ARMA 67-0405

Chapter21
SOME ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

by K. E. Gray

The status of rock mechanicsas applied to petroleum production

might be termed, "Rock Mechanics--A New Name for Old Problems."
The petroleumindustry'sefforts, from its earliest days, have been con-
cerned with rocks, hopefully containing hydrocarbon accumulationsin
economicquantities. Geophysicaland geologicalstudies,wildcat and
development drilling procedures,well bore mechanics and reservoir
engineeringoperations, and certain aspects of production operations
involve rock mechanicsin various ways. Stressstates and temperatures
of interest range from low values in surface or near-surface activities,
to very high values encounteredat depths now exceeding25,000 ft;
deeper and deeper drilling will continue to increase this range. Time
scales vary from a few microsecondsin wave propagation measure-
ments and some aspectsof rock behavior during drilling, to seconds,
minutes or hours for other drilling and well bore mechanicsproblems,
to several years during which the efficientand economicaldepletionof
reservoirsystemsis achieved. Subsurfacesedimentaryformationscontain
various fluids, of course,and reservoir fluid movement commonly in-
volvesthree-dimensional, three-phase(oil, gas, and water) fluid flow.
Many extremely difficult problems in rock mechanicsarise for the
Petroleum Engineer because of fluid movement (or lack of desired
movement) in a well bore or reservoir.
The discussionto follow illustrates just a few of the many topics
in rock mechanicsof significanceto the petroleum industry. Time pre-
cludesanything other than a superficialtreatment of the topics men-
tioned. A great deal of work has been carried out by various research
groups in the petroleum field and significant efforts are continuing,
as a review of the technical literature will reveal.

K. E. Gray is Chairman of the Dept. of Petroleum Engineering, University of

Texas, Austin, Tex.
4O5
406 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

ROCK PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR

Various investigationsof a phenomenological

nature, i.e., the behavior
of rock under controlledconditionsof testing, have led to a need for
more realistic information about the "properties"of rock. It would
appear,in fact, that behaviorof rock under given conditionsis really
a manifestationof that rock's"properties"during the event of interest.
The word "property" seemsinadequateactually becauseit implies a
fixed value for somemeasuredquantity. One might, for example,con-
sider the commonterm, "compressirestrength." A rock which has a
uniaxial compressirestrengthof say 10,000psi, under low loadingrates
may exhibit an apparentcompressire strengthof many timesthat value
for loads appliedover a few microseconds or even milliseconds.The
point is that a numericalvalue for "compressire strength"has doubtful
meaningoutsidethe contextof the behavioralsituation (grossand local
stressstate, rate of loading,nature of loading,size of sample,size
and size distribution of the solid constituents,temperature, presence
and sizeof cracksor joints,and so forth). An effortis beingmade,then,
to investigatethe nature of sedimentaryrocks as they exist, not as we
wishthey existed.Someexamplesare givento illustratethe anisotropic
nature of rock and the time dependentnature of its apparentproperties
and behavior.

Low-Loading Rate Compression Tests

For many, and perhapsall, rocks,one may suspectthat isotropy
should be regarded as a degenerate,and probably non-existent case.
Be that as it may, portionsof somerecentlypublishedwork, 2 should
illustratethe complexnatureof real materials.Fig. 1 showsa cylindrical
specimen, coredat someangle,/3, to the beddingplanes.The one-half
inch diameterby one inch long sampleswere placedunder a spherical
stressstate and then axially loadedto failure. The strain rate, E, was
low and testsof this type are often calledstatic tests.
Fig. 2 showsthe fracture strength,a, versusfi for slate at confining
pressuresfrom 5,000 to 40,000 psi. At 5,000 psi confiningpressure,
minimum fracture strength occursat fi= 30; as the confiningpressure
is increased,
minimumstrengthoccursat largervaluesof fl. Both the
angleof internalfriction,, and the cohesive
strength,o, are direction
dependentfor this rock, and considerationof such variation allows
accuratepredictionof fracture strengthminima as shownin Fig. 2
and describedelsewhere. The non-symmetryof the fracture strength
with respectto fi is anotherinterestingfeature;unpublished
data from
our laboratoriesindicatethat other anisotropic"properties"of rocks
are not symmetricwith respectto direction.
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 407

TYPICAL
STRESS
STATE ? I ',1...
Locus
ofminimum I
-----1ZO[- strength
volues
predicted-I
= * fig' ' / byvorioble
T& ton
,.. ."- ! confining
_.I00,'- theory
for
thevorious
|
pressures
'-'
shown
ingPlones 80-'\ 40,000
psi--.. '
o,ooo

Confining
40' -
_ o,ooo
,' Pressure
I z=0.5%/minfor 0 I I I I I I

zo-
'5000 psi
psi -

Green
RiverShole 0 lO 50708090
= 0.1%min
for -AngleBetween
Cleevoge
Plene
Slote end, Degrees
Fig. 1--View o! typical sampleshowing Fig. --Fracture strength vs. orienta-
parameters (fi, and ) varied during tion anglefJ]or slate at variousconfining
testing. pressures.

Fig. 3 shows results for Green River Shale-1 which rock contained
about 18 gal kerogen per ton of rock. Minimum strength occurred
at 30 to the bedding plane, independentof confining pressure. Above
/=50 , the rock behavior was not particularly sensitive to bedding
plane direction but was quite sensitive below 50. As confining pres-
sure was increased,the curvesflattened out, indicating a trend towards
isotropic behavior. As the confining pressure was increased above
15,000 psi, the amount of ductile or plastic behavior precedingfailure
of the specimenincreased.Suchbehaviorwasnot unexpected.
In Fig. 4, the results for samplesof Green River Shale-2, which
containedabout 45 gal of kerogenper ton of rock, show again a mini-
mum strength at /=30 , independent of confining pressure. Note,
however, the absenceof any plateau in the curves and, if anything,
an increasein anisotropicbehavior as the confiningpressurewas in-
creased. This rock becamequite plastic at confiningpressuresas low
as 1000 psi, henceon a grossscalethe rock exhibitsplasticity anisotropy.
This behaviorwas not expected.
The observed macroscopicmodes of deformation are illustrated in
Fig. 5. In addition to rock type, the initial state of stressto which
 408 STATUS OF PRaCtiCAL ROCE iECHANICS

5O

60'-0_
50 O0
p..si,
25,

20- - 15

I0 I I I I0
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60708090 0 10 2050405060708090
/3-Angle Between
Bedding
Plane /3-Angle Between
Bedding
Plane
and, DeGrees and, Degrees
S--Green River Shale-1. Fracture Fio. --Green River $haleo. Maximum
strength data. strength data.

