Paper 05-004(11).

pdf, Page 1 of 15
AFS Transactions 2005 American Foundry Society, Schaumburg, IL USA

Lost Foam Casting Coating Characterization: Heat and Mass Transfer

Q. Zhao
Metal Casting Technology, Inc.; Milford, New Hampshire

H. Wang
Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Oak Ridge, Tennessee

S. Biederman
GM Powertrain at Metal Casting Technology; Milford, New Hampshire

D. Jason, J. S. Parish
HA International LLC; Westmont, Illinois

Copyright 2005 American Foundry Society

ABSTRACT

The objectives of this study are three fold: (1) determine the factors influencing the heat transfer properties of lost foam
casting coatings; (2) determine the factors influencing the specific permeability of the coatings; and (3) determine the
operating heat and mass transfer mechanisms within the coatings. Twelve different coatings were selected and prepared to
measure their thermal diffusivity and specific permeability values. To understand the structure-property relationships, the
particle size distribution, mode mix, mineral/refractory type, particle shape, size, and void fraction of each coating were
examined and measured for their effects on the coating heat and mass transfer properties. A coating structure model was
proposed, based on which, the mechanisms and paths of heat and mass transfer across coatings and the limiting factors were
analyzed. The structure-property relations derived from the proposed coating structure model compared favorably with
experimental observations.

INTRODUCTION

The coatings used in lost foam casting are expected to play two of the key roles: limiting metal heat loss rate and facilitating
a rapid foam pattern removal, both are critical to eliminating casting defects [Zhao, Gustafson, Hoover, Flemings]. The
performance of coating heat and mass transfer often varies as casting shape, pattern quality, and alloy change. The difficulty
in selecting proper coatings reflects the complexity of the effects of the input materials (coating, foam, metal, and part
geometry) on metal fill and solidification. The difficulty also indicates the lack of sufficient understanding of the operating
mechanisms of the coating heat and mass transfer processes. A thorough understanding of coating structure-property
correlations would allow the coatings to be proactively tailored and modified to meet the dynamic lost foam casting
production needs.

Many research works have reported on the structure-property relationships of various powder coatings [Orr, Dallavalle, 1960;
Aim, Goff, 1968; Hirschhom, 1969; Harr, 1977; Harwood, 1978; Stockham, 1978; Heiskanen, 1993, Masteau, Thomas,
1997]. In those works, the voids that remain from high-temperature metallurgical processes were largely disconnected. In
contrast, the coatings used in lost foam casting are made of numerous discrete solid particles and a void phase that forms
continuous passage ways. There are also a great number of publications for the transport phenomena in porous media, such as
soil, sandstones, limestones, woods, concretes, etc., for the civil engineering and petroleum industry applications. In those
areas, research activities intensively targeted on measuring void distributions using various liquid (miscible or non-miscible)
porosimetry techniques and describing the void distribution using different mathematical approaches [Fatt, 1956,
Klinkenberg, 1957, Simon and Kelsey, 1971, 1972, Kirkpatrick, 1973, Dullien, 1979, Chatzis and Dullien, 1977, 1978, 1985,
Cioranescu and Donato, 1999, Ene, 2001]. Those models provided the framework in different levels of mathematical
complexity for the intensive numerical simulations. The models and simulations, however, did not offer clear practical
correlations between the physical porous structure parameters and the transport phenomena in the porous media. Some works
have been done in recent years to focus directly on evaluating the heat and gas transfer properties of commercial lost foam
casting coatings [Molibog, Dinwiddie, Porter, Wang, Littleton, 2002, Zhao, Gustafson, 2001]. Those works measured and
compared coating transport properties, but still left the coating structure-property correlations unknown.
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This study proposes to do the following:

1. determine the factors influencing coating heat transfer properties
2. determine the factors influencing coating specific permeability
3. identify the operating heat and mass transfer mechanisms and construct structure-property relationships
To reach this goal, several different coating types were selected and prepared. The specimens were prepared in order to
measure their heat and mass transfer properties and examine their granular structure characteristics. A coating structure
model has been proposed to describe the operating heat and mass transfer mechanisms. The coating structure-property
relationships derived from the model were compared with experimental observations.

