Weed Biology and Management 8, 147153 (2008)

REVIEW PAPER

Distribution, biology, and agricultural importance

of Galinsoga parviflora (Asteraceae)
CHRISTOS A. DAMALAS
Department of Agricultural Development, Prefecture of Pieria, Katerini, Greece

Galinsoga parviflora, an annual dicot species of the family Asteraceae, is a common herb that is
often found in disturbed habitats and agricultural areas in many parts of the temperate and
subtropical regions of the world. It is a native of tropical America and the center of its origin
is thought to be the mountainous area of Central America. Galinsoga parviflora is considered to
be a common weed in several crops of major importance, such as wheat, corn, cotton, tobacco,
sugarbeet, tomato, pepper, potato, bean, onion, cabbage, garlic, coffee, citrus, banana, and
strawberry; it is frequently found in gardens and uncultivated areas. It succeeds particularly in
moist soils and it is favored by a long photoperiod and high light intensity. The significant
features of the plant, such as the lack of seed dormancy, rapid growth and development, early
flowering, many generations per growing season, production of a great number of seed in a
wide range of environmental circumstances, and the ability for easy vegetative reproduction
under favorable conditions predispose the plant to be a troublesome weed.These features allow
the easy distribution and rapid establishment of the weed in large populations, a fact that often
makes this weed difficult to control. Galinsoga parviflora competes strongly, particularly with
irrigated crops of short height, and it might also hinder crop harvest. The management of
G. parviflora can be achieved by manual weeding, repeated soil cultivation, crop rotation,
mulching, and herbicide application. The plant is reported to be edible and is used also for
medicinal purposes.

Keywords: gallant soldier, quickweed, small-flowered galinsoga, waterweed.

INTRODUCTION name for this species, which probably refers to its

Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (small-flowered galinsoga or
gallant soldier) is an annual herb of the family Asteraceae.
It is commonly found in disturbed habitats and agricul-
tural areas (fields, vegetable gardens, flower beds) in many
parts of the temperate and subtropical regions of the
world (Holm et al. 1979; Warwick & Sweet 1983). The
plant also can be found in uncultivated areas, wasteland,
roadsides, and along railway lines. Galinsoga parviflora is
often reported with the common name of quickweed
because of its ability to grow and mature quickly and,
therefore, to have many generations per growing season
(Jarvis 1999).The name waterweed is another common
Correspondence to: Christos A. Damalas, Department of Agricultural
Development, Prefecture of Pieria, 28th Octovriou 40, 601 00
Katerini, Greece.
Email: damalas@mail.gr
Accepted 4 March 2008
remarkable ability to spread rapidly everywhere like
water (Anonymous 1999a). In Australia, G. parviflora is
more widely known as yellow weed or potato weed
(Pickard 1984; Webb et al. 1988).
The center of origin of G. parviflora is considered to be
the mountainous area of Central America (Canne 1977;
Warwick & Sweet 1983).The plant is regarded as a native
species of Peru, which was transferred to Europe at the
end of the 18th century, where it eventually escaped
from botanical gardens in Paris. Its spread eastwards, at
the beginning of the 19th century, coincided with the
movement of Napoleons army towards that direction
and this is probably the reason for the name of French
soldier, because it was carried abroad by the French
(Hanf 1983). The plant owes its name of Galinsoga to a
Spanish physician and botanist called Ignacio Mariano
Martinez de Galinsoga, superintendent of the Royal
Botanical Garden of Madrid, who maintained a great

