76

Chapter 7
Maneuvering
7.1 General Concept
All ships must be able to control their speed and direction in
horizontal plane so that they can proceed in a straight path, turn or take over
avoiding action as may be dictated by the operational situation. Additionally,
when entering congested water ways or harbours, they must be able to
position themselves accurately.
To achieve this, a ship must have the means of producing ahead and
astern thrust, turning moment and lateral thrust. The last two are provided by
rudder of various type assisted, in some cases, by lateral thrust units at the
bow and or astern. Ahead and astern thrust is usually provided by the main
propulsion system. They also must be achieved consistently and reliably not
only in calm water but also in waves or in condition of strong wind. In
addition, submarines required to be controllable in the vertical plane, to
enable them to maintain or change depth as required whilst retaining control
of force and aft pitch angle. Considering control in the horizontal plane, a
study of a ships maneuverability must embrace the following:
1. The ease with which it can be maintained on a given course. The term
steering is commonly applied to this action and the prime factor
affecting the ships performance is her directional or dynamic stability.
This should not be confused with the ships stability as discussed.
2. The response of the ship to movements of her control surfaces, the
rudders, either in initiating or termination a rate of change of heading.
3. The response to other control devices such as bow thrusters.
4. The ability to turn completely round within a specified space.

7.2 Ship Motion

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Rolling, pitching and yawing are the movements of rotation around

three principal axes and surging, swaying and heaving are the movements of
translation of the same axes in their respective directions. Among these
swaying, yawing and surging are concerned with maneuvering. The rest
three are concerned with seakeeping.

7.3 Turning Circle

When the rudder is put over initially, the force acting on the rudder
tends to push the ship bodily to port of its original line of advance. As the
moment due to the rudder force turns the ships head, the lateral force on the
hull builds up and the ship begins to turn.

Fig.7.1 Turning circle

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7.4 Turning of a Ship

To cause a ship to move in a circle requires a force to act on it,
directed towards the centre of the circle. That force is not provided by the
rudder. The rudder exerts a moment on the ship which produces an angle of
attack between the ships heading and its direction of advance. This angle of
attack causes relatively large forces to act on the hull and it is the component
of these directed towards the centre of the circle that turns the ship. The fore
and aft components will slow the ship down which is a noticeable feature of
a ships behavior in turning.
Estimation of turning circle maneuverability of the ship at large rudder
angle can be represented by the turning circle. Estimation of turning circle
can be made by using:
1. Estimation chart based on the analysis of the results of the
actual turning test.
2. Series model test results

7.4.1 Estimation Method

This is the approximate estimation formula of turning circle derived
from the actual test. The steady turning result R is given by;

R = K3 (AR. CN cos Eq.7.1

Where = Displacement volume ( m3 )

AR = Rudder area of movable part ( m2 )
Rudder angle (deg)

CN cos and K3 are given from chart

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7.4.2 Estimation Method from the Results of Series Model Tests

The approximate steady turning diameter can be estimated by
obtaining the steady turning diameter of base ship and making correction due
to effect of L/B from base ship.

7.5 Turning Ability

Turning ability is the measure of the ability to turn the vessel using
hard-over rudder, the result being a minimum advance at 90 change of
heading and tactical diameter defined by the transfer at 180 change of
heading. A turning circle maneuver is to be performed to both starboard and
port. The rudder angle must be the maximum design rudder angle
permissible at the test speed, but is not required to be more than 35 degrees.
The essential information to be obtained from this maneuver is tactical
diameter, advance and transfer.

7.5.1 Turning Test

It is important to know the turning ability at the helm angle of 35
degrees because it shows the maximum turning of the ship in an emergency.
More comprehensive data can be obtained if the tests are conducted for
normally used rudder angle of 15 degrees, 10 degrees etc, in addition to the
above .The test are generally carried out at the maximum continuous output
or the normal output, and also they are sometimes executed at the lower
speed with lower engine output. When the turning test at the rudder angle of
over 35 degrees are requested, it is usually carried out at the maximum
rudder angle.
As to the measurement at the test, following direct or indirect method
is applied. One method is that the course and the turning angle of the ship,
which is running around the aiming buoy thrown to the sea beforehand, are
measured with the compass and the angle measurement boards abroad the
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ship and the other is that the course of the ship is calculated by value
integration base on the measurement result of ship speed with the pressure
log or with the small wood boards thrown to the sea.

7.5.2 Zig-zag Test

The zig-zag test is obtained by the reversing the rudder alternately by
degree to either side at a deviation from the initial course. After a steady
approach, the rudder is put over to starboard (first execute) and kept as
steady as possible. When the heading is degrees off the initial course, the
rudder is reversed to the same position to port (second execute). After
counter rudder has been applied, the ship continues turning to port. When the
heading is degrees off the course to port, the rudder is reversed again to
starboard (third execute). This process may be continued until a total of 5
rudder executed have been completed, if required for other analysis.