].SHEAR B.P.
a. Along
bedding
plane Fracture
6000t
rIIIIIIIF
,ooo
4000'-
3000
IIIt-
Tos
=3077 2ToL

b.Across
bedding
planeFracture
B.P. 2000
- =sinp
(1+
sin,,'
.-Indicates
in
2.'PLASTIC"
FLOW
o. Along or
SLIP
plane B,P.
bedding
!ooo _
I
Spread
Data
I I I I I I
"-x-
ToL= 1017
I I I
"KINK' FLOW 0 1020 3040 50 60 70 80 90
,-Angle Between
Bedding
Plane
Consists
of
orotation
Iondories
of beddingplane
and'1, Degrees

Fig. 5--Typea o/Jailureanoted. Fio. 6--Comparison oJ tensile strength

data Jot Green River Shale-1 with GriJ-
fith Theory.
 ROCK IIECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 409

the specimenis subjectedand the value of influencethe deformation

mode which results. Plastic flow or slip could not be distinguishedfrom
"kink" flow on the basis of data recordedduring the test; a thin section
was necessaryto make the distinction.x A detailedstudy of thin sections
from the deformedspecimens,using petragraphicand electronmicro-
scopes, hasbeenreported?
The variation of tensile strength with bedding plane orientation for
Green River Shale-1 is shownin Fig. 6. The Brazilian method,modified
by strip loading,was usedto obtain the data points shownin compari-
son with the solid line, which results from a failure criterion suggested
by Walsh and Brace4 as an extensionof the McClintock and Walsh 5
modification to Griffith's6 tensile failure theory. Tensile strength tests
at 2500psi confiningpressureindicatedthat the tensilestrengthof GRS-1
is not sensitiveto con.fining
pressure.7
Modulus of elasticity versus confiningpressureis shown in Fig. 7
for specificorientationsof the three rocks tested. Sensitivity of the
modulus of elasticity to confiningpressureand bedding plane orienta-
tion was expectedbut the maxima in the curves were not. Work is
continuingto ascertainthe completemeaningof suchresults. It seems
clear, however,that one must be very careful in selectingthe proper
value of a "property"in a specificapplication.

12
I I I I TO R SIGNAL
PO E FROM
[ RECEIVER
PRESSURE /, SIGNAL
TO
I SYSTEMJt ,' ,[TRANSMITTER
_olo
- A Slate
, -
:9oO 'RECEIVER
6 - TO
CO.FINING
,RESSURE
SYSYEM

Green River Shale- I

AXIALSTRESS EAMPLIFIER
River Shale-2 -
/'3 :60
01 I I I I
0 I0 20 30 40 50
Confining
Pressure,
psix -10'3 SYSTEM

Fig. 7--Variation of the modulus of elasticity F. g--Cross-sectn oJwave prop-

with respectto confiningpressures. agatn apparat.
410 TATUS OF PRACTICALPOCK iECHANICS

Vave Propagation and Deformation Tests

As opposedto properties measuredby rock deformation at low loading
rates, dynamic directional properties of both dry and saturated rock
specimenshave been obtained at both simple and elevated stressstates,
using the equipmentshown in Fig. 8. The tensor-like nature of material
properties of several rocks has been determined with remarkable detail,
owing to a capability for generatingpure compressionand shear waves?
In addition, some effects of strain history have been investigatedwith
the apparatus shown. Many well bore operationsinvolve just a few
cycles of loading and the changesin rock properties that occur are of
great importance to the Petroleum Engineer. Because rock properties
are strain history dependent,one would prefer to make all measure-
ment in situ, i.e., in the well bore, and work now completed8 shows
great promisein this respect.
Another study 9 involved measurementof directional values for modu-
lus of elasticityand Poisson's
ratio by wave propagationtechniques
and simultaneousdeformation measurements.Measurementsof porosity,
permeability, resistivity, compressivestrength, and tensile strength
were also made for the oriented core samples. All of these quantities
are direction dependent. Someare loggable;someare "strength" proper-
ties related to drillability of the rock. This project, and others now in
progress,relate to a loggingindication of drillability, which capability
would be of great value to the drilling engineer. Continuousdownhole
monitoring of rock propertieswould provide, for example, a continuous
log of the well. Simultaneous and continuous transmission of down-
hole information would permit rig-floor optimization for minimum cost
drilling and/or well boredeviationcontrol.
Detailed descriptionof in situ rock would be helpful in interpretation
of seismicrecordsand in attempts to model rock systemsphysically or
mathematically. Modeling of rocks is not a new activity, but it is a
dit/icult one owing to the extremely complexnature of rocks and their
behavior. Realistic scaling criteria will not be possible until much
more is known than at present.

Well Bore Stress State

Few topics in rock mechanicsare more important to the Petroleum

Engineerthan the state of stressarounda well bore. Prior to penetration
by the drill bit, a reservoir has some stressfield which resulted over
geologictime. This conditionis abruptly changedby the drilling opera-
tion. The presenceof the bore hole, movementof drilling fluid into the
rock, subsequent well boreoperationsnecessaryto completethe well and
 ROCK IECHANIC$ ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 411

flow of formation fluids to the well bore serve to create, more than
likely, a complicatedstressstate at and near the borehole.
Paralleling experimentalwork on directionalpropertiesof rock, some
theoretical aspectsof fluid flow through anisotropicporousmedia have
been considered?,TMFig. 9 illustrates a reservoir of thickness,h, and
radial extent, rB, containing a well bore of radius, r. The reservoir
is consideredto have transversely isotropic material and fluid flow
properties.That is, in the horizontaldirectionfor example,the rock
exhibitsfixed valuesfor Young'smodulus,E, Poisson'sratio, v, permea-
bility, k, nd arealporosity,. In the verticaldirectionthe rock has
fixed but differentvalues,i.e., E', /, k', and '. For constantthickness
of the reservoirand an infinite outer boundary,one might considereither
(a) constantflow rate, or (b) constantflowingpressureat the well bore.
Either case resultsin a time and position dependentpore pressureand
mathematicalexpressions for the state of stressand radial displacement
as functionsof positionand time have beendeveloped.Solutionshave

,... ......
..........
i
ILl
I i I I
i I 1
',

'.'.'?.
..... .

