Radio Environment For Wireless LAN

Wireless Communications (ET4358)
Lecture 2 overview:
Radio environment for Wireless LAN applications

* Frequency bands
* Indoor environment
- type of buildings
- distances
* Interfering sources
Review of free-space radio propagation, link-budget
Propagation mechanisms: dispersion, reflection, diffraction and absorption
Pathloss and fading
* Pathloss as a function of distance
* Shadow fading: mechanism, statistics (log-normal)
Coverage area
Book Rappaport: Chapter 2: sections 2.4 and 2.5

Chapter 4: sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5 (reading), 4.6, 4.9
ET4358 Wireless Communications

Dr.ir. Gerard J.M. Janssen
November 12, 2006
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Radio environment for WLAN (1)
Frequency bands:
- 2.4 GHz ISM band (2.400 - 2.480 GHz), 802.11.b, g, n
(ISM = Industrial, Scientific and Medical band)
- 5 GHz HiperLAN band (5.15 - 5.85 GHz), 802.11.a

The ISM band is a free band where also a lot of other systems
may be operational
Potential interfering sources in the ISM band: 2.4 2.5 GHz:

- Microwave ovens periodic pulse interference:
(10 ms at 50 Hz, 8.3 ms at 60 Hz)
- Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.11b, g, n)
- Cordless phones (e.g. 2.4 GHz DECT)
- Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)
- Out-of-band sources: e.g. UMTS, GSM

We distinguish two basic operating environments:
- indoor (up to 10th of meters):

* family homes,
* office environments,
* industrial environment
- outdoor (op to 100th of meters):

* urban environments
* rural areas (open space)

Wireless LAN system operation context
WLAN system context:

Indoor / outdoor environment residential house, office, industrial
Frequency band Industrial Scientific Medical (ISM) band: 2.4 - 2.5 GHz
- coverage of a single room or large conference room
- coverage of multiple rooms separated by concrete walls or floors

(residential house)
- presence of time varying interfering sources, e.g. Wireless LAN,

Bluetooth, microwave oven, mobile phones (GSM, UMTS, DECT)
- changing environment due to people moving around,

replacement of furniture

The importance of the WLAN PHY-layer
The WLAN signal has to be agile in order to cope with a challenging

radio environment:
1. Cope with the channel anomalies; achieve coverage

- robust modulation schemes
- effective setup, antennas choice (diversity)
2. Achieve a good spectral efficiency

- efficient modulation schemes matched to
channel quality and user need
3. Cope with interference: reliable communication

- interference reduction (e.g. by suppression)
- coexistence (e.g. by avoidance, power control)

Topics of the following lectures
In the following lectures some important topics of the WLAN

physical (PHY) layer are discussed.
1. Propagation phenomena of WLAN radio signals (lecture 2 and 3)
2. Modulation techniques used for WLAN (lecture 4 and 5)
3. Diversity and how to cope with interference (lecture 6)

Wireless communication system
Receiver

Propagation of EM-waves
Impression of EM-wave propagation in vacuum
E-field
amplitude E- and H-field
H-field
Wave length
z

Electromagnetic wave propagation
Analogy with wave propagation on the water surface

10

Some wave characteristics
Propagation Amplitude A Propagation
direction direction
Propagation loss
Excitation point: antenna
Fundamental relation between frequency f [Hz],
wavelength [m] and propagation speed c = 3 108 [m/s]:
propagation speed c 3 108

wavelength = = = 12.5 cm
frequency f 2.4 10 9
11

Antennas (1)
The antenna is a transducer:
- an electrical signal is converted into an
electro-magnetic wave,
- it is the interface between a guided medium
(usually a cable) to the free space and vice versa,
but also a means to focus the transmitted energy!
The isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna which

radiates the signal power uniformly dispersed in all
directions.
By definition, the gain of the isotropic antenna equals:

Giso = 1 0 dB
12

Antennas (2)
The transmitted EM-power is dispersed over the 3-dimensional space.