EXPERIMENTATION

COATING SELECTION AND SAMPLE PREPARATION

The twelve coatings selected in this study are listed in Table 1. The first seven (Coatings A to G) were commercially
available lost foam coatings used in the production of both aluminum and iron lost foam castings. Base refractory materials
for those coatings included mica, silica, and bauxite. The other five specially blended coatings (Coatings H to L) were
developed to examine the effects of alternative refractory materials or particle shape and size distribution on coating
properties. These refractory materials included zircon, fused alumina, fused silica, and lake sand. These coatings were
prepared by the addition of the base refractory to the same coating premix slurry comprised of binder, suspending agent,
biocide, defoamer and wetting agent in water. The use of the same premix slurry was intended to provide a common basis for
the special coatings so that the refractory could be evaluated in an independent manner. The outputs of the coating
measurements include void volume fraction, Vf, coating thermal diffusivity, c, and coating specific permeability, c.

Table 1. Coatings Collected and Prepared from Production and Research Environments

Void c (x10000) c (x100)

Granular Particle Characteristics Fraction cm2/s cm2x10-8
Coating
ID Type * Shape D(v,0.5)+ Vf(d<1) Vf(d<10)^ S.S.A V f Vf c c
A Mica-silica 2.55 flaky/angular 36 0.015 0.116 0.624 0.51 0.006 31.4 0.8 4.91 0.67
B Mica-silica 2.65 flaky/angular 35 0.017 0.146 0.653 0.55 0.007 30.5 0.9 4.69 0.74
C Silica-mica 2.30 angular/flaky 43 0.023 0.141 0.628 0.54 0.007 29.7 0.9 4.96 0.74
D Silica-mica 2.18 angular/flaky 40 0.034 0.203 0.789 0.60 0.006 28.7 0.8 5.03 0.67
E Bauxite-mica 3.02 blocky/flaky 35 0.049 0.197 1.260 0.55 0.006 29.4 0.8 5.25 0.67
F Bauxite-mica 3.01 blocky/flaky 40 0.056 0.179 1.339 0.55 0.006 29.3 0.8 6.00 0.67
G Silica 2.46 angular 16 0.120 0.393 2.624 0.33 0.006 60.7 0.8 4.91 0.67
H Fused silica 2.06 angular 42 0.076 0.308 1.884 0.30 0.006 37.8 0.8 3.94 0.67
I Fused silica 2.03 angular 87 0.044 0.135 1.020 0.42 0.006 31.8 0.8 27.0 0.67
J Lake sand 2.44 round 100 0.046 0.328 1.111 0.35 0.006 72.8 0.9 34.6 0.74
K Alumina 3.40 angular 22 0.164 0.347 3.052 0.30 0.007 55.0 1.8 5.56 1.38
L Zircon 3.60 sub-round 17 0.210 0.417 4.057 0.24 0.006 48.7 1.6 5.02 1.25
* : dry (moisture-free) coating density
+
D(v,0.5): geometric median which divides the population exactly into two equal halves

V(d<1): volume fraction for particles smaller than 1 micron

^ V(d<10): volume fraction for particles smaller than 10 microns

The coating preparation for the commercial lost foam refractory coatings followed the recommended production coating
preparation procedures. The customized coatings were prepared similarly with adjustments in solid fraction (SF) and
viscosity values according to their wet densities and slip cast-abilities. The water-based coating slurries, when well mixed,
were slip cast into metal rings of 12 mm diameter and 1 mm depth within a metal pan made of heavy-duty aluminum foil (see
Figure 1). Five to fifteen discs were cast for each coating type. The disc coating samples were air dried for one to two days,
then flipped over, and air-dried for another one to two days. Each of the dried samples was gently ground to different degrees
against 600 mesh silicon carbide sand paper to gain the uniform surface flatness and a variation in sample thickness required
by the Flash Methods for thermal diffusivity and the tests for specific permeability.
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AFS Transactions 2005 American Foundry Society, Schaumburg, IL USA

Figure 1. Slip cast coating discs in metal rings of 12 mm in diameter and 1 mm in depth.