Solutions
forr, l... u, as f(position,time)
for:
RockProperties: E,V, k, in radialdirection Solutions
forr, ,(7z, u, asf(pasition,time)
directionfor:
E',1)',k',' invertical
PlaneStrain: Iz = 0 Rock
Properties:
E,'P,
k,
E2,1)2,
inradial
k2.e.) direction
System
1': Infinite Reservoir
( r,,--,- )
o. ConstantFlow Rote at Well Bore
b. ConstantPressureat Well Bore E;,Vi',
k;,,;
}in
vertical
E'z.V'z.
k'z.
'2 direction
SystemIT: Finite Reservoir(r,: finite) PlaneStrain: Ez = 0
o. SteadyStateFluidFlow
System
Tlq':FiniteReservoir
( r,,: finite)
. Constant
Boundary
Pressures
c. ConstantPressureat Well Boreand No Flow ConstantPressureat WellBoreand No [low
across
OuterBoundary
(Closed
Reservoir) across
OuterBoundary
(ClosedReservoir
)

Fig. 9--Physical systemand boundary Fig. 10--Physical systemand boundary

conditions/or transverselyisotropicres- conditions ]or "damaged" well bore in a
ervoir. transverselyisotropic reservoir.
412 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

also been obtained for the case of finite outer boundary and fluid flow
conditionsof (a) steadystateflow, (b) constantboundarypressures, and
(c) constantpressureat the well bore and no flow at the outer boundary,
i.e., a closedreservoir. A closedreservoiris a commonphysical situa-
tion with whichthe reservoirengineermust deal.
Resultsof the work showthe dramatic influenceof directionalprop-
ertiesof the rock. Directional,transientfluid flow createsbody stresses
which are very significant relative to the total state of stress at and
local to the well bore. Pressuregradientsarising from reservoirfluid
flow can so modify the stressstate that calculationsbased upon the
Lam equations,for example,can be hopelesslyin error. The Lam
equations,moreover,are asedupon solid body mechanics,and it is
clear that the effectof porositycannotbe ignored.
Knowledge of the state of stress around a well bore is of concern
to the drilling engineer,for example,in terms of rock failure in close
proximity to the drill bit. Hydraulic fracturing of petroleum reser-
voirs is common practice and of tremendous value. Considerations of
fracture initiation and orientation illustrate the importance of realistic
informationaboutthe well borestressstate. The ability to predict,from
operatingparametersand measurablerock properties,realistic fracture
limits and dimensionsis needed. The situation is complex;a petroleum
reservoir may consist of many interbedded plastic and elastic layers,
somethin, somethick, which interact with one another. Often the beds
are inclined to the well bore. A generalizedtreatment which provides
for a seriesof layered media, finite in thickness,and having directional
propertiesand the dynamic stresseswhich arise due to well bore opera-
tions is needed.
The drilling mud or fluid used to drill a well serves many functions,
including transport of the drilled cuttings to the surface, lubrication
of the drilling string, and containmentof reservoir fluids within the
formations penetrated. The borehole-to-formationpressuredifferential
necessaryto prevent flow into the well bore often resultsin a damaged
zone or "skin effect" around the well bore due to invasion of mud
tiltrate and even mud solids into the formation. The physical system
discussedearlier was extended as shown in Fig. 10, in which transverse
isotropyis preservedbut there are four setsof properties;one set in the
radial directionin the damagedzone, another in the undamagedrock,
one set in the vertical direction in the damaged zone, another in the
undamagedrock. Solutionsfor the stresscomponentsat, a, and a. and
the radial displacementur as a function of position and time were ob-
tained for a finite reservoir with a closedouter boundary and constant
fluid pressureat the well bore?
If permeabilitynear the well bore is substantiallyreduced,by what-
 ROCK lECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 413

ever means, large stress gradients and a complex stress field around
the well bore may result when the well is opened to flow. Certainly
such a bore hole stability problem is of great importanceto the petro-
leum engineer. Similarly, in poorly consolidatedproducingformations
sand productioninto the well bore even under normal flow conditions
is a serious problem which warrants additional analytical and experi-
mental treatment.
The area of well bore mechanicsincludesother types of bore hole
stability problems,such as casing loading due to flow of salt or shale.
It is quite commonto drill throughthe crest of salt domesto penetrate
potential traps on the dome flanks. The plastic nature of salt and
certain shale sectionsin the subsurfaceenvironment creates problems
in maintaining a near-gagehole during drilling and problemsrelative
to casing loading due to "creep" of such rocks later. The costsasso-
ciated with casingcollapsein a well are, of course,very large and this
problemis receivingincreasedattention from a rock mechanicspoint
of view.

Reservoir Description and Behavior

The reservoirengineercommonlydoesnot identify himself as a rock
mechanicist,although he is vitally interestedin rock propertiesand
behavior. Rather sophisticatedapproachesto various complexreservoir
systemsand processes have been and are being developed. It is not
surprisingthat theoreticalapproacheshave proceededat a more rapid
pace than effortsto establishdetailed valuesfor rock parameterswhich
enter such mathematical results. The reservoir engineeris well aware,
however,
of the needfor betterreservoirdescription..
Importantreser-
voir rock and fluid flow parametersare obtained from well logs and
in recentyears heavy emphasishas been placedupon transientfluid
flow analysis to establish the nature of a reservoir from well to well.
Reservoirpropertiesand behaviorchangeduringthe depletionprocess,
of course,and subsequenttesting is desirableand necessary. Mathe-
maticalsimulationof reservoir
systembehavior isreceivingheavyempha-
sis. Rock mechanicswill play an ever increasingrole here sincethe
reservoirsystemis alwaysout of directreachand only a small amount
of samplingof an entirereservoiris economically
feasible.
Compactionof a reservoirduringthe depletionprocessis of some
significance,
andin the caseof subsidenceof largesurfaceareas,a prob-
lem which cannotbe ignored.While this problemhas receivedsome
attention,currentand future work in rock mechanicswill undoubtedly
provide useful information in that area.
414 STATS OF PRACTICALROCK IECHANICS

DRIU,ING

It has beensaid that the petroleumindustryis the only one which

usesa five-milelong drive shaft. Certainlythe on-bottomactionof
a drillingbit is far removedfromthe rig floor,wherechanges in rotary
speed,bit weight,pumprate, etc., are controlled.The rotary drilling
processhas remainedessentiallyunchanged sinceits introductionin
the SpindletopField in 1901. This is not to say, of course,that sub-
stantial improvements in equipmentand techniqueshave not been
made. It seemsreasonable, however,that detailedunderstanding of the
complexand interrelatedeventsthat occurat and near a drillingbit
shouldserveas the basisfor possibleimprovementsin drilling equip-
mentand/ortechniques. Considerable
effortis beingmade,therefore,
to investigate the variouslocalandshortterm aspectsof drill bit action.