Fig.7.2 Zig-zag maneuver

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7.6 Rudder Forces and Rudder Torque

Rudder forces and rudder torque must be considered to select the
appropriate rudder design and steering system.

7.6.1 Rudder Forces

The rudder will be acted upon by a lift and drag force when held at an
angle of attack relative to the flow of water. The rudder must be designed to
produce maximum lift for minimum drag assuming that the lift behaves in a
consistent manner for all likely angles of attack. The lift developed depends
upon:
1. The cross-sectional shape;
2. The area of the rudder, AR;
3. The profile shape of the rudder and in particular, the aspect ratio
of the rudder, i.e. the ratio of the depth of the rudder to its chord
length;
4. The square of the velocity of the water past the rudder;
5. The density of the water,
6. The angle of attack,

FR = Constant .AR V2 f ( Eq.7.2

The value of the constant depends upon the cross-section and the
rudder profile.f ( increases approximately linearly with angle of attack
but then the rate of growth decreases and further increase in may produce
an actual fall in the value of f ( This phenomenon is known as stalling.
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Stalling occurs at an angle between 35 and 45 degrees. Most ship

rudders are limited to 35 degrees to avoid stall, loss of speed and large heel
on turn. Many formulae have been suggested for calculating the forces on
rudder.
Haslar used the following formulae for twin rudders behind wing propeller:

Force = 21.1 AR V2 newtons, for ahead motionEq.7.3

( is measured in degree.)
Force = 19.1 AR V2 newtons, for astern motion.Eq.7.4

7.6.2 Rudder Torque

The power of steering machine is obtained from the maximum turning
moment (rudder torque) acting on the rudder .The turning moment is
obtained from the following equation:
T = F ( x a) Eq.7.5
Where,
T = turning moment (torque)
F = normal force on rudder
x = distance of center of normal force (center of pressure) from
leading edge of rudder
a = distance of rudder stock center from leading edge

7.6.3 Center of Pressure Position

For a flat plate, Joessel suggested an empirical formula for the
proportion of the breadth of the plate that the center of pressure is abaft the
leading edge and expressed it as:
x = B (0.195 + 0.305 sin Eq.7.6
where,
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x = distance of center of normal force from leading edge of rudder

B = breadth of rudder
angle of rudder to water flow

7.7 Necessary Power for Steering Machine

From the maximum value of turning moment, the necessary power for
steering machine can be calculated as follows:
EP = 2nT / 0.075 Eq.7.7
Where,
EP = effective power
n = steering speed ( rev / sec )
T = max. turning moment (t-m )
The steering speed n is generally taken at 70/30 sec.
The necessary power for steering machine is then obtained as follows:
Power = f x EP Eq.7.8
Where,
f=4~6 (steam-driven)
= 1.3 ~ 1.8 (electro-hydraulic driven)
= 1.5 ~ 2.0 (motor-driven)

7.8 Rudder Area

The required area of rudder varies with different types of vessels since
the desired maneuvering ability differs considerably and the general ship
design may impose restrictions. The influence of rudder outline apart from
aspect ratio is not very great. Thus most ships have rudders tending towards
a rectangular outline and as such are simple and efficient. The area of rudder
can be calculated as follow:
AR = K x LBP x d (for single screw and twin screw ships)Eq.7.9
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Where,
K = a coefficient dependent upon the type of ship
(2.5 % ~ 4 % for tugs)
LBP = Length between perpendicular in meters
d = fully loaded draft in water

7.9 Rudder Flow, Lift and Drag

Basic rudder hydrodynamics effects are the same, for a rudder moving
through undisturbed water, or whether a rudder is stationary in a moving
fluid. Regions of higher or lower than ambient pressure are generated on the
two sides of the rudder. Because of this, lift and drag forces are appeared.
That lift and drag forces are normal to, and in line with the flow along with
an assumed turning axis, the rudder stock. Both the lift and drag forces
produced moments about the rudder stock axis. Lift and drag forces can be
calculated by the following;
2
ae
4
+4
cos



lift 57.3
=
CL = 1
A V 2 ( Eq.7.11
2
1 57.3 ao CD
( + ) +
c

2 ae
cos
ao ae

where;
ae = effective aspect ratio = (span)2/ (planform area)
ao = section lift curve slope at = 0
= 0.9 (2/57.3) per degree for NACA 0015
CD C = cross flow drag coefficient
= 0.80 for square tips and taper ratio = 0.45
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sweep angle

Drag 2
= CL
CD = 1
A V 2 Cd +
o
0.9 a e
2
Eq.7.12
Where
Cd 0 = minimum section drag coefficient
= 0.0065 for NACA 0015

Fig.7.3 Basic rudder pressure

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Fig.7.4 Basic lift and drag

7.10 Profile of the Rudder

Fig.7.5 shows the profile of the rudder according to the NACA 0015.
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Fig.7.5 Profile

7.11 Calculation for Maneuverability

For maneuverability, rudder area, rudder force, rudder torque, rudder
stock diameter and turning circle diameter are calculated.

7.11.1 Calculation for Rudder Area

Using equation 7.9,
AR = K x LBP x d
= 0.04 x 24.3 x 1.3
= 1.3 m2
Take AR = 1.9 m2
For one rudder, AR = 0.95 m2
Choose H =1.25 m, B = 0.76 m.

7.11.2 Calculation for Rudder Force

For V = 8 m/s,
Using equation 7.3,
Force, F = 21.1 AR V2

= 21.1 x 0.95 x (8 x 0.5144)2 x 35

= 1.188 ton

Check by ABS rule,

For kR =0.96, kC = 1.1, kL = 1.15

Force, F = n x kR x kC x kL x A x v2

= 0.132 x 0.96 x 1.1 x 1.15 x 0.95 x 82

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= 0.98 ton
Choose, F = 1.188 ton

7.11.3 Calculation for Rudder Torque 0.76 m

Using equation 7.6,

x = B (0.195 + 0.305 sin a
= 0.76 (0.195 + 0.305 sin (35))

0.95 m

= 0.28 x

x = 0.28 m, a= 0.1 m
Using equation 7.5,
T = F ( x a)

ton-m
= 2.14 KN-m
tal torque = 0.428 ton-m
7.11.4 Calculation of Rudder Stock Diameter
Specified minimum yield strength of the material,
Y = 250 N/mm2
ny = 235 N/mm2
Nu = 42
Material factor for rudder stock,
Ks = ( ny / Y )e
= (235 /250)0.75
= 0.95
Diameter of Rudder Stock can be calculated by the following equation,
S = Nu 3 T K s
= 42 x 3 2.14 x 0.95
= 53.26 mm
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= 2.13 in
Choose diameter of rudder stock = 3 in

7.11.5 Calculation of Necessary Power for Steering Machine

Using equation 7.7,
EP = 2nT / 0.075
2 x 70 x 0.428
0.075 x 360 x 30

W
For electro-hydraulic driven, f = 1.8
Using equation 7.8,
Power = f x EP
= 1.8 x 2.324
= 4.183 KW
= 5.609 hp
7.11.6 Calculation of Lift and Drag Coefficient
2
0.76
ae = = 0.9
0.65
2
ao = 0.9 x ( 57.3 = 0.099
C D =1.35
c (from chart)
=0
Cd 0 = 0.0065
Using equation 7.11,
Lift force coefficient,
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2
ae
4
+4
cos



lift 57.3
=
CL = 1
A V 2 (
2
1 57.3 a o
CD
( + ) +
c

2 ae
cos
ao ae

Using equation 7.12,

Drag force coefficient
Drag 2
= CL
CD = 1
A V 2
Cd +
o
0.9 a e
2
= 0.71

7.11.7 Calculation of Turning Circle Diameter

K3 = 0.3, CN cos 1.03 (from chart)

Using equation 7.1,
R = K3 (AR. CN cos
x 145) / (0.95 x 1.03)
= 44.45 m
Steady Turning diameter = 88.9 m (3.3 times of ship length)

Table 7.1 Final calculation results for Tug Boat rudder

No Item Value Unit

1 Rudder area 2 x 0.95 m2
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2 Rudder force 2 x 1.188 ton

3 Rudder torque 0.428 ton-m
4 Loading Condition
Rudder stock diameter Full Load 3 in
Approach Speed 8 knots
5 necessary power for steering machine 5.609 hp
Rudder Command Angle 35 degree
6 lift and drag coefficient 1.34 , 0.71
Water depth 5 metres
7 Rudder Height and Breadth 0.95 , 0.76 m
8 Turning circle diameter (Steady) 89 m

Fig.7.
6 Turning circle from Tribon software

Table.7.2 Summary of turning test and result

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Advance/L at 90 degs 4.75

Transfer/L at 90 degs 2.09
Speed/Apr. Speed at 90 degs 0.89
Time at 90 degs 36.00 secs

Max Advance/L at 90 degs 4.80

Max Advance/L at 90 degs 2.61

Tactical Diam/L 4.28

Advance/L at 180 degs 3.44
Speed/Apr. Speed at 180 degs 0.84
Time at 180 degs 54.00 secs

Max Tactical Diam/L 4.33

Max Advance/L at 180 degs 3.16

Transfer/L at 270 degs 3.01

Advance/L at 270 degs 1.34
Speed/Apr. Speed at 270 degs 0.83
Time at 270 degs 74.00 secs

Steady Turning Diam/L 3.46

Steady Turning Rate 4.68 degs
Non Dim. Turning Rate(L/R) 0.58

Transfer/L at 360 degs 0.88

Advance/L at 360 degs 2.80
Steady Drift Angle 13.93 degs
Speed/Apr. Speed at 360 degs 0.83
Time at 360 degs 94.00 secs

Initial Turning Ability 3.40

P-Number H.Deg/R.Deg/Length 0.07