COATING CHARACTERIZATION:

Thermal Diffusivity Measurement

The coating thermal diffusivity values were measured using the Flash Methods per ASTM E1461-01[ASTM, 2001]. The
Flash Method was first developed by Parker et al [Parker, Jenkins, Butler, Abbott, 1961]. Over the past 30 years, this method
has been widely accepted as one of the main experimental techniques to obtain the thermal diffusivity of solids. The low-
cost room temperature flash diffusivity system developed at Oak Ridge National Lab [Wang, Dinwiddie, 2004] was used for
thermal diffusivity measurements. The system is comprised of a laptop, a portable flash lamp and a portable IR detector. The
basic components of the setup are shown in Figure 2. To improve sensitivity, the specimen was mounted directly in front of
the IR detector using a special sample holder. The detector was completely shielded from the flash source and overheat of
the sample holder was prevented by multiple shielding layers and additional reflecting surfaces. The detector signal has very
little noise and does not need any signal conditioning, which allows the flash energy to be low (1-2C temperature rise) and
avoids overheating of the specimen. Most coating specimens were opaque. Some specimens were translucent which were
then coated with a thin layer of graphite to prevent light penetration. Koski and Clark-Taylor [Koski, 1981, Clark, Taylor,
1975] methods were used for data analysis.

The Anter FL5000 laser flash system developed at Oak Ridge National Lab [Wang, Dinwiddie, Gaal, 1996] was used for
high temperature thermal diffusivity measurements. Six specimens were loaded into the carousel of an aluminum furnace.
Thermal diffusivity was measured from 100C to 500C in a nitrogen atmosphere. Each sample was measured three times in
order to obtain an average.

Figure 2. Schematic of experimental set-up of the room temperature flash diffusivity system.

Specific Permeability Measurement

DArcys law states that if a sufficiently slow flow occurs (Reynolds number, Re < 1), then the volume flow rate, Q, is
proportional to the pressure drop per unit length of packing (or coating in this case), P/L:
k d AP
Q= (1)
L
where A is the cross-sectional area of the packing sample, L is the length of the sample, and kd is the permeability of the
packing. Specific permeability, , is defined as
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QL
= k d = (2)
AP
where is the absolute viscosity of passing fluid. The apparatus used for permeability measurements is illustrated in Figure
3. The digital manometer ranges from 0.1 inches water (~50 Pascals) to 200 inches water (~50000 Pascals). The four-range
rotameter set measures flow rates from 0.7 milliliters per minute to 100 liters per minute. The lowest available flow rates
were always used to minimize the nonlinear effects in the reading of the pressure differential. To prevent coating damage
during sample installation, a split aluminum die with a recess sample seat was used to protect the disc samples from being
pressurized by the sealing materials. Each of the specimens was also measured in a Simpson-Gerosa Perm Meter for its
value per Eq. (2) with necessary corrections on A and L.

Figure 3. Schematic of MCT perm meter.

Measurement of Particle Size Distribution

All coatings were analyzed for particle size distribution using a Mastersizer 2000. The Mastersizer 2000 is a low angle laser
light scattering (LALLS) system. The instrument consists of a source laser, a suitable detector and some means of passing the
sample through a laser beam of a fixed wavelength (=0.632 microns). The system provides several analysis models (log-
normal, bimodal, and more complex polydisperses) to enable the deconvolution of the light scattering data to be optimized.
Each of those models relates to clearly defined measurement situations. When one model is selected, a description of its
function is clearly displayed.

The Mastersizer 2000 allows the end-user to measure entire powder samples, both dry and wet. The measurements are
flexible and dynamic. The method, however, assumes particles are much larger than the wavelength, all particles scatter with
equal efficiencies, particles are completely opaque, and particles are spherical in shape. These assumptions may not be valid
for some materials.

Evaluation of Particle Shape, Packing Mode, and Specific Surface Area (SSA)
All coating samples were examined under a scanning electron microscope that was equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy analyzer (SEM/EDS) to identify the refractory type and shape and to recognize the typical granular pack mode.
Some examples are presented in Figure 4. Specific surface area (total surface area per unit volume) is particle shape and size
dependent. It was, however, observed that the differences in particle shape between the sub-micron particles of different
refractory types were negligible. For that reason, the specific surface areas for all coatings were estimated using a spherical
shape assumption, since the total surface areas of the sub-micron particles dominate the overall values of SSA.