Microbit Studies

An importantaspectof the drilling problemis the dynamicfiltra-

tion which occursbelowthe bit, owingto a borehole-to-formation
pres-
sure differential. Fig. 11 showsa schematicdiagram of a microbit

TURBINE
WEIGHT FLOWMETER
ONBIT TANK

CIRCULATING
PUMP

F LOW
ANALIZER

VACUUM
TUBEVOLTMETER FLUID
RESERVOIR

SPEED
ROTATING
MOTOR

ROTARY
ADJUSTMENT

FLOOR MODEL
DRILL PRESS

FILTRATE
FLOW LINE

FILTRATE
COLLECTION
TUBE HIGH PRESSURE
WATER OUTLET

Fig. 11-Schematic
diagramoJmicrobitdrillingapparatus.
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 415

drilling apparatuswhichhas beendevelopedto study dynamicfiltration

and its effectuponpenetrationrate>s
The drilling equipment shown is capable of rotary speedsto 250
rpm and bit weightsto 1500lb. The testswerecarriedout in a closed
circulatingsystemcapableof borehole-to-formation pressuredifferentials
of 1500 psi. A high-pressurepump providedcirculationrates to 60 gpm
and the drill fluid was continuouslyfiltered by screenelementslocated
within a high-pressurecontainer. Circulation fluid pressurewas main-
tained constant during drilling by a high-pressure,low-volume injec-
tion pump.
The rock sample,coatedwith adhesiveand then cast in plastic pipe
with epoxy (Fig. 12B), was sealedwithin the pressurecell body by'
O rings (Fig. 12A). A transducer threaded into the boreholesection of
the cell provided continuousrecordingof the boreholepressure. Three
additional transducerswere positioned on the cell body to measure
pore pressurewithin the sample ahead of the bit. The pore pressure

DRILLSHAFT O-RINGS ADHESIVE

BRASS
BUSHING

CAP
:,',ll PLASTIC

. :ESURE;AUGE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
,
H0LE AI 'i. (B
PRESSE
1'/ J STAINLESS
'- ER JEEL PRESSURE
PEURE II CELL
TRANSDUCERS

DRILL
11L =- I FLUID

QUICK
/ :.FILTRATE
ALVE
OPENING V
_O- (C)
FLOW
LINE
Fig. l--Pressure cell assembly.
416 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

transducersjust penetrated the adhesive coating around the sample and

were pressuresealed upon the plastic pipe by O rings (Fig. 12C). All
four transducershad an operating range of 0 to 1500 psi with 0.05 pct
accuracy. A high-pressure,quick-openingvalve located in the tiltrate
flow line preventedflow prior to drilling.
Filtrate which passed through the rock during drilling entered the
base of the calibrated tiltrate collectiontube; an air column within the
upper portion of the closedtube was thus compressed as liquid entered
the collection tube. A 0- to 10-psig pressuretransducer was used to
monitor the air pressure,and a calibration curve of air columnpressure
vs. fluid level change in the closedtube allowed precise evaluation of
tiltrate producedduring a drilling test. A bit location transducer, con-
sisting of a gear train, battery and precision potentiometer, continu-
ouslymeasuredbit displacementduring drilling.
Signals from the six transducerswere fed through appropriate elec-
tronic circuitry to a light beam oscillograph. Thus, bit displacement,
boreholepressure,three pore pressuresand tiltrate volume were all re-
corded simultaneouslyas a function of time, as shown in Fig. 13. Bit
displacementshownin the figure is proportionalto the 2-in. interval
drilled during each test.
As drilling proceedsmud cake is being deposited and disturbed
continuously. Some mud particles or drilled solids are carried into the
rock ahead of the bit by mud tiltrate, thus causing a zone of reduced
permeability. Below the damaged zone, the undamaged rock experi-
ences only mud tiltrate flow. Thus, the system can be considereda
three-region,linear system from the standpoint of tiltrate fluid flow.

g-Borehole
Pressure IOOO
' I/ Pore
M,ddleII, Upper
Pore
Pressure 900

750

__
BEREA SANDSTONE
Lower
P
............
600

VERTICAL unuspmcemenr450
W-47-I000
o,-, K = 0,0 md $00
our- Pb= IOOOpsg
150

Fig. 13--Typical oscillograph

recordingo! drillingdata, water.
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 417

The pressuregradientbelowthe bit and the averagepermeabilityof the

three-regionsystem were calculated as a function of core length from
a computerprogram which utilized the measuredpressures,distances,
and tiltrate flow rates.
Fig. 14 shows typical plots of the permeability distribution and
pressuregradient for drilling tests with water on Berea sandstone. The
pressuregradient is high for about one-third of a centimeter below the
bit, and permeabilitydamageis evidentfor about one centimeter. Fig. 15
showsresultsfor a drilling mud having a 50 cc/30 min. water lossand
Fig. 16 givestypical resultsfor a low water lossmud (13 cc/30 min.). As
the water loss decreases,the pressuregradients increase and become
more concentratedbelowthe bit. Permeability damagebelowthe bit due
to solid particle invasion likewise becomesmore local to the hole bottom.
For the low fluid lossmud, pressuregradientsover 1,000,000psi per ft
were measuredfor a 1000-psiborehole-to-formationpressuredifferential.
Note that this gradientwas essentiallyconcentratedin the first one-tenth
centimeter below the bit and that the correspondingpermeability re-
duction was likewiseover a very short distance. These resultsgraphi-
cally illustrate the extremely local nature of this aspect of the drilling
process. It has been shown elsewhere3 that the penetration rate is
directly relatedto the pressuregradientbelowthe bit.
Since permeability distribution below the bit can be determinedwith
20 104 106
TAP NO 3 TAP NO.