doi:10.1111/j.1445-6664.2008.00290.x 2008 The Author

Journal compilation 2008 Weed Science Society of Japan
148 C.A. Damalas
variety of plants, including this species (Canne 1977;
Simonetti & Watschinger 1997). The English name of
gallant soldier is considered to be a corruption of its
Latin name, probably because it sounds like the unfamil-
iar first Latinate word (Galinsoga) of the name Galinsoga
parviflora and it was given by the residents of Richmond
in West London about 1860 (Quinion 1996). The Latin
word parviflora means small flower (from the word
parvo = little, tiny and the word flor = flower) and it
is apparently referring to the small size of its flowers.
Although G. parviflora is common in many parts of the
world and it has remarkable features as a weed, limited
experimental data are available in regard to its biology
and significance, particularly from an agronomic point of
view. Previous reviews provided excellent information
on the taxonomy of the species of the genus Galinsoga
(Canne 1977) and on the distribution and biology of
G. parviflora (Warwick & Sweet 1983). However, new
data and recent trends about this weed from different
areas of the world would be of great interest. Thus, the
aim of this report was to summarize the available infor-
mation and bring together new information and recent
trends on the distribution, biology, and significance of
G. parviflora.
DISTRIBUTION
Galinsoga parviflora is considered to be a cosmopolitan
weed with a worldwide distribution that is mainly attrib-
uted to human activity. It is reported as a weed in >32
crops in 38 countries (Holm et al. 1979). In particular,
G. parviflora is an important weed of cotton in Uganda
and wheat in Angola and it is also found in bean
(Canada, Colombia, Mexico), coffee (Brazil, Mexico,
South Africa,Tanzania), corn (Angola, Ethiopia, Mexico,
Tanzania), potato (Belgium, Mozambique, Poland), and
certain vegetables (Belgium, Brazil, Hawaii, the Philip-
pines, Zambia). Galinsoga parviflora is also a common
weed in bean in Tanzania and in corn in Zimbabwe.
Moreover, this species is reported as a major weed in the
following crops and countries: banana, citrus, and sugar
cane in Mexico, onion, pea, and strawberry in Brazil,
sugarbeet in Belgium and Germany, wheat in Ethiopia
and Tanzania, strawberry in Australia, and garlic in Brazil
(Holm et al. 1979).
Older surveys in Massachusetts (USA) reported that
G. parviflora was a common weed in various crops
(Vengris 1953). In particular, this weed was ranked in the
13th place out of 39 weeds in tobacco, in the 16th place
out of 34 weeds in onion, in the 23rd place out of 55
weeds in potato, and in the 21st place out of 66 weeds in
2008 The Author
Journal compilation 2008 Weed Science Society of Japan
corn. Overall, G. parviflora was reported in the 33rd place
(with Galinsoga ciliata) among the 50 most important
weeds of the USA (Batra 1979). Galinsoga parviflora,
though less common than its relative, G. ciliata, is also
found in Canada, particularly in the areas of Ontario,
Quebec, Manitoba, and British Columbia (Warwick &
Sweet 1983). Galinsoga parviflora is commonly found in
many European countries, such as Belgium, the Neth-
erlands, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, Germany,
Hungary, Poland, the former Czechoslovakia, Denmark,
Finland, Norway, the UK, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy,
Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, the former Yugoslavia, and
the former Soviet Union (Tutin et al. 1980). In a weed
survey in Israel (Dafni & Heller 1981), G. parviflora was
reported as a weed with rapid distribution, particularly in
winter vegetables grown under cover. It was mentioned
also that, although this species was recorded only in
certain areas of Israel, it could be a significant problem in
the future, considering its biology and the potential of its
populations. Galinsoga parviflora is considered to be an
alien invasive species in the Czech Republic, recorded
for the first time in 1867 (Pyek et al. 2002). It is found
in human-made habitats, such as traditional agricultural
landscapes and modern urban and industrial landscapes.
Rai & Tripathi (1983) reported that this species became
established in India, originating from tropical America,
and it is often found in cultivated fields and disturbed
wasteland in high-altitude areas (9501850 m). Galinsoga
parviflora is regarded as a common weed in East Africa,
where it was recorded before World War II, but it was
mainly limited to high-altitude areas. With the increase
of human populations and the spread of intensive agri-
cultural activities (e.g. irrigation of arid areas at lower
altitudes), this species has gradually been distributed to
low-altitude areas (Stadler et al. 1998). In a weed survey
conducted in Ethiopia (Tamado & Milberg 2000),
G. parviflora was reported as a major weed in high-
altitude areas (>1900 m). It was found in 28% of the
fields surveyed, with a high uniformity of distribution
compared with other species. Woldu and Saleem (2002)
observed that this species is present in natural grazing
grasslands in Ethiopia regardless of the varying grazing
intensity. Reports from Europe affirmed G. parviflora as a
common and serious weed in tomato crops in Poland
and Slovenia (Tei et al. 1999). More recent studies men-
tioned that this species was recorded in 40% of the
surveyed orchards in eastern Poland, representing 3.6%
of the plot area covered by plants (Lipecki 2004). Pl
(2004) reported this species as the third most frequent
(frequency of 62.5%) invasive weed in summer annual
crops in South Hungary, particularly in extensive fields,
but it does not appear in cereals because of its summer