This dispersion is the cause of free-space attenuation of the signal
power.
Ae
PTX
EM-flux: S = [W/m 2 ]
4 d 2
The power density (flux) S is the power which passes a 1 m2 surface

at a distance d of the transmitter.
13

Antennes (3)
In practice, the antenna will concentrate the transmitted
power in certain directions. The antenna gain is direction
dependent:
Gant = G( , )
( = elevation, = azimuth).
The antenna gain Gant is defined as the maximum of G( , ) :
power density in the direction of the maximum G( , )

Gant =
power density of the isotropic antenna
for equal input powers.
14
Antennas (4)
Effective isotropic radiated power: EIRP

PEIRP = GAT Pin
To obtain the same power density (flux) with an isotropic
antenna, we need to increase the input power with a factor
GAT , the gain of the transmit antenna.
PEIRP Pin GAT

S= = [W/m 2 ]
4 d 2
4 d 2
15

Reciprocity
The received signal power:
PTX GAT PEIRP
PRX = S Ae _ AR = Ae _ AR = A
4 d 2
4 d 2 e _ AR
where Ae _ RX is the effective area of the receive antenna.
Reciprocity:
When transmitter and receiver change role in a transmission
system, while the other system parameters remain the same,
the received signal power does not change.
the link is reciprocal
Implication: the power gain of an antenna is independent of

use of the antenna as a transmit- or receive antenna.
16

Antennas (5)
The relation between the (effective) antenna area Ae and

the antenna gain is given by:
G 2 4 Ae
Ae = G=
4 2
Now, it follows for the effective area of the isotropic
antenna:
2
Ae _ iso =
4
Thus, for a fixed Ae the antenna gain is frequency

dependent.
17

Antennas (6)
18

WLAN antennas
/2 antenna Bi-quad antenna
Yagi-antenna Cantenna
19

Free-space loss (1)
The received signal power is now:

PEIRP Ae PTX GAT GAR 2
PRX = =
4 d 2
4 d 2
4
2 Free-space gain: GFS

= PTX GAT GAR
4 d
20

Free-space loss (2)
Free-space loss is a fundamental cause of power loss in

radio signal propagation due to spatial expansion of the
transmitted power.
The free-space attenuation:

2 2
1 4 d 4 d 4 d
LFS = = 10log10 =20log [dB]
GFS
10
increases with f 2 and d 2.
A doubling of the distance d results in an increase of the

attenuation with 6 dB (a factor 4).
21

Transmission model
Noise + Interference
Antenna TX Antenna RX
Gain Gat Gain Gar
Transmitter Receiver
TX power Ptx RX power Prx
Radio channel
Propagation loss L pr
PEIRP
{
Ptx Gat Gar
Prx =
L pr
22

Channel anomalies: causes of signal attenuation
A number of physical phenomena result in signal power loss

or even complete extinction of the radio signal.
In the following, we will discuss some of these phenomena:
- free-space loss (spatial dispersion)

- reflection, transmission, absorption
- reflection: delay distortion, frequency selectivity
- shadowing
- diffraction
23

Reflection, transmission and absorption
When an EM-wave hits an object, it is partly reflected,
absorbed and transmitted.
Input power Pin
Pabs Prefl = refl Pin
Pabs = abs Pin
Absorbed power
Transmitted power Ptrans
Ptrans = trans Pin
trans + abs + refl = 1

Reflected power Prefl
refl , abs , trans = reflection, absorption and transmission coefficients

If abs = 0 (loss-free material) trans = 1 refl
Absorbed power is converted into heat.
24

Channel anomalies: reflection (1)
EM-waves reflect against obstacles (like buildings, mountains etc.)

if the wavelength is small compared to the reflective surface.
In a reflective environment, a signal usually reaches the receiver

via different paths, each having their own amplitude, phase and
time-delay.
This is called multipath propagation.
At the receive antenna, the time-delayed signal replicas

add up - constructive or destructive interference,
- time dispersion
25

Effect of multipath propagation: two-path channel

r Antenna
Antenna
h1 h2

d
h1 h1
r+

For r and r+ it follows that: r 2 = d 2 + ( h2 h1 ) 2

(r + ) 2 = d 2 + (h2 + h1 ) 2
2h1h2
For the path length difference we find:
d
26

Channel impulse response of a two-path channel:
h(t )
h(t ) = a1 (t ) + a2 (t )

=
c
0 t
Impulse response of a two-path channel
with a1 = 1 and a2 = refl .
27

The total received signal amplitude is:
2
s (t ) = sin c t + refl sin(c t )

where refl is the reflection coefficient.
PRX Received signal power in dependence of /
(1 + refl ) 2
(1 refl ) 2
0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 /
Effect of multipath propagation: two-path channel

28

Channel anomalies: scattering, diffraction
When an EM-wave hits rough surface it will be scattered in all

directions. The same happens when it hits an edge diffraction.
Also just behind an obstacle, part of the power can be received.