I04

I X I 4
_
I0

102

5 IO4

I0

i0
0 2 3 4 5 6 ? 8 9 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 ? 8
CORELENGTH, cm CORELENGTH, cm

Fig. 14--Permeability Junctionand pressuregradient vs. core length Jot water.

Vertical Bereasandstone,PB-- 1000psi4t.
418 STATUS OF PRACTICALROCK MECHANICS

5 xlO5

TAP NO. 2 TAP NO. 2

4 x 105

_ 3xlO 5

;) x 105
..y

0.3

Ix I05

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
CORE LENGTH, cm CORE LENGTH, cm

Fig. 15--Permeability /unction and pressuregradient vs. core length /or high fluid
lossmud. Vertical Berea sandstone,PB -- 1000psig.

15 x IO5 -_

TAP NO 3 TAP NO. 3

,. I0x10
5
c.

5 x 105
0'3

0
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
COREbENGTH, cm CORELENGTH, cm

Fig. 16--Permeability/unction and pressuregradientvs. core length /or low fluid

lossmud. Vertical Berea sandstone,PB -- 1000psig.
 ROCK VIECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 419

the system shown in Fig. 11, the apparatus is being used to study
formation damage during drilling in terms of rock and mud system
properties2 It is of interest to know what rock and mud properties
control the magnitude and extent of damage and to what degree the
damage is reversible. This is of great importance to production and
reservoir engineers since the damaged well's flow capacity may be
significantlyimpaired and the well's responseto stimulation techniques
may be greatly compromised.
A separate investigation having to do with underbalanceddrilling
has been carried out with a modified version of the equipment shown
in Figs. 11 and 12. In this work a system was developed whereby
formation fluid was allowedto flow into the wellboreduring'the drilling
test? In other words, the pore fluid pressureexceededthe bore hole
pressureso that a controlled"blow out" conditionprevailed. Substantial
increasesin penetrationrate can be achievedunder certain circumstances
and the techniqueis currently in limited field use.

Bit Tooth Indenta,tion Tests

In contrast to the drilling bit studies mentioned previously, con-

siderablestudy has been made of the impact or indentation of a single
bit tooth into fluid saturatedrock at elevatedpressures.
6, Fig. 17 shows

BOREHOLE
lt

NITROGEN
/
[ POLAROID / CAMERA
-- -.,. a' 1
PRESSURE ! i I / .-----*k .....
X . 1 [ .. ) 0SCLL0SC0,[S

,,ov
'
BOR '**
'
F -- II II111liHl-:----: -
/ !111I1111111::'C-:
INSTRMENTATION PANEl
420 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

apparatus with which a single, verticle impact of a bit tooth upon a

rock specimenmay be carried out under carefully controlledoperational
and environmental conditions. Fig. 18 shows a cross-section of the
pressurevesselin which the rock sample may be subjectedto indepen-
dently controlledconfining,pore,and boreholepressures.
Strain gages mounted on the dynamometer assembly provided a
record of force on the bit tooth during impact (Fig. 18). A velocity
transducer mounted on a cam follower produced an electronic signal
proportionalto the velocity of the follower--hence,the velocity of the
dynamometer and bit tooth. The force-time and velocity-time signals
were fed to an oscilloscopethat was equippedwith an operationalampli-
fier. Thus, with electronicintegrationof the velocity-time signal, simul-
taneous records of force-time, velocity-time and displacement-time
characteristics of the bit tooth were obtained. Using a secondoscilloscope,
the force-time and displacement-timecurves were cross-plottedto pro-
ducea force-displacement recordfor the test.
TO CHIPPER

STRAIN GAGE LEADS

BORE HOLE
PRESSURE

-- ROCK SAMPLE
SEALED WITH
WEDGE EPOXY RESIN

-- CONFINING
PRESSURE

COMPRESSION
CHAMBER

PORE
PRESSURE--

Fig. 18--Cross-sectional
viewoJpressure
vesselwith samplereadyto be impacted.
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 421

Fig. 19 illustrates the three general types of crater--brittle, semi-

plastic (transitionalfrom brittle to plastic) and plastic failure--which
resultedfrom impact testson Berea and Banderasandstone.For brittle-
type failure in gas-saturatedrocks,the craterswere irregular in shape
and unsymmetricabout the line of tooth impact. A crushedzoneusually
existed directly beneath the wedge fiat. For liquid-saturatedrock,
more uniform craters were observed;the crater shape was quite uniform
and the crater was symmetric about the line of tooth impact. The same
result was reported by Podio and Gray?
The transitional mode of failure from brittle to plastic yielded sym-
metric craters; one large free chip formed on each side of the wedge
and a small free chip sometimesexisted at each end of the wedge. A
near-perfect impressionof the wedge fiat was apparent in all craters.
Rock deformation was continuousin this type of crater.
For a plastic-type mode of failure, no free chips were formed in
establishing the crater. Plastically formed craters were symmetrical
and the displaced rock laminated during the process. The laminated
lip material suggeststhat failure occurred in finite steps rather than
by continuousflow. Perfect wedge impressionswere observed;smooth
and uniform craterswere observedwhen the displacedrock was removed.
At zero pore pressure(and boreholepressure),brittle failure occurred
at all confining.pressures
in both gas- and liquid-saturatedBerea and
gas-saturated Bandera. In soltrol-saturated Bandera the failure was
usually by brittle failure, but in somecasesit was slightly transitional.
As pore pressurewas increased at constant confining pressure,the
failure mechanismgraded from a brittle to a ductile type. Transition
occurred very early in the weaker rock (Bandera) but was delayed to
smaller values of effective stress (confining pressure Pc minus pore
pressurePo) for the stronger rock (Berea). Transition from brittle