annual life form. Galinsoga parviflora is also found in
Slovenia in the weed communities of small fields and
gardens in the vicinity of villages in the mountain belts in
which potato, bean, and cabbage are normally cultivated
(ilc & Carni 2007).This species is also found in the area
of Dalmatia, where it is spreading as a dangerous weed in
the continental lowland part of Croatia and showing a
high potential to become a widespread and dangerous
weed in the coastal region, as has already occurred in the
continental part of Croatia (Milovic 2001). Galinsoga
parviflora is a common species in the area of Mexico
(Vibrans 1997, 1998a). In particular, this species is found
with a high frequency in corn-growing areas, where its
presence was recorded in 263 out of a total of 378 areas
examined (~70%) (Vibrans 1998b, 1999), and its origin is
thought to be Mexico and neighboring regions. Galin-
soga parviflora is also mentioned as a weed with rapidly
increasing populations in Armenia (Anonymous 1999b).
A recent survey of increasing weed problems in Europe
reported this species as an increasingly spreading weed,
particularly in eastern Europe, with a high level of
weediness in cereals, grain legumes, root crops, vegetables
and ornamentals, orchards, and vineyards (Weber & Gut
2005).
In Greece, G. parviflora was first recorded as a serious
weed in the area of Kastoria, in northern Greece, in
1980. It appeared in large populations in bean and
potato that were cultivated in high-altitude areas (700
750 m) (Yannitsaros & Damanakis 1983). It also was
reported that this species had probably come from the
neighboring former Yugoslavia, where it was known
from 1870. Other sources support that G. parviflora was
first observed in 1976 as a major weed in the area of
Florina (northern Greece) in a potato field (Siomos
A.S., personal communication, 2007).The way of intro-
duction of the species in the area is unknown. It is likely
that the seeds of the species were carried with potatoes
that had been used for cropping in the field that year.
The weed is now a major problem, particularly in potato
and bean crops, as well as most of the summer vegetable
crops (e.g. tomato, pepper, eggplant, squash, cabbage,
cauliflower, carrot, onion, and leafy vegetables) cultivated
in the area.
BOTANY AND DESCRIPTION
Galinsoga parviflora is an annual dicot plant of the family
Asteraceae.The plant normally grows 60 cm tall.At the
seedling stage, the young plants have round cotyledons
with a slightly indented tip. The plant has an erect and
usually multibranched stem, nearly glabrous or sparsely
hairy.The leaves are entire, symmetrical, opposite, ovate-
Journal compilation 2008 Weed Science Society of Japan
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (Asteraceae) 149
to-lanceolateovate, with an acute apex and a cuneate-
to-rounded base, sparsely-to-moderately hairy on both
surfaces, with denticulate-to-coarsely serrated margins.
Galinsoga parviflora has many flowers grouped together
(flower heads), with the appearance of a single flower. It
has several small flower heads at the end of each branch.
There are two types of flowers: ray flowers and disk
flowers. The ray flowers (ranging from three-to-five
flowers) look like a single petal each. They form a ring
surrounding the disk flowers. The disk flowers (ranging
from 850 flowers) make up the central portion of the
flower head. The fruit is an achene, angled or flat, dark
brown or black, containing one seed. Galinsoga parviflora
produces capitula with two types of achenes: the ray
achenes without a pappus or, less frequently, with a
rudimentary pappus formed by four-to-six readily
falling, short-barbed bristles half as long as the scales from
disk achenes and the disk achenes with a pappus formed
by a crown of scales. The pappus is a modified calyx
consisting of dry scales, bristles or awns that often facili-
tate the wind dispersal of seeds. It must be noted here
that some plant morphologists use the term cypsella
for the seed of Asteraceae because an achene (e.g. of
Ranunculus) is a true fruit, while the seed of Asteraceae is
a false fruit, whose outer surface is a calyx, not a pericarp.
The seeds are ovate or triangular and covered with small
hairs.
Galinsoga parviflora is morphologically variable, as might
be expected of a widespread weed, and superficially
resembles Galinsoga quadriradiata (also mentioned as
G. ciliata). Thus, the two species are often confused.
Some useful characteristics for the distinction of the two
species are provided by Canne (1977). However, most of
these characteristics are rather technical and most prob-
ably familiar only to expert botanists. In general, G. parvi-
flora has an abundance of marginal cotyledonary hairs,
the plants are nearly glabrous or only moderately pilose,
the leaf blades are more lanceolate, and the achenes are
longer and more narrow that those of G. quadriradiata
(Braden & Cialone 1971; Canne 1977). By contrast,
G. quadriradiata has a small number of marginal cotyle-
donary hairs, the plants are moderately-to-densely pilose,
the leaf blades are more ovate, and the achenes are
significantly shorter and wider than those of G. parviflora
(Braden & Cialone 1971; Canne 1977). It must be noted,
however, that the genus Galinsoga, particularly the weedy
species, is notable for the number of morphological
attributes that vary, both at the interpopulational and
intrapopulational levels, related to high plasticity and
polymorphism. Thus, the distinction between the two
species based on morphological characteristics is often
difficult.
2008 The Author
150 C.A. Damalas
Somatic and meiotic chromosomal analyses revealed that
G. parviflora is a diploid, with 2n = 16 chromosomes, and
G. ciliata is an allopolyploid (tetraploid), with 2n = 32
chromosomes (Haskell & Marks 1952; Gopinathan &
Babu 1982). Furthermore, the similarity in the morphol-
ogy of the somatic chromosomes between the two
species suggests that the diploid might be one of the
progenitors of the tetraploid. However, differences in the
structural rearrangement of the chromosomes, stomata,
and pollen-grain sizes show that G. quadriradiata is not
derived directly from G. parviflora and, thus, the taxo-
nomical difficulties might be related to a possible poly-
ploid series within the genus (Haskell & Marks 1952;
Gopinathan & Babu 1982). Natural hybridization
between the two species is possible, as reported by Gopi-
nathan and Babu (1982), who found a triploid natural
hybrid between G. parviflora and G. ciliata and also a
putative introgressant between G. parviflora and the
natural triploid hybrid. This is possible as both species
have similar ecological preferences and do not differ in
the timing of flower opening, dehiscence of the anthers
or receptiveness of the stigmas. The consequence of
natural hybridization between diploid and tetraploid
species, followed by introgression, is that the triploid
hybrids act as a genetic bridge in the transfer of genes
between species differing in chromosome numbers, thus
leading to the formation of aggressive weedy races that
have the ability to colonize highly disturbed ecological
habitats.
ECOPHYSIOLOGY
Galinsoga parviflora reproduces by seed during the warm
season of the year. The main period of seedling emer-
gence is from March to October and generally follows
soil cultivation. The seeds can germinate shortly after
shedding, even in fall, but the seedlings are frost-sensitive.
The new seedlings begin to flower at the fifth or sixth
node, and the cycle is repeated.The plant also can repro-
duce asexually by the vegetative parts, which are able to
root readily and give new plants under favorable condi-
tions (Warwick & Sweet 1983). The ray achenes have
been found to be significantly heavier, higher in calorific
value, and contain more protein and carbohydrate per
seed than the disk achenes (Rai & Tripathi 1982, 1987).
In addition, the ray achenes show earlier and better
germination from different sowing depths than the disk
achenes, although the germination of both is substan-
tially reduced when sown below a 1.5 cm depth. More-
over, the seedlings from the ray achenes grew better
under nutrient-deficient conditions compared with
those from the disk achenes. The achenes can remain
2008 The Author
Journal compilation 2008 Weed Science Society of Japan
viable within the soil for >2 years and, therefore, the
species shows a high potential to form a permanent soil
seed bank (Espinosa-Garca et al. 2003). Moreover, the
achenes can differ in their longevity and loss rate from
the seed bank: the viability of the ray achenes in the soil
is longer than that of the disk achenes (Espinosa-Garca
et al. 2003). Long-distance dispersal is achieved by the
seeds.They can be transported easily with the wind and
possibly with streams and contaminated soil because of
their small size and weight. The occurrence of append-
ages (pappus scales) also allows easy transportation of the
seeds with animal fur or human clothing (Vibrans 1999).
Terzioglu and Ansin (2001), studying introduced taxa in
the eastern Black Sea region, reported dispersal by wind
and animals (especially by birds) as the possible ways of
G. parviflora spreading from its natural habitat into the
study area. Human activity, which can affect natural weed
seed dispersal at several stages, partly through the world-
wide commercial seed trade but primarily by crop man-
agement operations, seems to play a major role in the
long-distance dispersal of this species (Vibrans 1999).
The seeds are not dormant and they can germinate
immediately under favorable conditions of moisture,
temperature, and light early in spring. However, the
undormant character shown by unburied achenes
(Baskin & Baskin 1981) is lost once the achenes are
buried and this acquired dormancy might last for vari-
able periods (Espinosa-Garca et al. 2003). Light seems to
be an important factor for the seed germination of this
species. Fenner (1980) found that the seed germination
percentage was 93 1% in light (no further details are
given) and only 3 1% in dark conditions. In addition,
the germination percentage of the seeds stored in paper
bags at 22C for 1 month was 52 20%, whereas the
corresponding percentage after 5 months of storage was
93 1%. Ivany and Sweet (1973) observed seedling
emergence mostly between May and June. It also was
found that the germination ability decreased with an
increasing sowing depth. For example, the germination
ability decreased from 98% on the soil surface to 56%
from a depth of 0.25 cm, whereas no germination
occurred from a depth of 1.0 cm.
Seed germination occurs at temperatures between 10
and 35C. The germination ability at 20C in light was
99%, whereas the corresponding germination ability at
the same temperature in the dark was slightly reduced
(7788%). The germination rate was higher under the
alternating temperatures of 30/20C than under the
alternating temperatures of 20/10C. Freshly harvested
seeds germinated at nearly 100% in the light at alternat-
ing temperatures of 20/30C, 25/15C, 30/15C, and

35/20C, whereas little or no germination occurred in
darkness at any temperature in either the fresh or strati-
fied seeds (Baskin & Baskin 1981). Seed exposure at low
temperatures (for 2, 4, and 6 weeks at 0C and -18C)
decreased the germination rate but did not affect the
total germination percentage (Ivany & Sweet 1973).
The growth and development of G. parviflora is favored
by a long photoperiod and high light intensity. Ivany and
Sweet (1973) observed an increase in both the height
and fresh weight of the plants grown under a photope-
riod of 16 h compared with those grown under a pho-
toperiod of 8 h. Furthermore, they observed a decrease
in both the height and fresh weight of the plants when
the light intensity was reduced from 89 to 17 klx, a fact
that explains the appearance of the weed in low crops.
Other studies also showed that plant survival is reduced
when the plants grow under a low-light regime (Rai &
Tripathi 1986, 1987). Ohtsuka (1999), studying structural
changes in plant communities in north-east Borneo,
observed that G. parviflora was established rapidly and
was the dominant species early in the growing season in
an abandoned field, whereas later in the growing season,
other species with greater height dominated.This could
be linked with the high demands of the plant for light,
which seems to be the limiting factor for G. parviflora
domination when it coexists with other higher species.
However, the plant is neutral in regard to the number of
days that are required for flowering and it can complete
its life cycle in 4550 days. Galinsoga parviflora continues
to flower throughout the warm period of the year until
frost occurs.
CROP COMPETITION AND YIELD LOSSES
The growth and development of G. parviflora is affected
by the presence of other individuals of the same species
in high populations. In particular, it was observed that
seed germination is negatively correlated with an
increasing sowing density (Rai & Tripathi 1983). Fur-
thermore, an increase in the sowing density leads to
a decrease in the number of flower heads per plant, a
decrease in the number of seeds per flower head, and a
decrease in the total seed number and total biomass. It is
worth mentioning that all of the above are more pro-
nounced under dry conditions. Similar observations
were reported by Rai and Tripathi (1984) and Dostatny
(1999). These data indicate that G. parviflora is quite
sensitive in competition (particularly under dry condi-
tions) and, therefore, is rarely present in established grass-
lands or other dense crop stands, a fact that might be an
important feature as regards to competition with crops.
Journal compilation 2008 Weed Science Society of Japan
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (Asteraceae) 151
Experimental data on the competition of G. parviflora
with crops do not exist in the literature. Observations
indicate that competition with crops depends on each
specific crop. Competitive crops are not affected by com-
petition with G. parviflora, whereas less competitive
(short-statured) crops (e.g. bean, strawberry) have been
reported to be more sensitive to competition, with yield
losses 50%.The losses are not only related to the uptake
of nutrients that are necessary for the productivity of the
cultivated plants but also are related to the relatively high
leaf surface area of G. parviflora, which might shade out
the cultivated plants. Warwick and Sweet (1983), refer-
ring to older reports, mentioned that the presence of
Galinsoga species is associated with yield losses of 50% in
bean, 10% in cabbage, and 23% in tomato. It is worth
mentioning, however, that these reports referred to
mixed populations of the species G. parviflora and
G. quadriradiata; therefore, no reliable conclusions can be
drawn.
Besides competition with crops, the presence of G. parvi-
flora constitutes a major problem during crop harvest,
particularly in crops such as bean and potato. Many
times, the presence of high populations of the weed in
these crops late in the growing season hinder harvest
operations and increase harvesting and cleaning costs,
unless the weed plants are removed (Siomos A.S., per-
sonal communication, 2007).
USES OF GALINSOGA PARVIFLORA
The plant has not been reported to contain poisonous
substances and, in some areas, is considered to be edible
(Cribb & Cribb 1976; Facciola 1990). In areas of central
and Latin America (Mexico, Colombia), the plant parts
(young stems and leaves) are eaten raw or cooked. The
same is reported in Tanzania, where the plant exists in
abundance and it is consumed as a leafy vegetable
(Vainio-Mattila 2000). Furthermore, the plant parts can
be dried, ground into a powder, and then used as a
flavouring in soups.The plant is reported to be used as a
medicine for treating nettle stings by rubbing it on the
skin (Chopra et al. 1996). In Uganda, the plant is
reported as a traditional herbal drug used for treating
bleeding (Hamill et al. 2000; Hamill et al. 2003). Further-
more, G. parviflora is reported to exhibit antibacterial and
anti-inflammatory activities (Matu & Van Staden 2003).
The leaves contain high concentrations of protein,
calcium, and magnesium (Table 1). A recent report from
South Africa, studying the mineral concentration
content in local vegetables, confirmed that some indig-
enous leafy species, including G. parviflora, provide
mineral concentrations of >1% of the plants dry weight,
2008 The Author
152 C.A. Damalas

Table 1. Nutritional value (per 100 g fresh weight) and during the growing season and prevents seed production.
mineral content (per 100 g dry weight) of Galinsoga Cleaning the equipment after working in infested fields
parviflora leaves (Odhav et al. 2007) is essential and reduces the spread of the weed.The use of
black mulch can be an effective measure of control in
Characteristic Value intensive crops (of limited area).This practise reduces the
Energy (kcal) 41
percentage of germination, which is favored by a long
Moisture (g) 89
photoperiod and high light intensity.
Protein (g) 4 Chemical control includes the use of various herbicides,
Fat (g) 0.5 such as atrazine, metribuzin, alachlor, metolachlor,
Fiber (g) 1.24 dimethenamid-P, diuron, linuron, oxyfluorfen, halosulfu-
Ash (g) 1.74 ron, mesotrione, flumioxazin, clomazone, terbacil, nor-
Carbohydrates (g) 5.29 flurazon, sulfentrazone, 2,4-D, dicamba, bentazon,
Calcium (mg) 162 bromoxynil, paraquat, glyphosate, prometryn, phenme-
Phosphorus (mg) 38 dipham, fomesafen, and clopyralid, depending on the
Sodium (mg) 36 crop in which the weed is a problem and the registered
Manganese (mg) 44 uses of each product (Zandstra 2007). Herbicide treat-
Copper (mg) 3 ments might not always provide complete control of
Zinc (mg) 14 G. parviflora populations but they can provide a consid-
Magnesium (mg) 681 erable reduction of the populations, particularly early in
Iron (mg) 27 the growing season during the critical period of com-
petition with crops.Thus, chemical control always should
be combined with additional methods of weed control,
which are much higher than the typical mineral concen- such as soil cultivation and manual weeding, until the
trations in conventional, edible leafy vegetables and, thus, end of the growing season to prevent seed production
they could be recommended for future commercial cul- and further infestation of the cultivated fields. It must be
tivation (Odhav et al. 2007). Traditional vegetables nor- noted also that, although some herbicides can be very
mally grow wild, are readily available in the field as they effective in controlling G. parviflora, they are not always
normally do not require any formal cultivation, and available because this species mainly occurs as a weed in
represent inexpensive but often high-quality nutrition fields planted with vegetables and intercrops, where her-
sources for the poor segment of the population, espe- bicide use is often limited.
cially where malnutrition is widespread.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
MANAGEMENT Special thanks are extended to Dr A. S. Siomos,Associate
Professor of Vegetable Crops, University of Thessaloniki,
Galinsoga parviflora is an annual weed that often becomes
Greece, for providing useful unpublished information
a perennial problem, particularly for vegetable-growers.
from his personal record file.
A first step in the management of G. parviflora is the
prevention of the weeds establishment in the fields.This
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and tomato, also might be applied because these crops state.edu/~vegnet/rowtalk/gals.htm.
Anonymous. 1999b. A Country Study on the Biodiversity of Armenia.
allow the use of a variety of herbicides, providing greater Ministry of Nature Protection, Republic of Armenia, Yerevan,
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germination and ecological implications in Galinsoga parviflora and
G. parviflora if the cover crop is thick enough to prevent
Galinsoga quadriradiata. Bartonia 48, 1218.
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