29

Channel anomalies: shadowing
Large objects (flat, factory, mountain) shield the area behind it:
most signal power which hits a large object is reflected or
absorbed by the object.
Only a very small portion of the signal power propagates to the

area behind the object; usually by reflection or diffraction.
Shadow area
TX
This is called shadowing.
30

Atmospheric absorption
Comparison of specific attenuation due to gasses (___), rain (-.-,-) and fog(----).
31

Radio signals in an indoor environment
Attenuating wall
Receiver
Interference Interference
Transmitter
Wireless LAN Microwave oven
32

Propagation modeling of the
WLAN radio channel
The propagation phenomena, which in general occur jointly,
cause radio propagation prediction to be a complex subject.
Two types of propagation modeling are used:

- deterministic modeling (ray tracing)
- stochastic modeling (based on measurements).
Usually, radio propagation is divided in three basic effects,

based on their spatial characteristics:
- large scale effects:
* path-loss
* shadow fading
- small scale effect
* multipath fading
These effects can be modeled and analyzed separately.

33

Path-loss, shadow- and multipath fading (1)
The received signal level varies heavily as a function of distance
and location due to the different propagation phenomena.
The statistics of this variation is very much dependent on the type

of environment: rural terrain, hilly terrain, urban environment,
indoor, building materials, etc.
Path-loss indicates the average signal attenuation as a function

of distance. At a fixed distance the path-loss is constant.
Shadow fading is the variation of the local-mean attenuation

(average over 40 tracks) at a fixed distance.
Multipath fading is the short distance fluctuation of the signal

attenuation due to multipath.
34

Path-loss, shadow- and multipath fading (2)
Propagation Loss
10
Path-loss
-10
-20
-30
Shadow fading
Attenuation [dB]
-40
Multipath fading
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance [m]
L(d ) = PL(d ) + X shadow + X multipath [dB]

35

Path-loss (1)
In free-space, the received power decreases with a factor 4

(or 6 dB) when the distance is doubled due to spatial dispersion.
2 2 2 2
4 d 4 d 0 d d
PLFS (d ) = = = PL(d 0 , f )
d0 d0
d
PLdB (d 0 , f ) + 20log [dB]
d0
The term PLdB (d 0 , f ) is the attenuation at reference distance d 0

(which should be in the far-field of the antenna), and is often
taken at d 0 = 1 m .
Strictly speaking, free-space only exists in space!
36

Path-loss (2)
In a practical (non-free-space) environment the path-loss is usually

larger due to obstacles causing attenuation, shadowing, reflections,
scattering, etc.
In this case, path-loss is the average signal attenuation at a distance d.
n
d
PL(d ) = PL(d 0 , f )
d0
d
PLdB (d 0 , f ) + 10n log [dB]
d0
The variable n is called the path-loss exponent.

For free-space n = 2 .
37

Path-loss (3)
The path-loss exponent is strongly dependent on the

environment:
Environment Path-loss Exponent n

Free space 2
Urban Area Cellular 2.7 - 3.5

Shadowed Urban Cellular 3-5
In building, Line-of-Sight 1.6 - 1.8
Obstructed in-building 4-6

Obstructed in factories 2-3
38

Path-loss (4)
150
140
n=6
130
n=5
120 n=4
110
Pathlos [dB]
100 n=3
90
80 n=2
70
60
50
PL(2.4 GHz, 1 m)
40 0 1 2
10 10 10
Distance [m]
39

Shadow fading (1)
The path-loss model gives the expected attenuation at a distance d from
the transmitter.
When measuring the local-mean attenuation at different locations all at a

distance d, we find a large variation around the path-loss value due to
different propagation situations: shadowing, scattering, diffraction.
This variation in the local-mean power is called shadow fading.

Empirically (based on measurements), it has been found that the
attenuation at a distance d , L(d) is distributed log-normally
(normal in dB) about the mean path-loss value PL(d) .
N (0, ) in dB
L(d ) = PL(d ) + X shadow
d
= PLdB ( d 0 , f ) + 10n log + X shadow [dB ]
d0
40

Shadow fading (2)
Therefore, the fluctuation in the attenuation at a distance d is often
called log-normal shadow fading.
The attenuation model is fully described by the path-loss PLdB (d 0 , f )

at reference distance d 0 , the path-loss exponent n and the
shadow-fading st. dev. .
PLdB (d 0 , f ) is measured or the free-space value at d 0 is used.
The st.dev. of the shadow fading again depends on the

environment and has to be determined from measurements.
For outdoor environments 6 dB < < 12 dB have been found.
In indoor environments in general smaller values are found:
2 dB < < 4 dB .
A scientific explanation for the log-normal distribution of the
shadow fading has not been given yet!
41