BRITTLE TRANSITIONAL PLASTIC

Fig. 19--Typical craters formed during single bit tooth impact tests on permeable
422 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

to a more ductile behavior occurred at lower pore pressures(high

effectivestress) for liquid saturated rocks but was quite evident for the
gas-saturatedsamplesat higher pore pressures(low effective stress).
From observationof the samplesit was evident that control of the
modeof crater formationdependsnot only uponthe strengthof the rock
but also upon the differencebetweenconfiningpressureand pore pressure,
and the nature of the pore fluid saturant, i.e., a nominal zero effective
stressdoesnot insure a given failure mode. For example, while tests at
zero effective stress in nitrogen-saturated Berea resulted in craters
formed in mostly brittle fashion, tests at zero effective stress using
liquid-saturatedBerea and Bandera yielded plastically formed craters.
Typical oscilloscope
recordsfor brittle, transitional and plastic mode
of failure are shown in Fig. 20. Fig. 20-A showsbrittle failure. Inspec-
tion of the force-timeand displacement-timecurvesshowsthat maximum
force occursafter only a slight penetration. Force drops rapidly from
the maximum value and there is a correspondingincrease in velocity.
A secondaryforce-timepeak, lower than the first peak, corresponds to
the maximum on the displacement-timecurve. The force-displacement
curve has a maximumvalue at low displacementand a secondarypeak
occursat maximum displacement.
Fig. 20-B represents late transitional or semiplastic failure. Com-
parison of force-time and displacement-timecurves shows that maxi-
mum force occurs near maximum penetration. It may be seen from
the force-displacementcurve that increase in force is nonlinear with
wedge penetration after the initial force. Note the dramatic change
in the shape of the force-displacementcurve as comparedto brittle
failure; now maximum force occursnear the end of the curve, i.e., at
maximum penetration.
Fig. 20-C shows typical oscilloscopetraces for plastic failure. The
force rises rapidly on contact and, after the initial force is reached,
the force is linear with increasing wedge penetration. The linear rela-
tionship betweenforce and wedgepenetration beyondthe initial force is
the main difference between plastic and semiplastic mode of crater
formation.
Note also that the initial force is highest for brittle failure and de-
creasesas the failure mode passesthrough transitional to fully plastic-
failure. While initial force dependsupon several factors (rock type,
tooth geometry,stressstate, pore fluid saturant and rate of loading),
the linearity betweenforce and bit-tooth penetration for plastic failure
obtained in these experimentsconstitutesexcellent agreement with
plasticity theory.
Oscilloscoperecords for tests on Berea sandstoneat a constant con-
fining pressureof 10,000 psi and pore pressuresof 3000, 5000 and 8000
 IOCK iECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 423

$$: 2 /cm

I MAXIMU
DISPL.

INITIAL h _FORCE
FORCE---,, FORCE

VEL.

A. BRITTLE DISPLACEMENT

DISPL.

FORCE

VEL.

DIS PLACEMENT
B. TRANSITIONAL

DISPL.
--

F OR CE

0 1
,
VEL.

C. PLASTIC DISPLACEMENT
Fig. O--Typical oscilloscope
recordsoStainedduring singlebit tooth impact tests on
permeable rocks.
424 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

psi are shown in Fig. 21 for nitrogen-saturatedsamplesand in Fig. 22

for soltrol-saturatedones. For nitrogen-saturatedBerea, the craters are
formed in a brittle fashion at 3000 psi pore pressure (nominal effective
stress=7000 psi). As the pore pressureis increased (i.e., the nominal
effective stressis lowered), the failure mode changesslightly to early
transitional. For soltrol-saturatedBerea (Fig. 22), the failure mode
is in a late transitional stage even at 7000-psi effective stress and be-
comesslightly moreplastic at an effectivestressof 2000 psi.
For Bandera sandstonesaturated with nitrogen (Fig. 23) a transi-
tion from brittle to a semiplasticfailure mode is dramatically evident
as the pore pressureis increasedat constant confiningpressureof 10,000
psi. Even at 7000-psieffectivestress,a fair degreeof semiplasticde-
formation is observed. At a pore pressureof 8000 psi (nominal effective
stress=2000 psi), the traces show well-developedsemiplastic crater
formation. Note the reduced rate of force buildup beyond the initial
force and the linearity of the velocity-time curve. For soltrol-saturated
Bandera (Fig. 24) crater formation is by plastic failure, even at 7000-
psi nominal effective stress. When confining pressure and pore pres-
sure are equal, i.e., when the nominal effectivestressis zero, plastic
failure occursin both rocks (Fig. 20-C).
The above results clearly contradict the usual result that brittle
failure obtains at zero effective stress. It seems certain that the mode
of crater formation is not just a matter of combination of confining
pressureand pore pressureat hand, but rather dependsupon at least
three interdependentvariables--nominal effective stress,pore fluid satu-
rant and rock strength.
The impact velocity in thesetests was only about 7 fps, but the dura-
tion of the event was only about4 millisec. Clearly, the dynamicsof the
situation are important. The volume of rock deformedby the bit tooth
is very small. For these impact tests brittle failure was observed on
nitrogen-saturatedBerea sandstoneat zero nominal effective stress,i.e.,
when confiningpressureand pore pressurewere equal. On the other hand,
for liquid-saturated rocks the mode of failure graded from brittle to
ductile behavior as the pore pressurewas increasedat constantconfining
pressure,indicating that a fully plastic mode of crater formation could
be expectedat zero nominal effectivestress. The tests proved this to be
correct as plastic instead of brittle failure was obtained when the pore
pressuresand confiningpressureswere equal.
The above observationssuggestthat, for dynamic tests, the nominal
effectivestressis not the only factor that controlsthe modeof failure; the
nature of the interstitial fluid also has an important role in rock behav-
ior. Certainly the high compressibilityof nitrogen as comparedto the
liquid saturantsusedcontributedto the observedbrittle behavior of gas-
 ROCK MECHANICSASPECTSOF PETROLEUMENGINEERING 425

DISPL.

FORCE

VEL.

DISPLACEMENT
pp 3,000psi

DISPL.

FORCE

VEL.

pp=5,000psi DISPLACEMENT

DISPL.

FORCE

VEL.

pp 8,ooopsi DISPLACEMENT
Fitl. Yl--Titpical basicdata Jot nitrooen-saturated Berea sandstoneat variouspore
pressures(impact velocitlt-- 7 Jps,po-- 10,000psi).
426 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

DISPL.
_

FORCE
VEL. 0 --

pp=3,000psi DISPLACEMENT

DISPL.

FORCE
o

VEL.

DISPLACEMENT
pp=5,000psi

DISPL.

