impressed upon the same
Resultant Magnetic area of a magnetizable object at the same time Sometimes called a "vector field".
Field, Vector See Field, Resultant Magnetic.
Flash Magnetization Magnetization by a current flow of very brief duration.
Fluorescence The emission of visible radiation by a substance as the result of, and only during, the
absorption of black light radiation.
Fluorescent Magnetic The magnetic particle inspection process employing a finely divided
Particle Inspection fluorescent ferromagnetic inspection medium that fluoresces when activated by black light
of 3200 to 4000 Angstroms.
52 of 56
Flux Density This is the flux-per-unit area through an element which cuts the unit area at right angles to
the direction of the flux. Flux density is usually designated by the letter B and its unit is the
gauss.
Flux Leakage Magnetic lines of force which leave and enter an article at poles on the surface.
Flux Lines Imaginary magnetic lines used as a means of explaining the behavior of magnetic fields.
Their conception is based on the pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled
over a piece of paper laid over a permanent magnet. Also called "lines of force", the unit is
a single line of force called the maxwell designated by the Greek letter Phi.
Flux Penetration, The depth to which a magnetic flux is present in an article.
Magnetic
Furring Build-up, or bristling, of magnetic particles due to excessive magnetization of the article
under examination resulting in a furry appearance ...also referred to as "Fur" or "Grass."
Gauss The unit of flux density. Numerically, one gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter of
area and is designated by the letter "B".
SA
Heads The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.
Head Shot A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through an article or a central conductor while
MI
T
clamped between the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit for the purpose of
ND
circularly magnetizing the article.
Horseshoe Magnet
KU
A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent.
O-
Usually the term applies to a permanent magnet.
PU
Hysteresis 1) The lagging of the magnetic effect when the magnetic force actiT1g upon a
SM
ferromagnetic body is changed.
IP
2) The phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic system wherein its state is influenced by its
previous magnetic history.
CO
Hysteresis Loop A curve showing the flux density, B, plotted as a function of magnetizing force, H. As the
A
magnetizing force is increased to the saturation point in both the positive, negative, and
IS
positive direction sequentially, the curve forms a characteristic S-shaped loop. Intercepts of
the loop with the Band H axes and the points of maximum and minimum magnetizing
DT
UM
force define important magnetic characteristics of the material.

-N
UK
Indication Any magnetically held magnetic particle pattern on the surface of an article being tested.
MO
Inductance The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside magnetizing force. The
P
magnetism is not the result of passing current through the article.

IP
Inspection The process of examining and checking materials and articles for possible defects or for
S
deviation from established standards.

CO
Interpretation The determining of the cause and significance of indications of discontinuities from the
standpoint of whether they are detrimental defects or false or nonrelevant indications.
Leakage Field The magnetic field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within an article.
Lines of Force See Flux Lines.
Longitudinal Field See "Field, Longitudinal Magnetic."
Longitudinal The process of inducing a magnetic field into the article such that the magnetic
Magnetization lines of force extending through the article are approximately parallel to the axis of the
magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles when yokes (electromagnets) are
used.
Magnet, Permanent A highly retentive metal that has been strongly magnetized; for example, the alloy Alnico.
Magnetic Field See "Field, Magnetic."
Magnetic Field Meter An instrument designed to detect and/or measure the flux density and polarity of magnetic
fields.
53 of 56
Magnetic Field The measured intensity of a magnetic field at a point always external to the
Strength magnet or conductor; usually expressed in oersteds.
Magnetic Material Some materials are attracted by a magnet while others are repelled. From the definition of
magnetism it follows that magnetic materials are those that are attracted by magnetism.
These materials are known as paramagnetic materials, whereas materials which repel are
known as diamagnetic materials. The subdivision of paramagnetic, called ferromagnetic, is
a main concern as only ferromagnetic materials can be strongly magnetized.
Magnetic Particle A nondestructive inspection method for locating discontinuities in
Inspection ferromagnetic materials. It utilizes flux leakage that forms magnetic poles to attract finely
divided magnetic particles which mark the discontinuity.
Magnetic Particle The accumulation of ferromagnetic particles that may be either true indications
Inspection Indications of discontinuities, or may be false or non relevant indications.
Magnetic Writing A form of nonrelevant indications caused when the surface of a magnetized part comes in
contact with another piece of ferromagnetic material that is magnetized to a different value.
SA
Magnetizing Current The flow of either alternating, rectified alternating, or direct current used to induce
magnetism into the article being inspected.
MI
T
Magnetizing Force This is the total force tending to set up a magnetic flux by a magnetizing current. It is
ND
usually designated by the letter Hand, its unit is the oersted.
Nonrelevant Indication
KU
A magnetic particle indication due to a leakage magnetic field which is not caused by an
O-
actual discontinuity in the magnetized material, but by some other condition which does
PU
not affect the usefulness of the article (such as a change of section).
SM
Oersted A unit of field strength which produces magnetic induction and is designated by the letter
IP
"H."
Paramagnetic Materials which are slightly attracted by a magnetic field. Examples are chromium,
CO
manganese, and aluminum.

A
Paste Finely divided, ferromagnetic particles in paste form used in preparing wet suspensions.
IS
Permeability 1) The ease with which a material can become .magnetized.

DT
UM
2) The ratio between field strength produced and the magnetizing force (B/H).
3) The ratio of flux density produced to magnetizing force.
Pole The area on a magnetized article from which the magnetic field is leaving or returning to
-N
the article.
UK
MO
Prods Hand-held electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the magnetizing current from the
source to the article under inspection.
P
Rectified Alternating Current Alternating current which has been converted into direct current.
IP
S
CO
Reluctance The opposition of a magnetic material to the establishment of magnetic flux. The
reluctance of the material determines the magnitude of the flux produced by a given
magnetic force. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electric circuit.
Residual Field See "Field, Residual Magnetic."
Residual Magnetism The amount of magnetism that a magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is
removed ...also called "residual field."
Residual Method A procedure in which the indicating material is applied after the magnetizing force has
been discontinued.
Resultant Field See "Field, Resultant Magnetic."
Retentivity The ability of a material to retain a portion of the magnetic force induced in it after the
magnetizing force has been removed.
Saturation The point in the magnetization of a magnetizable article at which an increase in the
magnetizing force produces no increase in the magnetic field within the article.
Sensitivity The capacity or degree of responsiveness to magnetic particle inspection.
54 of 56
Solenoid (Coil) An electric conductor formed into a coil; often wrapped around a central core of highly
permeable material.
Subsurface Any discontinuity which does not open onto the surface of the article in which it
Discontinuity exists.
Suspension The correct term applied to the liquid bath in which is suspended the ferromagnetic
particles used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method.
Swinging Field Magnetic fields induced in two different directions alternately and quickly to
Magnetization detect, more accurately, defects oriented in different directions in an article.
Test Piece An article containing known artificial or natural defects used for checking the efficiency of
magnetic particle flaw detection processes.
Vector Field See "Field, Resultant Magnetic."
Wet Method The inspection method employing ferromagnetic particles suspended in a liquid (oil or
water) as a vehicle.
SA
Yoke A "U" or "C" shaped piece of highly permeable magnetic material, either solid or
laminated, sometimes with adjustable pole pieces, around which is wound a coil carrying
the magnetizing current.
MI
T
ND
Yoke Magnetization A longitudinal magnetic field induced in an article, or in an area of an article, by means of
KU
an external electromagnet shaped like a yoke.
O-
PU
SM
IP
CO
APPENDIX B
MEASUREMENT CONVERSION CHARTS
A
U.S. CUSTOMARY TO INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) UNITS

IS
Inch to Millimeter Conversions

DT
UM
Inch Millimeter Inch Millimeter Inch Millimeter Inch Millimeter

-N
1 25.4 26 660.4 51 1295.4 76 1930.4

UK
2 50.8 27 685.8 52 1320.8 77 1955.8

MO
3 76.2 28 711.2 53 1346.2 78 1981.2

P
4 101.6 29 736.6 54 1371.6 79 2006.6

IP
5 127.0 30 762.0 55 1397.0 80 2032.0

CO
6 152.4 31 787.4 56 1422.4 81 2057.4

7 177.8 32 812.8 57 1447.8 82 2082.8
8 203.2 33 838.2 58 1473.2 83 2108.2
9 228.6 34 863.6 59 1498.6 84 2133.6
10 254.0 35 889.0 60 1524.0 85 2159.0
11 279.4 36 914.4 61 1549.4 86 2184.4
12 304.8 37 939.8 62 1574.8 87 2209.8
13 330.2 38 965.2 63 1600.2 88 2235.2
14 355.6 39 990.6 64 1625.6 89 2260.6
15 381.0 40 1016.0 65 1651.0 90 2286.0
16 406.4 41 1041.4 66 1676.4 91 2311.4
17 431.8 42 1066.8 67 1701.8 92 2336.8
18 457.2 43 1092.2 68 1727.2 93 2362.2
19 482.6 44 1117.6 69 1752.6 94 2387.6
55 of 56
20 508.0 45 1143.0 70 1778.0 95 2413.0

21 533.4 46 1168.4 71 1803.4 96 2438.4
22 558.8 47 1193.8 72 1828.8 97 2463.8
23 584.2 48 1219.2 73 1854.2 98 2489.2
24 609.6 49 1244.6 74 1879.6 99 2514.6
25 635.0 50 1270.0 75 1905.0 100 2540.0
Common Fractions to Millimeter Conversions

Inch Millimeters
1/64 0.397
1/32 0.794
SA
1/16 1.588
1/8 3.175
1/4 6.350
MI
T
1/2 12.700
ND
1 KU 25.400
O-
PU
SM
IP
CO
A
IS
DT
UM
-N
UK
MO
P
IP
S
CO
56 of 56

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CLASS ROOM TRAINING HANDBOOK

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

103 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING.

107 TEST PROCEDURFB

108 TEST OBJECTIVES.

101 PURPOSE 2. Locators

interpretation and evaluation. field, thereby detecting certain discontinuities

particle testing is capable of revealing

102 DESCRIP110N OF CONTENTS discontinuities (variations in material composition)

nondestructive test methods. However, this test

a. Chapter 1: Introduction and testing

b. Chapter 2: Principles of magnetic

particle testing, describing theory,

maximum reliability of machines, equipment, and

106 TESTING CRITERIA 108 TEST OBJECTIVE

be brought to the attention of responsible

CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

201 THEORY OF MAGNEl1SM

10. Coercive Force

204 HYSTERESIS LOOP

205 CIRCULAR AND LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

206 FIELD DISTRIBUTION IN MAGNEl1C AND NONMAGNEl1C CONDUCTORS

207 MAGNETIZING CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

208 CURRENT REQUIREMENTS

209 THEORY OF DEMAGNETIZATION

2-12 Hysteresis Loop Characteristics

2-14 Longitudinal Magnetization

2-16 Field Distribution In and Around a Solid Magnetic Conductor

2-17 Field Distribution In and Around a Hollow Nonmagnetic Conductor

2-18 Field Distribution In and Around a Hollow Magnetic Conductor

2-22 Single Phase Alternating Current Wave-Form

2-23 Rectification of Alternating Current to Half-Wave Direct Current

2-25 Circular Magnetization of Typical Articles Using Head-Shot or Central Conductor

2-26 Demagnetization Flux-Curve Projected from Hysteresis Curve

RANDOM ORIENTATION OF MOLECULES IN AN 4. Lines of Force

describing a magnetic field. As illustrated in

Figure 2-3, a bar magnet is covered with a sheet

paper. The iron filings arrange themselves in

characteristic patterns called lines of force. These

lines of force, called magnetic flux, never cross;

MAGNETIZED SPECIMEN magnet; they flow from north to south poles

outside the magnet, but from south to north poles

at the center of the magnetic field.

A material that has its north and south poles

Figure 2-3. Magnetic Field Surrounding Bar Magnet

Magnetic Poles will lift or Magnetic field is Magnetic Poles of leakage

No external Poles Magnetic Particles

Figure 2-4. Poles in Straight Bar, Horseshoe, and Broken Magnet

7. Vector Field 8. Consequent Poles

Consequent poles exist when more than two

Two magnetizing forces may be imposed

article. There may be an unequal number of

Figure 2-5. Vector Field Diagram Figure 2-6. Consequent Poles

9. Distorted Field 202 MAGNETIC MATERIALS

10. Leakage Field

opposite polarity. Since the new poles were Attracted to Magnetic

nonmetallic inclusions in a magnetized article, or Can Be Magnetic Particle

changes in the material of the article, will also

cause the creation of two opposite poles and a

fields and thereby the presence of discontinuities FIELDS

(either voids such as cracks, tears, lack of fusion, 1. General

When an electric current passes through a

around the conductor. If the conductor has a

uniform shape (a copper rod), the density of the