Shadow fading (3)
Fig. 4.17 Scatter plot of measured path-loss data

for a number of German cities at 900 MHz.
42

Received signal power (1)
The local-mean received signal power is given by:
Prx ( d ) = Ptx LdB ( d ) [dBm]
where the TX and RX antenna gains are accounted for in PLdB (d 0 , f )
The local-mean received signal power is log-normally distributed about

the distant dependent mean value Prx ( d ) (due to pathloss only).
The probability that a signal level is exceeded is given by:
Prx (d )
Pr[ Prx (d ) > ] = Q

with Q ( z ) = 1 Q ( z ) the CDF of the Normal distribution.
This is also called boundary coverage probability at a circle with R = d .

43

Received signal power (2)
Normal distribution
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07

1 2
0.06
Q( z ) =
2 z
exp d
2
pdf(z)
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
z [dB]
In the same way, the probability that the signal level drops below a
threshold is given by:
Prx (d ) Prx ( d )
Pr[ Prx (d ) < ] = 1 Q = Q

44

Coverage area (1)
A location s is covered when: Prx ( s ) .
Due to random effects of shadowing some locations will have a

signal levels less than the minimum desired level . When a location is
not covered, i.e. Prx ( s ) < , it is in outage.
The p% area coverage of a transmitter or base station is the area

where p% of all locations have a signal level above the threshold .
For a circular coverage area with radius R, the percentage of area

coverage is given by
2 R
1 1
R2 Pr[ P (d ) > ]r drd
U ( ) = Pr[ P ( d ) > ]dA =
rx
R2 0 0
rx
The area coverage is an important concept in the design and

dimensioning of wireless communication systems.
45

Coverage area (2)
For this circular area model, it can be shown that:
1 2ab 1 ab
U ( ) = 12 1 erf (a ) + exp 2 1 erf
b b
2 Pr( Prx ( R ) > )
with a = ( Ptx + PLdB (d 0 , f ) + 10n log( R / d 0 ) ) / 2

b = (10n log e) / 2
and the values of / n, , PLdB ( d 0 , f ), Ptx in dB.
Now we see that the p% coverage area depends on / n and the

probability of coverage at the boundary: Pr( Prx ( R ) > ) .
46

Coverage area (3)
Fig. 4.18 Curves relating % of area coverage U ( ) to the coverage probability

on the circular cell boundary.
47

Radio Environment For Wireless LAN

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Wireless Communications (ET4358)

Radio environment for Wireless LAN applications

Book Rappaport: Chapter 2: sections 2.4 and 2.5

ET4358 Wireless Communications

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Potential interfering sources in the ISM band: 2.4 2.5 GHz:

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

We distinguish two basic operating environments:

- indoor (up to 10th of meters):

- outdoor (op to 100th of meters):

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

WLAN system context:

- coverage of a single room or large conference room

- coverage of multiple rooms separated by concrete walls or floors

- presence of time varying interfering sources, e.g. Wireless LAN,

- changing environment due to people moving around,

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

The WLAN signal has to be agile in order to cope with a challenging

1. Cope with the channel anomalies; achieve coverage

2. Achieve a good spectral efficiency

3. Cope with interference: reliable communication

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

In the following lectures some important topics of the WLAN

1. Propagation phenomena of WLAN radio signals (lecture 2 and 3)

2. Modulation techniques used for WLAN (lecture 4 and 5)

3. Diversity and how to cope with interference (lecture 6)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Analogy with wave propagation on the water surface

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Fundamental relation between frequency f [Hz],

wavelength [m] and propagation speed c = 3 108 [m/s]:

propagation speed c 3 108

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

The isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna which

By definition, the gain of the isotropic antenna equals:

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

The transmitted EM-power is dispersed over the 3-dimensional space.

The power density (flux) S is the power which passes a 1 m2 surface

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

The antenna gain Gant is defined as the maximum of G( , ) :

power density in the direction of the maximum G( , )

Effective isotropic radiated power: EIRP

PEIRP Pin GAT

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

where Ae _ RX is the effective area of the receive antenna.

Implication: the power gain of an antenna is independent of

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

The relation between the (effective) antenna area Ae and

Thus, for a fixed Ae the antenna gain is frequency

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

/2 antenna Bi-quad antenna

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

The received signal power is now:

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Free-space loss is a fundamental cause of power loss in

The free-space attenuation:

increases with f 2 and d 2.

A doubling of the distance d results in an increase of the

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science