FORCE

VEL.

pp 8,000psi DISPLACEMENT
Flit.--Tltpicalbasic
data]orsoltrol-saturated
Bereasandstone
at various
pore
pressures
(impact
velocitit
--7 Ips,pc----10,000
psi).
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 427

DISPL.

FORCE

pp= 3,000psi DISPLACElVLENT

_ DISPL.

FORCE

o
VEL.

pp= 5,000psi DISPLACEMENT

DISPL.

FORCE

VEL.

pp= 8,000psi DISPLACEMENT

Fig. $--Tpical basicdata Jot aitrogea-satttratedBaadera saadstoneat variouspore
pressures(impact velocity -- 7 Jps,po-- 10,000psi).
428 STATUS OF PRACTICALROCK MECHANICS

- DISPL.

FORCE

0
VEL.

pp=3,000psi DISPLACEMENT

DIS P L.

FORCE

VEL.

DISPLACEMENT
pp 5,000psi

DISPL.

FORCE
0

DISPLACEMENT
pp= 8,000psi
Fi;. 4--Typical basic data Ior soltrol-saturatedBandera sandstoneat variouspore
pressures(impact velocity -- 7 Ips, po----10,000psi).
 Rock MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGIN..RTNG 429

saturated rocks and ductile behavior of liquid-saturatedrocks at zero

nominal effectivestress. However, the trend from brittle to ductile be-
havior as the nominal effective stresswas reducedheld regardlessof the
pore fluid saturant. More is involved than fluid compressibility.
Podio and Gray suggestedthat rock behaviorduring bit-tooth impact
is in essencea very short time-consolidationproblem? The true stress
state local to the tooth dependsupon an interplay of deformationcharac-
teristics of a small volume of fluid-filled rock and the dynamics of the
process.One fundamentalquestionis, what is the pore pressurein the
small volume of rock below the bit tooth during impact? Some idea of
the complexity of the problem may be gained by consideringthe diffu-
sivity equation,normallywritten as
pc
72PP=
k [1]
wherep=pore fluid pressurebelowthe bit tooth, = rock porosity,k--
rock permeability, = fluid viscosity,c= systemcompressibility and t =
time. Even assumingthat the saturatingfluid exertsonly a pressureeffect
upon the rock, i.e., the fluid does not react in any way with the rock
matrix, it is clear that a realisticexpressionfor p= f(t) in the zoneof
deformationmust be complex. Apart from known pressuredependence,
it is unlikely that any of the parameterswhich comprisethe diffusivity
constant(pc)/k are in fact constant.Values for porosity and permea-
bility k surely changerapidly during deformationof the rock by the bit
tooth. Moreover, one might questionwhether values for fluid viscosity
and compressibilityare rather different from normal equilibrium PVT
measurements when the fluid pressureis beingchangedsignificantlyin a
time periodof only a few microseconds. In addition,short-termthermal
effectsmay not be insignificant.
In summary, the actual state of stress in the small volume of rock
surroundingan impactingbit tooth is unknownat present. It shouldbe
emphasizedthat the contradictionof ductile rock behavior at zero effec-
tive stressreportedby otherinvestigators is basedupona grossor nominal
effectivestress.It shouldnot be concludedthat the conceptof effective
stressis necessarilyat fault. Rather, the needis to developa definition
of effectivestressthat incorporatesboth the local nature of the event and
the dynamicsassociatedtherewith.
Additional bit tooth impact tests on salt water saturated rocks with
drilling mud in the boreholesectionof the pressurevessel(Fig. 18) have
been reported elsewhere? The results showedthat at a given nominal
effectivestress,the failure mode graded from brittle to plastic as the
water lossof the drilling fluid was-reduced. Also, for a given drilling
430 S?A?us
OFPPCAL RockIECHANICS
fluid, the failure modemovedfrom brittle to plasticas the nominaleffec-
tive stress was reduced.

Drag Bit Studies

Sedimentaryrocks are, in general,anisotropicin most if not all of
their properties. Strength anisotropy as it relates to hole deviation is
receivingconsiderableattention, and Fig. 25 illustrates equipmentwith
which the planing action of a drag bit blade can be simulated. Details of
the apparatushave beenreportedelsewhere9,2oas have preliminarytests
on someanisotropicrocks?
Fig. 26 showsin schematicform the motion of a drag bit blade of rake
angle,, clearanceangle,, making a depth of cut t, in a layered rock,
the bedding planes of which make an angle, , with the direction of
cutting? The resultant F, of the vertical force component,Fv, and the
horizontalforcecomponent, Fh, makesan anglep with the beddingplanes.
Planing testshave beencarriedout on Green River Shaleat variousorien-
tations to the beddingplane for variousvaluesof t, R, and . Details
of the bit forceswere measuredduring chip formationfor correlationwith
high-speedmoviesof the cuttingaction.
Fig. 27 showstypical results. It is obviousthat forceson the drag bit

..' CAMERA
CONTROLS
SHAPER RAM

WOLLENSAK
FASTAX MERjTMICi
LLU AL FROM
NATOR (' ..... ..' .
16mm
HIGH
SPEED
CAMERA
__ METALLUR
GICAL [ ..L-*! ....""
. MICROSCOPE ..J'"lil['.'
":.
::
": [ PARABOLIC'
'? ';""-'.' :;-'.':.
': MIRROR '
, ' , ': ,

- SUBJECT BEING,I
-

,......
:-.,.
_..' I PHOTOGRAPHED ll

.,-. ', ..