Evaluation of Coating Dry Density and Coating Void Fraction

The coating dry density, c, dry , was measured using the formula below:
wdry
c , dry = (3)
V wet ( wwet wdry ) / L
where wwet and Vwet were the original sample mass and volume, wdry and Vdry were the mass and volume after 15 minutes
heating at 300F, and L was the density of the coating premix slurry that evaporated during heating. The void fraction, Vf,
was calculated from the equation below:
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AFS Transactions 2005 American Foundry Society, Schaumburg, IL USA

c w /V
V f = 1 = 1 disc disc (4)
c , dry c , dry
where c was coating density, and wdisc and Vdisc were the mass and volume of the coating sample, respectively.

A B C
Figure 4. Typical coating particle shapes and pack modes A: mica-based; B: silica-based; C: zircon-based.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY AND INFLUENTIAL FACTORS:

The conduction of heat in dielectric solids at room temperature is considered to be the propagation of phonons in anharmonic
elastic waves through the solid. Thermal diffusivity, , for a dense material, is defined as = k/(cp), where k is thermal
conductivity, cp is heat capacity, and is material density. For the coating materials, if the same definition is applied, the
coating thermal diffusivity, c, is given as c = kapp/(cp,cc), where kapp is apparent thermal conductivity, cp,c, is coating heat
capacity and c is coating density. The thermal conductivity of a dense material is severely affected by grain boundaries,
phase boundaries, and crystalline defects. The apparent thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the coating materials
were believed to be heavily dependent on granular structure characteristics.

Figure 5. One way analysis of thermal diffusivity by coating type (with or without mica).

Coating Type (Shape Mix) Effects

There are two typical coating types used for lost foam aluminum castings: mica-based and silica-based. The former
(coatings A, B, C, and D) contains flaky mica particles and angular or non-angular silica particles (cristobalite, quartz, or
diatomaceous earth), the latter (coating G, for example) which is mica-free contains primarily angular silica (typically quartz)
particles. In lost foam aluminum production, the mica-based coatings were found to be more heat insulating than the silica-
based ones. The measurements of thermal diffusivity by the Flash Methods confirmed that the thermal diffusivity values of
the mica-based (or mica-containing) coatings were much lower than that of the silica-based coatings (see Figure 5). The
microstructure examination revealed that the mica flakes in the mica-based coatings were oriented preferentially aligning
parallel to the free surfaces, regardless of whether or not the coatings were dip-coated or slip cast (see Figure 6). This unique
mica orientation created a loosely packed granular structure with 3-dimension particles (angular, semi-angular, or non-flaky
particles) trapped between the parallel mica flakes. The periodic local high void fractions of such granular structures caused
by the 2D (thin plates) and 3D (angular, semi-round, round) particle mix is believed to be responsible for the low thermal
diffusivity of the mica-base coatings.
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A B
Figure 6. Mica particles in coating B on A: free surface (dip-coated); B: fractured surface (slip cast).

Polymodal (Mode Mix) Effects

The effects of polymodal (mode mix or size distribution) were observed in the comparison of coatings G, H, and I. The
coatings were all silica-based. The shapes of the refractory particles were similar (semi-angular or angular, see Figure 7). The
particle size distributions, however, were different. Coating G contains a significant amount of fine particles (smaller than 10
micron) and has a much wider size distribution skewed to its fine end compared to coatings H and I (see Figure 8). The
higher thermal conductivity of coating G was believed to be due to its more complex polydispersive size distribution that
improved the packing and decreased the void fraction (specially, local void fraction) of the granular assembly.

A B C
Figure 7. Silica particles in coating G (A), coating H (B), and C: coating I (C).

I = 0.0032 cm2/s

H = 0.0038 cm2/s

G = 0.0061 cm2/s

Figure 8. Comparison of the particle size distributions of the silica coatings G, H, and I.
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Particle Shape Effects

Coatings I and J were silica-based. The size distributions were similar (see Figure 9). The measured thermal diffusivity for
coating J, however, was much higher than that for coating I (see Figure 10). SEM inspection revealed that coating I was
primarily composed of angular particles (fused silica) while coating J was primarily composed of semi-round particles (lake
sand) (see Figure 11). The near-round lake sand particles appear to be more in contact with each other than the latter. The
unique particle interfacing condition in coating J was believed to help decrease the local void fraction at the contact points
between the backbone particles.

Figure 9. Comparison of the particle size distributions of the silica-based coatings I and J.

Figure 10. One way analysis of thermal diffusivity by coating type (with or without mica).

Figure 11. Particle shapes and pack modes of coating J (left) and coating I (right).
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Particle Size Effects

Coatings G and J were silica-based and both were equally compacted. The thermal diffusivity of coating J is significantly
higher than coating G (see Figure 12). One clear difference between the two is that coating J is made of much coarser silica
particles than coating G (see Figure 13). The difference in thermal diffusivity between coatings G and J can be explained as
follows: the resistance to heat conduction within each individual granular particle is far smaller than that at the interface
between the particles; for a given coating thickness, the larger the average particle size the smaller the overall resistance to
the heat transfer due to a significant reduction in number of inter-particle interfaces. This concept will be further discussed in
the next section.

Figure 12. One way analysis of thermal diffusivity for coating G and coating J.

Figure 13. Comparison of particle sizes of coating G (left) and coating J (right).

Figure 14. Effects of temperature on the thermal diffusivity of various coatings.

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Temperature Effects
For all the coatings tested it was found that the thermal diffusivity decreased as temperature increased from room temperature
to 500F (Figure 14). This result is consistent with the phonon theory that predicts stronger interactions of the phonons with
crystalline structure defects and grain and phase boundaries at higher temperatures. As temperature continues to increase,
Molibog et al observed an increase in the thermal diffusivity from 700F to 1200F [Molibog, Dinwiddie, Porter, Wang,
Littleton, 2002]. This result was due to the more significant contributions of photon radiation to the heat transfer at the
elevated temperatures.

SPECIFIC PERMEABILITY AND INFLUENTIAL FACTORS:

From DArcys law in Equation (2), permeability, kd can be expressed as
r
J
kd = (5)
P
with J being the mass flux and P being the pressure gradient. kd is coating dimension-independent but still dependent on
fluid type and temperature. In practice, it is more desirable to use specific permeability as defined in Equation (2). is not
only shape and size independent, but also fluid type and temperature independent. Use of specific permeability allows the
measurement to be specific to the coatings packing feature and applicable to many other fluid types. For simplicity, the term
permeability will be used for specific permeability in the discussion below.
Shape Mix Effects
The effects of mica flakes on permeability were observed. Within a comparable void fraction range (39 <Vf < 60), the
permeability values of the mica-base or mica-containing coatings were significantly lower than those of the mica-free
coatings (see Figure 15). The low permeability values of the mica-based coatings were believed to be due to the extra
zigzags across the parallel mica flakes. The fluid lost energy each time it turned during its travel within a coating. The more
turns the fluid took and the sharper each turn was, the less energetic the fluid would become in its travel, resulting in a quick
pressure drop and a lower flux through the coating.

Figure 15. One-way analysis of specific permeability by coating type (with or without mica).

Figure 16. The Bivariate fit of specific permeability by average particle size (geometric median).
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Particle Size (Geometric Median) Effects

The particle size has a strong effect on the permeability of mica-free coatings. The coating permeability was found to
increase as geometric median, D(v, 0.5), increases (see Figure 16). This result was believed to be due to the fact that coatings
made of coarser particles provide more open and less zigzag paths to the air flow than the coatings containing finer particles,
even though the latter may have higher void fraction than the former.

Specific Surface Area Effects

Specific surface area indicates how far a granular particle assembly may stretch out to its fine end. The effects of SSA on
coating permeability are shown in Figure 17. For the mica-free coatings, permeability decreases as SSA increases. This is
consistent with the discussion of particle size effects on permeability and the conclusion that finer particle size leads to a
lower permeability value. For mica-based coatings, SSA does not have a significant effect on permeability. This result could
be because shape mix dominates coating permeability or the variation in SSA among this group of coatings is still not
sufficient to see the trend.

Figure 17. The effects of SSA on coating permeability A. mica-free coatings; B mica-based coatings.

Coating Imperfection (Pin-Holes, Cracks) Effects

Coating defects, such as pin-holes and cracks larger than the typical coating voids, have strong effects on coating
permeability. Coating permeability increases dramatically as the defect sizes increase. One sample disc with one pin-hole less
than 0.5 mm in diameter was found to have a permeability of three or four orders of magnitude higher than the same coating
type samples without pin holes. This result is a natural extension of the discussion of the effects of particle size on coating
permeability. This fact explains the noticeable randomness of the coating permeability data measured from coating
applications in different batches, mixing systems, and different mixing procedures.

Temperature Effects
The temperature effects on coating permeability reported by [Zhao, Gustafson, 2001] are redrawn in Figure 18. The disc
coating samples were loaded into an electric oven, heated to each target temperature level within 30 minutes, and then
isothermally held for 30 minutes before unloading. A steady increase in specific permeability was observed in both the mica-
based and silica-based coatings. The permeability increases were believed to be due to micro-cracks generated during the
heating process. These cracks were believed to be of similar sizes as the coating voids since the specimens were free standing
during heating and cooling.

Figure 18. Effects of temperature on coating permeability from, after [Zhao, Gustafson, 2001].
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ANALYSIS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

COATING STRUCTURE MODEL

A coating structure model is proposed as illustrated in Figure 19 for all of the lost foam casting coatings. The mica-free
coatings, such as the silica-based ones, are considered to be the extreme case when mica content is zero. The model assumes
that the coatings are constructed with randomly oriented 3D particles trapped in between parallel mica plates. The particles
between every two mica plates form a cell unit which includes half mica plates on both sides. 3D particles within each unit
cell connect to each other in series between the mica walls. The random particle contact between lines is ignored since both
heat and mass transfer through the thin coating (from left to right) are along the coating surface normal direction.

Figure 19. Schematic of the coating structure model.

HEAT TRANSFER
The heat transfer through a coating structure unit of thickness, t, which is the function of mica volume fraction, Vf,2D, cross-
sectional area, A, geometric median, dg,m, and void fraction, Vf , is illustrated in Figure 20. The arrows represent the heat flow
across the structure unit driven by a constant temperature gradient along the coating thickness.

Figure 20. Schematic of heat transfer paths across a coating structure unit.

across the structure. The mica flakes are arranged in parallel to the free surfaces and equally spaced by t. The apparent
thermal conductivity, kapp, which is derived from its analogous nature to that of the conductivity of electric current passing
through a resistor network, is given as
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(1 V f ) 2 / 3
k app = (6)
C b dry 1 b(1 V f ) 2C b dry
2/3
1 d g ,m
+ + +
d g , m k 3 D k b 3 D SSA FS b t k 2D k b SSA FS b 3 D

where k3D and k2D are the thermal conductivities of pure 3D and 2D particle materials, 3D is the shape factor of 3D particles,
FS is the fraction solid of the coating slurry, b is the thickness of mica flakes, and Cb and b are the content and the density of
the binder materials in the coating. The corresponding thermal diffusivity, c, is given as

(1 V f ) 2 / 3
c = (7)
1 d g ,m C b dry 1 b(1 V f )
2/3
2C b dry
c p ,c c + + +
d g , m k 3 D k b 3 D SSA FS b t k 2D k b SSA FS b 3 D

For the mica-free coatings, ignoring the heat flow resistance within each solid particle, Equations (7) and (8) can be further
simplified as

d g , m k b 3 D SSA FS b (1 V f ) 2 / 3
k app , mica free = (8)
C b dry
and

d g , m k b 3 D SSA FS b (1 V f ) 2 / 3
c , mica free = (9)
c p c C b dry
Equations (7) and (9) describe the coating structure and thermal diffusivity correlation with measurable granular structure
characteristics. The quantitative descriptions of these correlations agree well with the experimental measurements, which
suggest that the proposed operating heat transfer mechanism, the heat flow paths, and the limiting factors are valid.

MASS TRANSFER
Mass transfer through the coating structure unit of thickness, t, cross sectional area, A, and geometric median, dg,m, is
illustrated in Figure 21. The arrows represent the mass (gas) flow across the structure unit driven by a constant pressure
gradient along the coating thickness. Again, the mica flakes are

Figure 21. Schematic of mass (gas) transfer paths in a mica-containing coating structure unit.
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arranged in parallel to the free surface and equally spaced by t which is a function of the mica volume fraction in the coating.
In contrast to the heat transfer discussed above, the mass flow paths through the coating are along the void channels between
the solid particles. Again, coating specific permeability, c, which is derived from its analogous nature to that of the
conductivity of electric current through a resistor network, is presented as follows:
1
c = (10)
SSA b2
+
3 D , SSAmin SSAminV f f ( 3 D ) 2 D , SSAmin t (b V f , 2 D t ) g ( 2 D )
where SSAmin is the specific surface area of the void passage unit that has a minimum SSA, 3D,SSAmin is the permeability of
the void passage unit of the minimum SSA (proportional to d2g,m and Vf), 2D,SSAmin is the permeability of the void passage
unit of a minimum SSA between the mica flakes that are similar (if not the same) distances away from the free surfaces, Vf,2D
is the mica volume fraction, f(3D) and g(2D) are the 3D and 2D particle shape factor functions, respectively.
For the mica-free coatings, Equation (11) can be simplified to

3 D , SSA SSAminV f f ( 3 D )
c = min
(11)
SSA
Equations (10) and (11) describe the coating structure and mass transfer property relationship with measurable granular
structure characteristics. The quantitative descriptions of these correlations agree well with the experimental measurements,
which indicates that the operating mass (gas) transfer mechanism, the mass flow paths, and the limiting factors suggested in
the model are valid.

COATING PROPERTY MAP

Equations (7) and (10) derived above were used to build a 2D coating property map as shown in Figure 22: specific
permeability versus thermal diffusivity. The limiting factors and their effects on heat and mass transfer are plotted around the
map. The arrows (red (horizontal) for heat and blue (vertical) for gas) point to the directions of the property changes caused
by the increase of each of the limiting factors. The results of the coating measurements are also displayed within the map for
comparison. The agreement between the analyses and the measurements was believed qualitatively satisfactory. The basic
measurements on some less well known coating structure parameters, such as 3D particle shape factors, mica volume
fraction, binder type and quantity, etc., need to be done carefully to improve the sensitivities of the proposed structure-
property relationships.

Figure 22. Schematic of the coating property map.

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The 2D map can be further used for coating optimization. By defining a coating transfer property function, , as:
= H ( c ) + M ( c ) (12)
where H(c) and M(c) represent the process constraints to the heat and mass transfer rates of the coatings in use. The
extremes for coating property optimization can be defined from Equation (12) and detailed knowledge of coating structure
characteristics. A more quantitative discussion of coating property optimization is given in a separate work [Zhao,
Biederman, 2005].

CONCLUSIONS

SUMMARY
1. Mica particles used in the lost foam casting coatings tend to stay in the coating parallel with the free surfaces. This
unique mica orientation creates loosely packed layers of granular structures that significantly lower the heat and mass
transfer rates of the coatings.
2. Heat transfer across the lost foam casting coatings is dominated by conduction through the partially contacted granular
particles. The rate of heat transfer is limited by the inter-particle heat resistance and the local void fraction.
3. Coating heat transfer rate increases as particle size (dg, m), specific surface area (SSA), degree of mode mix, and binder
conductivity (kb) increase. Use of round or low aspect ratio particles that improve inter-particle contact (reduce the local
void fraction) facilitates a fast heat transfer.
4. Gas transfer across the lost foam casting coatings is through the inter-connected void passages. The gas transfer rate is
limited by the total equivalent length of the zigzags and the cross-sectional area of the void passage network.
5. Coating permeability increases as particle size (dg, m) and void fraction (Vf) increase, and decreases as SSA increases and
inter-particle void size decreases.
6. The proposed coating structure-property correlations suggest that the coating heat and mass transfer properties can be
scaled independently by properly selecting adjustable coating structure characteristics. The correlations compared
favorably with the experimental measurements.

FUTURE WORK
1. Verify the structure-property correlations by modifying the existing lost foam coatings or develop new coatings with
desired transport properties
2. Investigate coating stability of coating properties under production conditions
3. Develop a practical method, procedure or system to measure particle shape factors to refine the proposed structure-
property correlations.
4. Investigate the effects of backbone particle shape on slurry rheology properties and coating application.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank General Motors Powertrain for sponsoring this program at Metal Casting Technology, Inc. This
work is also supported by the U.S. DOE, Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of
Transportation Technologies, as part of the High Temperature Materials Laboratory (HTML) User Program and Office of
Industrial Technologies managed by the UT-Battelle LLC for the DOE under contract UC-03-252. Our thanks also extend to
HA International for providing the commercial coating samples and the premix for the customized coating materials. We
wish to thank the following MCT and Hitchiner personnel: Paul Mikkola, Gary Scholl, Blair King, and John Burke for their
constructive technical discussions and suggestions. Our special thanks go to Mr. Adam Weick from MCT for his constantly
available assistance in proofreading from the beginning to the end of the paper writing.

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