The Honor to be Buried with Horses: From Mycenaean Nemea to Macedonian Vergina

Theo. G. Antikas, DVM, PhD, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Historical Background
The Iliad is the first written text where casting horses into the same pyre with the hero-owner was reported by Homer in
describing the burial of Patroklos by his friend Achilles (23.173-174):
/

Authors free translation: And he drove four high-necked horses /
Swiftly along the pyre, lamenting loudly as he did so

However, it was the Halicarnassus-born historian Herodotus, who best described the normal (i.e., not in a pyre) burial
habit of horses in Asia by the Gherri...most northern and remote among the Skythian tribes. In his Book IV Herodotus
gives minute details of Asian burial habits, which seemingly followed same routes with the domesticated horse, all the
way from Skythia to Greece, from the Bronze Age onwards (Histories IV.71-72): When a king dies, they dig a great
square pittake up the corpse <which> is laid in the tomb... while in other parts...various members of the kings
household are buriedHorses are buried too, and gold cupsand a selection of his other treasures Skythian graves
of human-cum-horse burials are among the most spectacular finds of archaeology (Artamonov 1970, Rudenko 1970), and
so are the Macedonian tombs. According to some scholars the mustached barrows, several of which have been found in
Kazakhstan, reflect horseshoe-shaped structures, a calendar with astronomical meaning (Bekbassar, 1993); this because
burying horses crescent-shaped and eastward bound suggests the horse cult and sacrificial rites to the solar god, widely
spread in the Eurasian Steppe. It was Herodotus again, who offered details of this cult in stating that of all the gods only
the Sun is worshipped and to whom horses are sacrificed. The idea behind this [sacrifice] is to offer the swiftest of mortal
creatures to the swiftest of the gods (Histories. I.216) Recent finds in Greece verify Homers and Herodotus
descriptions almost verbatim (Fig. 1).

1. Archaeological sites with horse burials

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 A. Finds in Macedonia and Thrace (1973-2003)
1. Aegae (Vergina): The Royal Tombs at the Great Tumulus (1977-2003)
Herodotus was alive at the time the first capital of the Macedonian kingdom was thriving, hence his phrase Horses are
buried too, and gold cupsand a selection of his other treasures concerning Skythian habits holds just as true for
northern Greece. One of the most astounding discoveries in the 20th century was that of the late Prof. Andronikos, who
found the un-looted Tomb II in the Great Tumulus of Aigai in 77 (Fig. 1) and postulated that it may belong to Philip II,
Alexanders father (Andronikos, 1997). Seeing the exquisite hunting scene on the fresco of the tombs faade (Fig. 2), one
should not wonder whether the dead noble buried in it would be accompanied with a selection of his other treasures
(Fig. 3) and his most treasured animals, horses and their tack. Indeed, bones of four horses, two dogs, four bits, one pair of
spurs and bridle parts, all charred, were recovered from the tomb (Figs. 4-5) following verbatim Homers and Herodotus
texts and reviving a Mycenaean habit in Macedonia of the 4th century (Antikas, 2002).

2. Fresco on the faade of Philips Tomb

3. Gold larnax 4-5. Horse mandible with traces of bridle bit; iron bit

2. Akanthos, Chalkidike: The Coastal Necropolis (1973-2003)

A twenty-year excavation project headed by Dr. Eleni Trakosopoulou (head of the 16th Ephorate, Thessaloniki) has
unearthed some 10,000 graves of all types. Among these more than 12 horse burials from the 6 th to the 4th centuries BCE
have been found (Antikas & Wynn-Antikas, 1999). It seems that most of these were hippoi polemisterioi (war horses)
sacrificed prior to the burial with the owners, but without being cast to the pyre after being killed using a pick-ax. The
Chalkidian League of city-states possessed a renowned cavalry, as indicated by burials found earlier at Olynthos
(Xenophon Hellenica V.3.1-6; Robinson, 1942). Two impressive burials from Akanthos shown on Figs. 6-7 reveal the
proximity of horse and owner in life and death, as they are found in family units. Horses are lying on the left side in the
semi-crescent posture on the north-south axis perpendicular to the humans. A memorable history about the city-state of
Akanthos is that of the Persian king Xerxes, who set up a camp there during his campaign and attempted to build an
isthmus (canal) so as to avoid circumnavigation around the angry waters of Mt. Athos (Herod. Histories 6.126: Xerxes
from Akanthos ordered his generals to bring the navy to Therme His naval forces crossed the canal which was
opened on the Athos peninsula). Akanthos was seized by the Spartan general Brasidas in 424 BCE, during the
Peloponnesian war (Thucydides 4.84) and the horse-loving Akanthians fearing that his campaign would ruin their
vineyards and that years wine production decided to surrender to him in peace.

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 6. Akanthos: Family unit tomb 7. Man-and-horse burial

3. Lagyna: A pair of yoke horses (2000-2003)

A Hellenistic farmhouse with stables in the Great Lake area was found by archaeologist Ms. A. Tzanavari (16 th Ephorate,
Thessalonike) at a salvation project by the Via Egnatias eastbound branch towards Turkey. Next to the farmhouse were
three workhorses buried on their left side, of which two formed a pair (Fig. 8) and one lied alone. All animals were males
aged over 12. Yoke horses had never been found in central Macedonia despite the fact that the Great Lake region was
famous for its grain from the Bronze Age until the first century AD, when Strabo visited several polismata in the area and
described its rich grain yield. Important finds on all these horses were their multiple leg pathologies, i.e., calcium deposits
and gross splints on both metacarpals; calcified proximal sesamoids and high or low ringbone (Figs. 9-10). Such
pathologies are typical of heavy farm labor. The adult male horses were probably killed by overworking at the farm.

8. The Lagyna horse team 9. Chronic sesamoiditis 10. Ringbone

4. Nea Philadelphia: Oops! This was not a horse burial (1996-97)

An urgent call by archaeologist Mrs. Vasso Misaelidou (16th Ephorate, Thessaloniki) working at the Nea Philadelphia Iron
Age site by the Gallikos River, brought hopes of finding the first fully preserved Iron Age equine. Alas, this was not the
case. The Gallikos (= French) horse was seemingly a casualty of the French artillery, which had camped by the river at
the times of the WW-IIn fact, that is when the river was renamed from Echeidoros to Gallikos. The size, height, age,
accidental posture and, of course, the single horseshoe found next to it (Fig. 11) indicate that it was a poor pack horse of
the French army most probably killed by a bomb shell (Antikas, 1998).

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 11. The Philadelphia horse

5. Polykastro, Kilkis: Many men, one young stallion (2003)

A male horse was unearthed by Dr.Thomi Savopoulou (16th Ephorate, Thessaloniki) working at a rescue dig at Polykastro,
ten miles south of the Greek border, last July. The horse dates to the 6th-5th century BCE and may be related to one of the
men in the cemetery as indicate its age (Fig. 12a-dessiduous teeth), pathology (Fig. 12b), height, and close proximity to
the grave of a young adult man. The finds suggest that the four-year stallion might have become hippos polemisterios for
the Macedonians despite its bad dentition (a genetic defect?) accompanied by pitting and lysis of the maxillary area, both
signs of a premature colt. Its burial on the right side is a rather rare position, but in the habitual semi-crescent posture on
the north-south axis with the head facing north.

12a. Dessiduous/perm. teeth 12b. Olecranon/humerus/P2

6. Pydna, Pieria: Men, horses and horse skulls (1995-2003)

Four skeletons and an incomplete horse cranium have been found at Makrygialos, a modern village (ancient Pydna)
during rescue excavations by Mr. Manthos Besios (16th Ephorate, Thessaloniki). Interesting finds at that unfortunate site,
where Perseus lost the homonymous battle--and Macedonia--to Emilius Paullus on 22 June, 168 BCE are a sizable
stallion, perhaps polemisterios (cavalry warhorse), which was buried on its right side with all four legs extended and
facing south (Fig. 13); and a horse skull found more recently, in 2001, east of Tomb 985, which contained a human burial.
Single horse skulls or skull-and-leg burials are seen rather often in the Eurasian steppe and elsewhere but seem to be rare
in Greece. Similarly rare is the northwest orientation of the cranium of this horse (Fig. 14).
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 13. Pydna: the horse burial 14. The single cranium burial

7. Sindos, Thessalonike: Men, horses and dogs (2003)

A rescue project at the I.Z of Thessalonike at Sindos last June revealed the presence of six horse and two dog burials in a
cemetery containing 46 human graves (archaeologist Mr. A. Keramaris, 16th Ephorate, Thessaloniki). The estimated
number of adult males buried is under 20, indicating that the ratio of men to horses is 1:3. Such ratios have never been
found in Macedonia (e.g., in Akanthos the ratio is 1:150-200). This forces the postulate that Sindos was an area from
which riders were recruited for the needs of the Macedonian cavalry in the Classical and Hellenistic times. The hypothesis
is substantiated by the fact that all six horses, from the 6th to the 4th century BCE bear signs of leg pathology caused by fast
movements on level ground, which is typical of war-horses. Two out of the six horses are depicted on Figs. 15-16 as their
statures and burial positions are interesting. Hippos-5 was the tallest of all, perhaps Thessalian-bred, buried on a north-
south axis on its right amidst two men in an expanded pose, as if people did not wish to economize in space. Interestingly,
a dog buried behind this horse was in the opposite position, tail to tail on its left side, semi-crescent and facing east.
Hippos-4 was buried in the embryonic position on its left side facing east. The proximity (60 cm) to a wreathed mans
grave in a head-to-head burial may indicate a twin burial of an asthetairos (companion) and his mount. The most
surprising data about the Sindos horses was that their diet consisted of 20-25 percent protein, probably of fish origin as
indicated by stable isotope (18 and 13C) analyses at the NCSR Democritos. If this extraordinary find is confirmed
by further analyses, then Herodotus mention of fish-eating horses in Macedonia (5.16) will be verified after ca. 2500
years and the term father of lies coined to him would seem unjustifiable (Antikas, 2004).

15. Sindos: Horse-5 and dog burial 16. Horse-4 with man burial (at ca.55 cm)

In Herodotus story (viz. Akanthos, 6.126) Sindos is mentioned as a site crossed by the armies of Xerxes, which set camp between the
rivers Axios and Echeidoros at the point they converge at Sindos. Herodotus adds that there were many lions in the area, which
attacked only the camels of the Persian army. He wondered why, since Greek lions had never seen or tasted camels, animals unknown
to them. (VII.126 ,
, ). Regardless of Herodotus
confusion however, the finding of dogs of great size (Molossans?) should not come as a surprise, since the delta of the River Axios
was a habitat of lions as stated by Herodotus, Xenophon and other ancient writers.
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8. Therme on the Thermaic Bay: Horse above hoplites (1996)
A rescue excavation by archaeologist Dr. Desp. Ignatiadou (16th Ephorate of Thessaloniki) at a property lot of Therme in 1996
revealed a touching scene. Namely, a warhorse buried head-to-head and just above the cist grave of a Greek hoplites (soldier). It dates
to the 5th century BC (Fig. 17). The man was young carrying one sword along each femur (hoplites), and the horse was a stallion of
135-140 cm, whose head was gently placed on a flat rock over the soldiers grave. It looked as if special care was taken to make the
animal look not like being dead but resting on a pillow (Antikas T, 1994). Similar burials reflecting love between men and their
mounts had already been found in nearby Olynthos, Chalkidike, as early as 1940 (Robinson, 1942).

17. Therme: horse and hoplites in a cist grave

9. Tzamala, near Vergina: men, horse teeth and pigs (2000-2003)

Works on the new Via Egnatia construction at the point where it reaches the ancient city of Beroea unearthed a small but important
cemetery of the Late Bronze - Early Iron Age. Several tumuli with 26 humans found in cist graves covered with big stones, formed
impressive gurkhan-like structures resembling pedals of a flower (Kottaridou, 2003). Bone fragments of at least 50 animals were
identified to the bovine, equine, capra/ovis, and sus spp. (Fig. 18). All four species were routinely used as sacrificial offerings during
the Minoan and Mycenaean periods in Greece. Horse and pig sacrifices in particular continued to exist at later times such as the
Hellenistic period, and were often depicted on epitaph stelae (Fig. 19). The most touching find however, was a Hellenistic stele from
the nearby city-state of Edessa honoring a young pig, as stated in the affectionate epigram written on its stone baseby the pig (Fig.
20). Interestingly enough, this poetic pig has provided valuable data on the zoogeography and movement of domesticated pigs in the
Balkans all the way from the Dalmatian range to Mt. Bermion in N. Greece (Antikas, 2002).

18. The Tzamala male boar 19. Dion: the epitaph stele 20. Edessa: pig relief

10. Thrace Mikre Doxipara: Men, women, horses and carts (2003)
An astounding discovery was made by Dr. D. Triantafyllos and his team (19th Ephorate, Komotini) at the east branch of the Via
Egnatia along the River Hebrus in Thrace (Greek-Turkish-Bulgarian border) A tumulus thought to contain sizable memorial structures
due to its large dimension (d: 60m, ht: 7 m) revealed 15 horse burials, six carts, and the pyres of a man and a woman. One of the most
impressive carts is shown on Fig. 21 and dates to the Hellenistic period. The skeletal finds of six paired and three individually buried
horses have not been studied yet hence their pathology will be the subject of a future paper. One would enjoy the exquisite handcraft
and finials of those funeral carts and would be surprised to note that the yoke horses of the second cart (Fig. 22) were buried facing it.
I believe there is no image depicting the joking phrase Dont put de cart before de horses better than this one. Seemingly the
sacrificial horses were buried first and the wagon was thrown over them afterwardsin the wrong direction.

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 21. Wagon with silver finials 22. De cart before de horses

B. Finds in the Peloponnese

11. Nemea: The Aidonia treasure was a horse (1979-2002)
In the spring of 1977, a farmer plowing his olive grove on a hill at Aidonia (rosignol) named Gournospilia (pigs cave)
with his mule saw the animal sink its hind leg on the deteriorated tholos of a Mycenaean tomb. This mishap led to the
important discovery of the Aidonia cemetery and its treasures seen on Figs. 23-25 (for the location of the site see Fig. 1).

23. Aidonia: Mycenaean tombs 24. The AidoniaTreasure 25. Aidonia: Ring with a two-horse difros
Far to the north, a few months later, Prof. Andronikos reached the bottom of the Great Tumulus at Aegae after many
excavation seasons and unearthed the most important tomb found in Macedonia (viz. above). The common point in these
discoveries of the 70s which brought to life invaluable Mycenaean and Macedonian artifacts, is that they carried mystery
and intrigue. After a series of adventures following illegal digs at Aidonia, illicit trade and lawsuits filed by the Ministry
of Culture, Greece welcomed home the Aidonia Treasure in 1996. In 1997 a unique underground museum at Vergina was
inaugurated honoring the 20-year anniversary from the discovery of the Royal Tombs. Yet the identities of the dead
heroes buried in these tombs continue to be a subject of mystery and scientific debate. Another common point, i.e., the
existence of horse remains at Aidonia and Aegae is not widely known although it is important to archaeology and archaeo-
zoology. Unluckily, the incomplete horse skeletons and fourteen mandibles (Tombs 12, 14) at Aidonia, or the cremains of
horses, dogs and other animals in the pyres of the Royal Tomb II at Aegae, were not given immediate attention. The
remains of the Aidonia horses were reported years later, whereas the horse-tack finds at Aegae but not the burnt horses
were published eight years after the discovery. In both cases the lack of detailed faunal studies was probably due to the
absence of specialized Greek archaeozoologists in the last two decades. Thankfully, the horse remains at Aidonia and the
charred bones of horses at Aegae survived the time, having been kept in stock since 1977. The finds at the Royal Tomb II
have been published in detail lately in an attempt to help resolve the enigma on the identity of the cremated hero and to
provide information on the culinary preferences of the Macedonian nobles (Antikas et al, 2002). This paper adds data on
the horse burial (Grave 12) at Aidonia. The incomplete skeleton and mandibles of Tomb 14 will be the subject of a future
paper. Such finds are invaluable treasures as they derive from archaic equines living in Bronze Age Greece and bring
insight into the Mycenaean burial habits, regardless of the fact that the Aidonia horses were sacrificed but not cremated
prior to burial. As this horse is among the most ancient ever found in Greece, its data is analyzed in more detail below.
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Materials and Methods
The skeletal remains of the horse in Grave 12 were kept in a wooden rectangular container marked
1979 stored at the Museum of Nemea (Fig. 26). The skeleton was in the semi-articulated position in
which it was found, embedded in the soil of the original grave (Fig. 27). Cleaning, identifying, conserving, photographing
and cataloguing bones followed standard laboratory techniques (Antikas, 2000). Bone and tooth fragments were sampled
for isotopic analyses (C-14, 13C and 18 content) to determine the dating, nutrition, zoogeography, origins and
evolution of horses in Bronze Age Greece. Gender, age, height and probable use were determined by the degrees of dental
growth and attrition, the development of the innominate bones and metapodials, and the signs of trauma(s) on its skeleton.
Finally, whole or fragmented bones and teeth were measured (von den Driesch, 1976, Antikas, 2000) to compile indices
comparable to those of contemporary Mycenaean equines, or to later but similar faunal remains whenever possible.

26. Horse T-12 in 2000 27. Horse T-12 as found in its original grave, 1977

Results
(a) Isotopic Analyses: C-14 and 18O study as part of a pilot transect
Mean values: 18O: - 6.1, - 5.5; and 3.9 PDB. It is planned to extend the sample regime in a larger transect study, since
one complicating factor was the part sampling upland animals. The Aidonia horse results cannot be fully interpreted until
more lowland horses of the 2nd millennium BC are found and sampled across Greece and bordering countries. C14-dating:
3400 50 BP. This date renders the Aidonia horse the most ancient found in the Peloponnese (14th century BC)

(b) Determination of Gender, Age, Height and Use

Age, Sex, Height: the presence of two loose permanent incisors, their state of attrition, the lack of canine teeth and the
shape of the pubic symphysis and obturator foramen allowed the estimtion of the horses age to 3.5-4.0 years, its sex as
female and its height to 130-135 cm. Hence the Aidonia horse in Grave 12 was a young mare probably belonging to the
so-called Elis breed, among the most ancient native breeds Use: the lack of macroscopic signs caused by the friction of
metallic bits on the first premolar (verified with EM) suggests that the Aidonia horse had not been bridled prior to burial.
Alternatively, it may have been a zygios or seiraphoros (yoke or trace horse) of a chariot, such as the synoris horses seen
driven by two ladies on the fresco of the later palace of Tiryns or at the mosaic at Hagia Triada (Figs. 28-29). Yoke horses
were not bridled often at that time (or later, in Hellenistic times); instead they were controlled by head or neck collars
devoid of bits. This fact coupled with the contemporary scene depicted at Tiryns (ca.1300-1200 BCE), the identification
of the human as female, and the find of a signet ring in the nearby Tomb 7 depicting a biga driven by unbridled horses
(seen on Fig 25) allow the postulate that the sacrificial mare at Aidonia may have served as a chariot horse during her
short life prior to burial.

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 28. Two Ladies, Tiryns 29. Two Ladies, Hagia Triada

(c) Analysis of the horses axial and appendicular skeleton

The mare was buried on her left side on the east-west axis and occupied 2.35 m from the 3.40 m-long grave. The
appendicular skeleton was in a semi-articulated state with the cranium displaced between the front and hind legs at mid-
level. The surviving cranial, dental and appendicular elements are listed on Tables I-II.

Table I: Cranial and Dental Elements

no. Anatomical description
01 maxilla (fragments of)
02 L maxillary cheek teeth (p, m)
03 R maxillary cheek teeth (p, m)
04 mandible (fragment of)
05 left mandibular cheek teeth
06 loose mandibular incisor (i1)
07 loose mandibular incisor (i2)
Total cranial + dental elements
Qty Measurements Commentary
Lmax x Width of occl. surface
2 N/A encrusted in lime salts
4 82-88 x 26-34 mm no sign of bit friction
3 82-88 x 26-34 mm no sign of bit friction
1 60 x 58 mm lateral cut mark, 5 mm
3 82-88 x 26-33 mm range of dimensions
1 56 mm x 16 mm age 3.5 to 4 years
1 57 mm x 17 mm age 3.5 to 4 years
15 young difros mare

Table II: Post-cranial Elements

no. Anatomical description Qty Measurements Commentary
Lmax x W prox. end
01 thorax ribs T1-T6 6 N/A encrusted in lime salts
02 right scapula (fragments of) 2 192 mm x ?? in bad condition
03 right humerus (fragment of) 1 180 mm x ca.63 mm distal end absent
04 left radius-ulna 1 290 mm x 50 mm fragmented in 2 pieces
05 right radius-ulna 1 274 mm x 50 mm incomplete by 25%
06 left metacarpal-3 1 232 mm x 50 mm prox. end fragmented
07 left metacarpal-4 1 50 mm x 20 mm distal end fragmented
08 right metacarpal-3 (fragment of) 1 181 mm x 38 mm both ends ragmente
09 right major sesamoid 1 32 mm x 23 mm left sesamoid absent
10 left manus proximal phalanx 1 84 mm x 55 mm W distal end: 40mm
11 left manus distal phalanx 1 55 mm x 50 mm in very good condition
12 left anonymous bone (fragment) 1 240 mm x 170 mm pubic symphysis part
13 right anonymous bone (fragm.) 1 228 mm x 90 mm part of the acetabulum
14 left femoral bone (fragments of) 2 133 mm x 76 mm distal (trochlear) end
15 right femoral bone (fragment of) 1 231 mm x 62 mm distal (trochlear) end
16 left tibia (fragment of) 1 320 mm x 70 mm proximal end only
17 right tibia (fragment of) 1 310 mm x 70 mm proximal end only
18 right pes proximal phalanx 1 84 mm x 55 mm W distal end, 40mm
Total appendicular elements 25

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12. Dendra revisited: The newest discovery of the oldest yoke horses (2003)
Swedish and Greek archaeologists have been excavating Medea, an important Mycenaean citadel in the Argolid since the
early 30s. The modern site of Dendra has become famous for the fully armored Mycenaean man found in one of its shaft
graves, but also for two pairs of yoke horses buried amidst two graves in Tumulus B. (Figs. 30-31). It has been argued
that these horses may belong to the early second millennium, based on sherds found in the tombs (Protonotariou, 1990).
Such postulates may be proven correct only thanks to the recent discovery of yet one more pair of yoke horses unearthed
by Ms. E. Papi (4th Ephorate, Nauplion) and shown on Fig. 32.If radiocarbon analysis of the horses bone collagen verifies
our hypothesis that they date earlier than the 16th century BC, historians will have to reconsider the established theory, i.e.
that the domesticated Equus entered Greece in the late second millennium. An issue, which needs no commentary, is the
unfortunate statement of the first archaeozoologist who examined horse skeletons 3 and 4 in the 70s. In his own words,
the horses are oldand are male or probably geldings. Apparently the fact that ancient Greeks did not castrate their
horses had not crossed the learned archaezoologists mind. Alternatively, he may have been an absentminded scientist
thinking of western practices at the time he composed the above phrase.

30 The Mycenaean 31and the Horses. 32. Recent discovery of a synoris pair, 2003-04

Conclusion
The key word expressing the keenest desire of heroes, past and present, is immortality, and this is a message conveyed
from Greece all the way to China for millennia. Greek or Eurasian heroes were often privileged to end their mortal lives
on horseback, to be inhumed with their beloved mounts, and to reach the Elysian Fields in full gallop. Meanwhile, from
the Homeric Achilles to the Macedonian Alexander, immortality was sought by a continuous search of the immortal
water. Thetis plunged her son Achilles in such water, and Philips son Alexander searched the sources of immortal water
on horseback in far away India. Almost every god, goddess or lesser deity in history was immortalized by virtue of his or
her closeness to horses, horsemanship, riding and/or driving. From the Olympians to Buddha or Mohammed the symbol
of immortality has been none other than Equus caballus. No wonder mortals, male of female, wished to follow the same
steps in response to the horses idea about it (EVEN WITHOUT A RIDER I WILL ALWAYS BE A CHARGER OF THE
GODS, BUT A MAN WITHOUT A HORSE WILL ONLY BE A MAN). Thus in addition to any other message conveyed
by the common horse-and-human burials (e.g., heroic symbolism, proof of affluence, love of ones horse), it would not be
wise to forget this messageby archaeologists, archaeozoologists or historians. However, in my opinion, the message of
immortality should not be considered primary at all times. The essential feeling of common mortals and/or heroes found
buried, or having wished to be buried with their horses such as Cimon of Athens and Euagoras of Sparta (Herodotus
Histories 6.103) was love. There has been no phrase to express this feeling better than that of Mr. Cummins:

GOD, PLEASE HELP ME NOT TO END UP IN A HEAVEN WHERE THERE ARE NO HORSES

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Figure Subtitles and Credits

1. Sites with horse burials (Elpa maps, Athens, Greece) 2. Fresco on the faade of Philips Tomb (I. Touratsoglou
Macedonia. Ekdotike Athenon 1995) 3. Gold larnax (I. Touratsoglou Macedonia. Ekdotike Athenon 1995) 4. Horse
mandible with traces of bridle bit (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 5. Iron bit (P. Faklaris, Harnesses from Vegina.
Archaeologikon Deltion 41, 1991) 6. Akanthos: Family unit tomb (photo: Eleni Trakosopoulou) 7. Man-and-horse burial
(photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 8. The Lagyna horse team (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 9. Chronic sesamoiditis (photo: L Wynn-
Antikas) 10. Ringbone (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 11. The Philadelphia horse (photo: Vasso Misaelidou) 12a.
Dessiduous/permanent teeth (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 12b. Olecranon/humerus/P2 (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 13. Pydna:
the horse burial (design courtesy of Dr. M. Besios) 14. The single cranium burial (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 15. Sindos:
Horse-5 and dog burial (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 16. Horse-4 with man burial at ca.55 cm (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 17.
Therme: horse & hoplites cist-grave (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 18. The Tzamala male boar (photo: L Wynn-Antikas) 19.
Dion: the epitaph stele (D. Pandermalis, Dion. Adam Editions, 1999) 20. Edessa: pig relief (Ancient Macedonia, Inst. of
Balkan Studies, 1970) 21. Wagon with silver finials (courtesy of Dr. D. Triantafyllos) 22. De cart before de horses
(courtesy of Dr. D. Triantafyllos) 23. Aidonia: Mycenaean tombs (courtesy of Mrs. Dina Kazas) 24. The
AidoniaTreasure (courtesy of Mrs. Dina Kazas) 25. Aidonia: Ring with a two-horse difros (courtesy of Mrs. Dina
Kazas) 26. Horse T-12 in 2000 (photo: Marylin Miller) 27. T-12 as found in its original grave, 77 (courtesy of Mrs. Dina
Kazas) 28. Two Ladies, Tiryns (The Argolid. Archaeological Fund Editions, Athens, 2000) 29. Two Ladies, Hagia
Triada (S. Marinatos, M. Hirmer, Kreta. Hirmer Verlag, 1986) 30. The Mycenaean (The Argolid. Archaeological Fund
Editions, Athens, 2000) 31. And the Horses (photo: Paris Vasilakos) 32. Recent discovery of a synoris pair, 2003-04
(photo: Paris Vasilakos)

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