ELECTRODE '::.::
B OSCILLOSCOPE

POLAROID II I I
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 431

DRAG BIT
BLADE

Clearance//,// //
/.{// ;./_.'.
///2

blade are cyclic and are directly related to the orientation of the bedding
planes,which orientationcausesdirectionalstrengthin the rock. Such
resultsare to be expectedand substantiatepreliminary testsof a similar
nature.2 Fig. 28 showsa drag bit blade rotating in a layered, dipping
formation? Results such as shown in Fig. 27 mean that the total force

, AnglebetweenFr and BeddingPlenes

20 40 60 80 I00 120 140 160 180
300
280 -
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
([ RataDirection
of
260 tion
240

220

200
i
Fh A B
180
160

4o
120
o
I00
,
,_
8O
Fr = Resultant Force
60 -- t = 0.010 -
= 0
40- R = 0.005" - Be

0 210I 40I I 60I I 0 I I00I I 120I I 140I I 160i 180 Plane

, Angle Of Bedding Plones

Fi. 7--Variation ol loree componentswith bed- Fi. 8---ehematic diagram

ding plane orientation. oJforce componentson drag bit
blade.
432 STATUS OF PRACTICAL ROCK MECHANICS

resultant on the bit will be direction dependent. A direction-dependent

force resultant on the bit would be important with respectto (a) drill
string vibrations and (b) hole deviation considerations.Both topicsare,
of course,extremelyimportantin the drilling process.
As was mentionedearlier, directional propertiesof rocks have been
obtainedby wave propagationand/or deformationtechniques.Current
work is directed towards mathematical formulation of the hole deviation
problembasedupon measurable,directionalrock properties.With the
development of equipmentfor continuous relay of downholeinformation
to a rig floor computerwhich is coupledto servo-controlledrig floor
controls,it will be possible
to optimizethe drillingoperationto include
deviation control.

SUMMARY

Only a few topics in rock mechanicsof interest to the petroleum

engineerhave been discussed.Notwithstandingthe superficialtreatment
above,rock mechanicsis basicto the petroleumindustryand considerable
effort is being made to solve a host of rock mechanicsproblemswhich
have tremendouseconomicimplications.

REFERENCES

1. McLamore, R. T.: Strength-DeformationCharacteristicsof AnisotropicSedi-

mentary Rocks, Ph.D. Dissertation,The University of Texas, Aug., 1966.
2. McLamore, R. T. and Gray, K. E.: The Mechanical Behavior of Anisotropic
SedimentaryRocks, Trans. AME Journal of Engineeringfor Industry (Feb.,
1967) vol. 89, no. 1, p. 62.
3. Budd, C. H.: A MicroscopicExaminationof MechanicallyDeformedAnisotropic
Rock, M.S. Thesis,The University of Texas,Jan., 1968.
4. Walsh, J. B. and Brace,W. F.: A Fracture Criterion for Brittle Anisotropic
Rock, Jour. Geophs.Res. (1964) vol. 69, no. 16, pp. 3449-3456.
5. McClintock, F. A. and Walsh, J. B.: Friction on Griffith Cracks in Rocks under
Pressure,Proc. Fourth U.S. Natl. Cong.Appl. Mech. (1963) p. 1015.
6. Griffith, A. A.: Theory of Rupture, Proc. First Internatl. Cong. Appl. Mech.
(1924) pp. 55-63.
7. McLamore,R. T. and Gray, K. E.: A StrengthCriterionfor AnisotropicRocks
Based Upon Ezperimental Observations,SPE 1721, Presented at 96th Annual
AIME Meeting (Feb. 19-23, 1967) Los Angeles,Calif.
8. Podio,AugnstoL.: EzperimentalDeterminationof the DgnamicElasticProper-
tics of AnisotropicRocks-Ultrasonic Pulse Method, Ph.D. I)iartation, The
University of Texas,June, 1968.
9. Boggus,R. F.: DirectionalPermeabilities,Material Propertics,and Resiztivities
of ondstones,M. Thesis,The Universityof Texas,Aug.,1967.
10. Seth, M. S. and Gray, K. E.: Transient Stressesand DisplacementAround a
Wellbore Due to Fluid Flow in TransverselyIsotropic, Porous Media: I. Infinite
Reservoirs,$oc.Pet. Eng. Jour. (March, 1968)vol. 8, no. 1, p. 63.
 ROCK MECHANICS ASPECTS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 433

11. Seth, M. S. and Gray, K. E.: Transient Stressesand DisplacementAround a

Wellbore Due to Fluid Flow in TransverselyIsotropic, Porous Media: II. Finite
Reservoirs,$oc. Pet. Eng. Jour. (March, 1968) vol. 8, no. 1, p. 79.
12. Seth, M. S.: Stressesand Displacementsin TransverselyIsotropic,PorousElastic
Media Under Transient Pore Pressure,Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of
Texas, Jan., 1966.
13. Young, F. S. and Gray, K. E.: Dynamic Filtration During Microbit Drilling,
Jour. Pet. Tech. (Sept., 1967)vol. 19,no. 9, p. 1209.
14. Evans,W.: Rock and Drilling Fluid Propertiesas Relatedto FormationDamage,
Mq. Thesis,The University of Texas,in progress.
15. Gainer, P.: A Microbit Study o! Controlled-BlowoutDrilling, Mq. Thesis,The
University of Texas, Aug., 1967.
16. Podio, A. and Gray, K. E.: Single-BlowBit Tooth Impact Tests on Saturated
Rocks Under Confining Pressure. I. Zero Pore Pressure,Soc. Pet. Engr. Jour.
(Sept., 1965) vol. 5, no. 3, p. 389.
17. Yang, J. and Gray, K. E.: Single-Blow Bit-Tooth Impact Tests on Saturated
Rocks Under Confining Pressure:II. Elevated Pore Pressures,$oc. Pet. Engr.
Jour. (Dec., 1967) vol. 7, no. 4, p. 389.
18. Myers, G. M. and Gray, K. E.: Dynamic Filtration Below an Impacting Bit
Tooth, SPE 1862,Presentedat 42ndAnnual Fall Meeting of SPE (Oct. 1-4, 1967)
Houston, Texas.
19. Gray, K. E.: Fixed-BladePinning of Rocks in the Brittle StressState, Ph.D.
Dissertation,The University of Texas, Aug., 1962.
20. Gray, K. E., Armstrong,Frank and Gatlin, C.: Two DimensionalStudy of Rock
Breakage in Drag Bit Drilling at AtmosphericPressure,Trans., AIME (1962)
vol. 225,p. 93.
21. Chenevert, M. E.: The Deformation-Failure Characteristicsof Laminated Sedi-
mentary Rocks, Ph.D. Dissertation,The University of Texas, Jan., 1964.
22. Gray, K. E.: Some Current Rock Mechanics Research Related to Oil-Well
Drilling, Paper No. 906-12-K, Presentedat Spring Meeting of Southwestern
District, Division of Production,API, Odessa,Texas (March 15-17, 1967).
23. Peng, Y.: Fixed-BladePinning of AnisotropicRocks at AtmosphericPressure,
M. Thesis,The University of Texas, in progress.
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING