GUNNAR O.

TAMM &
SANJAY VIJAYARAGHAVAN
PETER E. JENKINS (1st
EDITION MANUAL)
 Chapter 2 W sin
D=
Fundamentals of Solar Radiation tan 12
At winter solstice, the solar declination is its lowest
2.1 at s = -23.45, which can be confirmed by solving
Given: L = 40.77N, Solar Time = 2:00 PM Eq. (2.23). The hour angle at solar noon is hs = 0.
Find: s , z, as From Eq. (2.28),
sin 12 = sin L sin s + cos L cos s
From Eq. (2.23), with n = 274, 12 = 36.87
s = 23.45 sin 360 ( 284 + 274 ) 365 With the tilt angle fixed, the distance separating the
s = 4.22 two rows is now fixed at
sin 30 2
From Eq. (2.25), D =W = W
hs = 15 ( 2) = 30 tan 36.87 3
At 9 AM on Dec 21, the hour angle is hs = -45 and
From Eq. (2.28),
from Eq. (2.28),
sin = sin L sin s + cos L cos s cos hs
sin 9 = sin L sin s + cos L cos s cos hs ,9
= 37.3
From Eq. (2.24), 9 = 21.5
z = 90 = 52.7 As the sun is not due south, the angle as shown in
From Eq. (2.29), the diagram is
sin as = cos s sin hs cos tan 9 = tan 9 cos as ,9
as = 38.8 With the solar azimuth angle from Eq. (2.29) as
sin as ,9 = cos s sin hs ,9 cos 9
as ,9 = 44.2
2.2 which gives the south projected altitude angle at 9
Given: L = 29.68N Gainesville, south facing east- AM as
west collectors, tilt = 30, Dec 21 9 = 28.8
Find: Minimum distance between rows at solar As before, but with a 9 AM sun, the geometry gives
noon for no shading and % shading at W sin
9 AM with same separation. D+x =
tan 9
such that x is given as
1 1
x = W sin
tan 9 tan 12
From the tangent rule,
x + Ws 180 180 2 9
= tan tan
x Ws 2 2
Combining the last two relations,
Ws 1 1
= sin
W tan 9 tan 12
180 180 2 9
tan 2 tan
From the above geometry,
b 2
tan 12 = g
D 180 180 2 9
tan 2 + tan
b 2
sin =
W The percent shaded is therefore 13.7%.
Combining, the minimum distance for no shading is Notes:
This assumes that the rows are very long, so that at The unit directional for the sun can be written in
9 AM although the easternmost part of the back row terms of an East-North-Vertical coordinate system.
is not shaded, this changes the overall shading s = cos sin as E + cos cos as N sin V
percentage very little.
Similarly for the panel normal,
p = cos ( 90 ) sin ( aw ) E
2.3 cos ( 90 ) cos ( aw ) N
Given: Sep 1
Find: Sunrise and sunset time for a selected + sin ( 90 ) V
location p = sin sin aw E sin cos aw N + cos V
The scalar product of the two is
With n = 244, the declination is given by Eq. (2.23)
cos i = s n
s = 23.45 sin 360 ( 284 + 244 ) 365
= cos sin as sin sin aw
s = 7.72
+ cos cos as sin cos aw
With the latitude of the location known, Eq. (2.30)
gives the sunrise and sunset times as + sin cos
hss or hsr = cos 1 [ tan L tan s ] Combining terms and using an identity, Eq. (2.44)
results as
These are hour angles, so the corresponding solar
cos i = cos sin cos ( as aw ) + sin cos
times for sunrise and sunset are
Sunrise time = 12 : 00 Noon + hsr ( 4min/degree ) Notes:
The identity used was
Sunset time = 12 : 00 Noon + hss ( 4min/degree )
cos ( x y ) = cos x cos y m sin x sin y
The local standard time is found from Eq. (2.26) as
LST = Solar Time ET ( lst llocal ) 4min degree
where the equation of time is from Eq. (2.27) as 2.6
ET = 9.87 sin 2 B 7.53cos B 1.5sin B Given: L = 29.68N, llocal = 82.27W, Sep 21, solar
B = 360 ( n 81) 364 noon, surface with = 30 and aw = 0
which for Sep 1 yields ET = 0.63 min. Find: z, i, Ib,c, Id,c, Ir,c, Ic, and EST

For the autumnal equinox, Eq. (2.23) gives the solar

2.4 declination as s = 0. At solar noon, the hour angle
Given: 15th day of each month hs = 0. Eq. (2.28) shows that on the equinox at
Find: hourly values of hs, , a, and z, and solar noon, the solar altitude is equal to the latitude
sunrise and sunset times for a selected sin = cos L = 60.32
location From Eq. (2.24), the zenith angle is simply
z = 90 = L = 29.68
The declination is determined from Eq. (2.23) for At solar noon the sun is due south, such that as = 0.
each day number. The hour angle is proportional to The incidence angle from Eq. (2.44) then becomes
the hour by Eq. (2.25). The solar altitude follows cos i = cos sin + sin cos = sin ( + )
according to Eq. (2.28), and the solar zenith angle
i = 0.32
from Eq. (2.24). Finally, the solar azimuth angle is
Or simply by looking at the geometry in the North-
found from Eq. (2.29). The sunrise and sunset times
Vertical plane,
are determined as in 2.3.
i = 90 = 0.32
The extraterrestrial radiation is from Eq. (2.35) as
W
2.5 I = 1353 2 1 + 0.034 cos ( 360 264 365 )
Prove Eq. (2.44) m
W
= 1345 2
m
The beam normal radiation is found from Eq.
(2.39). Assuming clear conditions, and with k taken
from Table 2.4,
0.177 sin ( 60.32 )
I b , N = Cn Ie k sin = 1345e
sin = sin L sin s + cos L cos s cos hs
where the latitude is constant for the location and
the solar declination is approximated as constant for
W
= 1097.1 2 the day number. Therefore the integral becomes
12
m hs + 24

The beam radiation normal to the surface is I o ,h = I sin L sin s dhs

W hs 24
I b ,c = I b , N cos i = 1097.1 2
m hs + 24

The diffuse radiation is from Eq. (2.45), with C + cos L cos s cos hs dhs
from Table 2.4 hs 24
I d ,c = 0.092 I b , N cos 2 ( 30 2 ) Solving the integral,
12
= 94.2
W I o ,h = I sin L sin s
m2 12
Assuming a ground reflectivity of 0.2, Eq. (2.47) + cos L cos s
gives the reflected radiation on the surface as

I r ,c = 0.2 I b , N ( sin 60.32 + 0.092 ) sin 2 ( 30 2 ) sin hs + sin hs
24 24
W
= 14.1 The term in the brackets is reduced using a trig
m2 identity to finally get
The total radiation is the sum according to 12
W I o ,h = I sin L sin s
I c = I b ,c + I d ,c + I r ,c = 1205.4 2 12
m

From Eq. (2.27) as ET = 7.9 min. Finally, the local + cos L cos s 2 cos hs sin
standard time is given by Eq. (2.26) as 24
LST = Solar Time ET ( lst llocal ) 4min degree 24
= I sin L sin s + sin cos L cos s cos hs
= 12 : 00 7.9min ( 75 82.27 ) 4min 24
= 12:21 PM = I {sin L sin s + 0.9971cos L cos s cos hs }
However, as Gainesville has daylight savings on With I as in Eq. (2.35), Eq. (2.74) is derived.
Sep 21, the local time is Local Daylight Time,
LDT = LST + 1: 00 = 1: 21 PM
2.8
Draw: Shadow maps for given geometries in
2.7 both 35N and 40N latitudes
Derive Eq. (2.74)
Sun-path diagrams for the two latitudes are found in
Horizontal extraterrestrial radiation is given as Appendix 2. For geometry (a), point C will be
I h = I sin shaded when the altitude is given according to Eq.
The average value of this over one hour is (2.31) as
t +1 2 hr tan 50 = sec as tan
I sin dt
1
t +1 2 hr For the limiting case of the sun at 40 east or west
hr t 12 hr
t 1 2 hr
I o,h = = I sin dt of south, the altitude angle is then 37.45. For a
( t + 1 2 hr ) ( t 1 2 hr ) noon sun, the altitude angle is 50. The shadow map
or in terms of hour angles (rad), is plotted on the sun-path diagram for the 35
h + 24
12 s location. As shown, point C is shaded when the
hs 24
I o,h = I sin dhs solar declination is greater than -5, which occurs
between early March and early October. For other
I is approximated as constant for the day number times of the year, the map shows, for example,
according to Eq. (2.35), and so can be taken out of shading on winter solstice before 8:15 AM and after
the integral. From Eq. (2.28) for the solar altitude, 3:45 PM solar time.
 The sun reappears on point C when it dips below
the overhang in the afternoon, but disappears as it
moves north of due west and behind the back wall.
Point C is not shaded during the winter at all.

Fig. Shadow map for geometry (a), 35N latitude.

For geometry (b), point C will be shaded at noon

with the altitude angle greater than 45. With the
solar azimuth 60 of south, the corner of the
Fig. Shadow map for geometry (c), 35N latitude.
overhang is in line with the sun and point C. The
altitude angle of interest here is 26.57, from
For geometry (c), point C will not be shaded after
looking at the geometry. Finally at 90 of south,
the sun rises to within 30 of south, provided it
the critical altitude angle is 30.
remains south of west in the late afternoon also. The
critical altitude angle right before -30 azimuth is
26.57. At due east, shading will occur below 45.

Shadow maps for the 40 latitude are similar and are

not shown.

2.9
Draw: Shadow map for geometry (c) in 2-8 in
40N latitudes, but rotated 90 such that
point P is now on west wall

There will be no sunlight on point P until the solar

noon. Then the altitude angle must be above 45. At
60 west of south, the altitude angle of interest is
26.57. Moving further west, the sun will shine on P
provided it does not yet set. From the geometry, it
will shine on P until it reaches due north.
Fig. Shadow map for geometry (b), 35N latitude.
Note that the shadow map shown below is simply a
rotation of the shadow map for 2-8 (c), with point P
For geometry (b), it is noted that during April, for
in shadow in the morning.
example, point C is shaded in the morning before
the sun reaches due east, then is in sunshine for
about an hour until the overhang blocks the sun.
 2. For the south facing surface, the solar altitude
and azimuth angles can be written in terms of solar
declination and hour angle, such that
cos i = sin ( L ) sin s + cos ( L ) cos s cos hs
This yields the same results with less computation.

2.11 A
Given: Same as 2.10, with panel facing S 45E
Find: i for same dates/times as 2.10

Determine the angles with the same procedure as in

2.10, except with aw = 45
Jun 21 Jun 21 Dec 21 Dec 21
9 AM noon 9 AM noon
Declination 23.45 23.45 -23.45 -23.45
Hour angle -45 0 -45 0
Solar altitude 48.8 73.4 14.0 26.6
Solar azimuth -80.2 0 -41.9 0
Panel azimuth -45 -45 -45 -45
2.10
Solar incidence 40.3 58.9 6.7 41.6
Given: L = 40N, = 70
Notes:
Find: i for Jun 21 and Dec 21 at 9 AM and 12 PM 1. The panel azimuth is positive west of south.
2. Compared to a due south orientation, the S 45E
The solar declinations are found with n = 172 and n panel receives more sunlight at 9 AM (smaller angle
= 355, respectively, from Eq. (2.23) of incidence i) as it is oriented towards the sun in
s = 23.45 sin 360 ( 284 + n ) 365 the morning, and less sunlight (larger i) at noon.
Assuming solar time, the hour angles are found
from Eq. (2.25) 2.11 B
hs = 15 ( hours from local solar noon ) Given: Same as in 2.10, but with cylindrical
collector surface
The solar altitude angles are found from Eq. (2.28) Find: same as 2.10
sin = sin L sin s + cos L cos s cos hs
The solar azimuth angles are found from Eq. (2.29) The procedure is similar to that in 2.10, but the
sin as = cos s sin hs cos incidence angle will be an average over the curved
As it is not specified, assume the plate orientation is surface and can be derived to be
12
due South such that sin ( L ) cos cos h 2

cos i = 1
s s
aw = 0
Plug all the above angles into Eq. (2.44) + cos ( L ) sin s
cos i = cos cos ( as aw ) sin + sin cos Jun 21 Jun 21 Dec 21 Dec 21
9 AM noon 9 AM noon
Jun 21 Jun 21 Dec 21 Dec 21
Declination 23.45 23.45 -23.45 -23.45
9 AM noon 9 AM noon
Hour angle -45 0 -45 0
Declination 23.45 23.45 -23.45 -23.45
Solar altitude 48.8 73.4 14.0 26.6
Hour angle -45 0 -45 0
Solar azimuth -80.2 0 -41.9 0
Solar altitude 48.8 73.4 14.0 26.6
Panel azimuth 0 0 0 0
Solar azimuth -80.2 0 -41.9 0
Solar incidence 42.0 53.4 1.2 6.6
Panel azimuth 0 0 0 0
Solar incidence 68.7 53.4 40.5 6.6
Notes:
1. The hour angle and solar azimuth are negative 2.12
before solar noon (while the sun is towards east) Given: Table 2.2, Fig. 2.7
Derive empirical equation for solar declination
using a one-term Fourier cosine series
2.14
For a one term Fourier cosine series, we want the Derive Eq. (2.31)
declination to be of the form
360 Referring to Fig. 2.11a,
( n ) = a cos n + = a cos n +
L 365 cos a = x r
where n is the day number and the period is 2L = tan = z r
365 days. From the given data, the maximum tan = z x
declination occurs on June 21 as
Solving for z/x,
max = (172 ) = 23.45 = a tan = tan cos a = sec a tan
This must correspond to where the cosine term is
equal to 1, such that
360 360
nmax + = 0 = nmax 2.15
365 365 Find: for annual minimum i
Thus the declination becomes
360
( n ) = 23.45cos ( n 172 ) Eq. (2.44), through some effort, can be written in
365 terms of the hour angle and declination as
or equivalently, cos i = sin ( L ) sin s + cos ( L ) cos s cos hs
360
( n ) = 23.45cos ( n + 10.5 ) To get the average value of the function cos i, we
365 integrate over the year (declination) and over the
entire day (hour angle).
s ,max hs ,max

2.13 2
s ,max hs ,min
cos i dhs d s
Derive an eqn. for lines of constant declination. cos i avg =
2 ( s ,max s ,min )( hs ,max hs ,min )
In order to plot lines of constant declination on a The factor of 2 is there as the declination range is
plot similar to Fig. 2.10, we must write the seen twice a year. With the minimum values as
declination in terms of two polar coordinates, simply the negative of the maximum values,
namely the solar azimuth and altitude angles. The integration with respect to the hour angle yields
solar altitude angle is from Eq. (2.28), and can be s ,max
1
written in terms of the hour angle as cos i avg = sin ( L ) sin s
sin sin L sin s 4 s ,max hs ,max s ,max
cos hs =
cos L cos s +2 cos ( L ) cos s sin hs ,max
The solar azimuth is given by Eq. (2.29), Completing the second integration,
sin as cos 1
sin hs = cos i avg =
cos s 4 s ,max hs ,max

{
Using the identity,
sin 2 hs + cos 2 hs = 1 sin ( L ) cos ( s ,max ) cos ( s ,max )
the hour angle is removed as a variable. The answer
is then written as
+2 cos ( L ) sin hs ,max 2 sin ( s ,max ) }
simplifying,
( cos L cos s ) ( sin sin L sin s )
2 2

sin as = cos i avg =

1
( cos L cos )
2
4 s ,max hs ,max
There will be a unique plot for each latitude. For
each declination, two solar azimuth angles will {
0 + 4 cos ( L ) sin hs ,max sin ( s ,max ) }
result for each solar altitude angle, ie. one before (-) and finally
and one after (+) solar noon.
 cos ( L ) sin hs ,max sin s ,max
cos i avg = From Eq. (2.27),
s ,max hs ,max
Jun 10, n = 121, ET = 0.76min
It should be noted that the average of the cosine of i
does not yield the average i, but this is OK as we Jan 10, n = 10, ET = 7.42min
dont need the average i. We only want to find the From Eq. (2.26), on Jun 10,
for the minimum i, which coincides with the Solar Time = 9 AM + 0.76min + (105 107 ) 4min
for the maximum cosine of i. Solar Time = 8 : 53 AM
d cos i avg sin ( L optimal ) sin hs ,max sin s ,max Similarly for Jan 10,
=0= Solar Time = 10 AM 7.42min + (105 107 ) 4min
d s ,max hs ,max
which now shows the best tilt angle for the smallest Solar Time = 9 : 45 AM
average angle of incidence is Notes:
1. Daylight savings time has the clocks ahead by an
optimal = L
hour, such that LST is one hour behind Local
Notes: Daylight Time.
1. Integration in the range where the sun is not in
view of the collector, or is below the horizon, would
yield a meaningless average for the angle of 2.18
incidence. However, the choice of range is not Find: Compass reading deviation from true
significant here as it cancels in finding the best . north in Cleveland, OH
2. Usually collectors in the northern hemisphere are
tilted at an angle of the latitude plus 15. Why? This An isogonic chart for the region is needed here,
is to shift their performance to when it is needed the such as given in the 1st editions Fig 2.17. From
most namely the heating season to capture the sun that, the chart indicates the compass north needle
when it is low in the sky. will point 3-4W of true north.

2.16 2.19
Given: L = 23N Given: Hamburg, Germany
Find: sunset time for May 1 and Dec 1 Find: Average horizontal insolation with PS =
From Eq. (2.23), 40 in May and PS = 60 in October.
May 1, n = 121, s = 14.9
Hamburg is at a latitude of 53.63 N, according to
Dec 1, n = 335, s = 22.1 Table A2.3a. For each month, Table A2.2 gives the
From Eq. (2.30), average daily extraterrestrial horizontal insolation
hss = cos 1 [ tan L tan s ] as
May 1, hss = 96.49 kWh MJ
May, H o ,h = 10.42 2 = 37.51 2
m day m day
Dec 1, hss = 80.07
kWh MJ
With 15 per hour, sunsets are at Oct, H o , h = 3.99 2 = 14.36 2
96.49 m day m day
May 1, Sunset time = = +6.43hrs = 6 : 26 PM Using the Angstrm-Page method, Table 2.5 gives a
15
= 0.22 and b = 0.57 for Hamburg. Then from Eq.
80.07
Dec 1, Sunset time = = +5.34hrs = 5 : 20 PM (2.48),
15
40 MJ
May, H h = 37.51 0.22 + 0.57 = 16.8 2
100 m day
2.17 60 MJ
Oct, H h = 14.36 0.22 + 0.57 = 8.07 2
Given: llocal = 107W 100 m day
Find: Solar Time at 10:00 AM MDT on June 1
Solar Time at 10:00 AM MST on Jan 1
2.20 For the horizontal surface, the hourly beam
Modify Eq. (2.51) to work with a solar constant component is given as
of 1353 W/m2. W
I b ,h = I b , N sin = 571.3 2
m
Eq. (2.51) is given as and the diffuse component from Eq. (2.78) as the
Dh balance:
1.390 4.027 KT + 5.531KT2 3.108 KT3
Hh W
I d ,h = I h I b ,h = 104.9 2
Where from Eq. (2.50), m
Hh
KT =
1394W m 2
2.22
Introduce a modified monthly clearness index to be
Find: Minimum distance between east-west
Hh
KT = rows of solar collectors
1353W m 2
Thus,
1353
KT = KT = 0.971KT
1394
and with the new parameter, Eq. (2.51) becomes
Dh
1.390 3.909 KT + 5.210 KT2 2.842 KT3
Hh

2.21
Given: L = 40N Denver, clear sky, horizontal
surface, Sep 9, 9:30 AM
Find: hourly beam and diffuse radiation From the law of sines,
D b
The hourly horizontal extraterrestrial radiation is =
given as Eq. (2.74). For Sep 9, n = 252. With the sin sin
solar declination from Eq. (2.23) as 4.61 and the Further reduce with
hour angle at 9:30 AM solar time from Eq. (2.25) as b = L sin
37.5, Eq. (2.74) yields: to obtain the result:
L ( sin )
2
W
I o ,h = 1353 ( 0.988 )( 0.656 ) = 876.2 2 D=
m sin
The air mass ratio is found from Eq. (2.38) as:
1
m=
sin
where from Eq. (2.28), the solar altitude angle is
41.1 such that m = 1.52. For clear skies, Eq. (2.77)
gives the total horizontal terrestrial radiation as
I W
I h = o ,h ( 83.02 3.847 m ) = 676.2 2
100 m
From Eq. (2.73),
I
kt = h = 0.772
I o,h
Therefore the hourly beam normal component is
given by Eq. (2.75) as
W
I b , N = 520 + 1800kt = 869.1 2
m
 Chapter 3 The percentage of possible insolation is from Eq.
Methods of Solar Collection and (2.73) as
I
Thermal Conversion kt = h = 0.498
I o,h
3.1 The direct normal beam portion follows then from
Given: Uc = 6 W/m2K, l = 0.15 m, t = 0.0005 m, D Eq. (2.75) as
= 0.012 m, hc,i = 1200 W/m2K, = 0.9, = W
I b , N = 520 + 1800kt = 375.9 2
0.9, A = 1 m x 3 m, m& = 0.02 kg/s, Tf,i = m
330 K, aluminum The solar altitude angle is from Eq. (2.28) to be
Find: heat removal factor FR 41.2, such that the beam horizontal radiation is
W
The parameter m is determined as I b ,h = I b , N sin ( 41.2 ) = 247.6 2
m
Uc 6W m2 K The balance is the beam diffuse component,
m= = = 7.66m 1
kt 204.4 W mK 0.0005m W
I d ,h = I h I b ,h = 202.4 2
The conductivity for aluminum is interpolated from m
Table A3.4 to be 118.1 Btu/hrftF or 204.4 W/mK. The tilt angle is not specified in the problem
Therefore, the fin efficiency is determined as statement, but is taken here as 40. Therefore the tilt
tanh ( mw ) factor is
f = = 0.916 cos i
mw Rb =
Where the length sin
l D sin ( L ) sin s + cos ( L ) cos s cos hs
w= = 0.069m =
2 sin ( 41.2 )
From Eq. (3.37), the collector efficiency factor is cos s cos hs
= = 1.49
F =
1 Uc
= 0.906 sin ( 41.2 )
( )
l 1 U c ( D + 2w f ) + 1 ( hc ,i P )
Thus the radiation in the collector is
where the tube perimeter is simply P = D . Then I c = Rb I b , h + I d , h cos 2 ( 2) + I h sin 2 ( 2 )
from Eq. (3.43), W
= 368.79 + 178.72 + 10.53 = 558.04
( m& Ac ) c p Uc F m2
FR = 1 exp
( m& Ac ) c p
Finally from Eq. (3.46),
Uc
U c (T f ,i Ta )
= 0.823 c = FR
where the specific heat for water is 4179 J/kgC as Ic
given in Table A3.2.
6 ( 330 280 )
= 0.823 ( 0.9 )( 0.9 )
558.04
3.2 = 0.224
Given: collector in problem 3.1, Mar 1, L = 40N, The heat removal factor was taken from 3.1.
Ih = 450 W/m2, Ta = 280 K, aw = 0
Find: c between 11 AM and 12 PM
3.3
From Eq. (2.23) with n = 60, the declination is Given: collector in example 3.2, 10 AM, s I s = 0,
s = 8.29 150, 270 W/m2 in first 3 hours, Ta = 285 K
The average hour angle, hs = -7.5. From Eq. (2.74), Find: Tp at 10 AM
for the hourly horizontal extraterrestrial radiation,
W Values of the collector heat capacity are found in
I o ,h = 1353 (1.017 )( 0.657 ) = 904.1 2
m example 3.2 to be
 J where N = 2 for two glass covers. From the
( mc ) p + (U c U )( mc ) g = 15,500 definition in Eq. (3.13),
K
Then from Eq. (3.52), qtop
U top =
I I Ac ( Tc Ta )
Tp ,9 am = Ta + s s s s (Tp ,8 am Ta )
Uc Uc and so combining with Eq. (3.23),
1
U At U top =
exp c c N ( Tc C ) (Tc Ta ) ( N + f )
0.33
+ hc,1
15,500
For one hour, t = 3600 s. The collector area in (Tc2 + Ta2 ) (Tc + Ta )
example 3.2 is given as 2 m2. Therefore, at 9 AM, +
1 p + 0.05 N (1 p ) + ( 2 N + f 1) g N
150 150 6 ( 2 ) 3600
Tp ,9 am = 285 + exp with the Stefan-Boltzman constant as 5.67x10-8
6 6 15,500 W/m2K4,
= 308.46 K W
Note that during the first hour, 8-9 AM, there was no U top = 1.038 + 1.362 = 2.4 2
m K
collector temperature rise as there was no absorbed
and finally,
insolation. Following the same method for the next
W
hour, U c = 0.8 + 2.4 = 3.2 2
270 270 m K
Tp ,9 am = 285 + ( 308.46 285 ) Clearly, as the bottom is better insulated, 75% of
6 6 the losses are from the top.
6 ( 2 ) 3600
exp
15,500
3.5
= 328.67 K
Given: Fig. 3.18, s = 0.9, s = 0.92, Ic = 600
W/m2, Ta = 5 C, Tf,i = 15 C, Tf,o = 60 C
3.4 Find: FR, Uc, qu/Ac, m& w
Given: double glass collector, Ta = 275 K, p =
From Fig. 3.18, the intercept is at 0.69. Thus the
0.9, ki = 0.04 W/mK, t = 3 cm, g = 0.88, ti
heat removal factor follows as
= 5 cm, Tc = 340 K, = 45, V = 3 m/s 0.69 = FR s s FR = 0.833
Find: Uc The slope is determined from Fig 3.18 to be
0.69 0.2 W
Neglecting edge losses, the total heat losses are FRU c = U c = 8.2 2
from the top and bottom as 0 0.072 m K
Combining Eq. (3.66) with Eq. (3.46),
1
U c = U bot + U top = + U top
= I c FR s s FRU c (T f ,i Ta ) = 345.5 2
qu W
Rbot
Ac m
where the thermal resistance through the bottom is
only according to the insulation conductivity. The efficiency of the collector for the noted fluid
inlet temperature and ambient temperature is
1 k W
= i = 0.8 2
Rbot ti m K
( q A ) 345.5 = 57.6%
c = u c =
Ic 600
From Eq. (3.23), the top surface convection
coefficient and other parameters are found as From Eq. (3.66), the maximum flow rate for the
W given fluid exit temperature is then
hc , = 5.7 + 3.8V = 17.1 2 c Ac I c 0.576 (10 )( 600 )
m K m& = =
C = 250 1 0.0044 ( 90 ) = 299.5 c p ( T f ,o T f ,i ) 4.18 ( 60 15 )

f = (1 0.04hc , + 0.005hc2, ) (1 + 0.091N ) = 2.10 = 18.4

g
= 66.1
kg
s hr
Notes:
1. An area of 10 m2 was assumed. 2 g (Tc Tg ) b3
2. Fig 3.18 is valid for a 32-60C range in inlet fluid Rab = Pr
temperature, although the problem statement gives 2 (Tc + Tg )
the inlet temperature at 15C. This is overlooked in hc ,c g DH
the solution. Nub =
k
2ab
DH =
3.6 a+b
Given: single glass collector, Ta = 283 K, p = 0.2, ,c g = hc ,c g (Tc Tg )
qconv
s = 0.2, ki = 0.04 W/mK, b = 5 cm, ti = 3 Note that for small values of the air gap thickness,
2ab
cm, Tc = 340 K, = 45, V = 3 m/s DH = 2b for b = a
a+b
Find: Uc
For the assumed temperature as 300 K, the average
air temperature in the gap is 320 K and thus
For the top surface, we must determine the gain and
loss, which depends on the glass temperature. Since air = 17.7 x106 m 2 s
this is not known, finding it will be by iteration. For Prair = 0.704
the 1st iteration, assume that Tg = 300 K. The energy Rab = 343, 780
balance for the glass surface is
qgain = qloss kair = 0.0278 W mK
or for constant collector area, Nub = 4.88
,c g + qrad
qconv ,c g = qconv
, g a + qrad
, g a hc ,c g = 1.36 W m 2 K
From Eq. (3.19), the radiation gain and loss per unit hr ,c g = 1.46 W m 2 K
collector area are given as
,c g = hr ,c g (Tc Tg )
qrad hc , g a = 17.1 W m 2 K
hr , g a = 5.06 W m2 K
(Tc + Tg ) (Tc2 + Tg2 )
hr ,c g =
(1 + 1 g 1)
The heat fluxes are then found as
p
,c g = 54.2 W m 2
qconv
, g a = g (Tg4 Ta4 )
qrad
,c g = 58.4 W m 2
qrad
hr , g a = g (Tg + Ta ) (T + T 2 2
)
g a , g a = 290.7 W m 2
qconv
The sky temperature was assumed to be the ambient
temperature. No glass emittance was specified, so it , g a = 86.0 W m 2
qrad
is taken as 0.9. The convective heat transfer at the Thus the total gain is 112.6 W/m2, while the loss is
top is estimated from Eq. (3.23) as 376.7 W/m2. Therefore the assumed temperature
W was too high. Repeating with 290 K as the guess,
hc , g a = 5.7 + 3.8V = 17.1 2 the average air temperature is 315 K and the total
m K
gain on this second iteration is 141.7 W/m2 while
, g a = hc , g a (Tg Ta )
qconv
the loss is 153.3 W/m2. These values match pretty
Convection between the collector plate and the well, but a third iteration will show the glass
glass occurs by natural convection. A relation may temperature at steady state is 289.5 K with
be looked up in a heat transfer textbook, or from the air = 17.2 x106 m 2 s
1st edition of this text as Eq. (3.64).
Prair = 0.705
1708
Nub = 1 + 1.44 1 Rab = 469,859
Rab cos
kair = 0.0274 W mK
1708 ( sin1.8 ) Ra cos 3
1.6 1
Nub = 5.27
1 + b
1
Rab cos 5830

where b is the thickness of the air gap and
 hc ,c g = 1.44 W m 2 K
Notes:
hr ,c g = 1.39 W m 2 K 1. If the internal natural convection was
hc , g a = 17.1 W m2 K approximated as simply conduction through the air,
the steady state plate temperature would be 287.6 K,
hr , g a = 4.79 W m 2 K only 2 degrees cooler. The value is cooler as
and the heat fluxes were found to be conduction is not as effective as convection through
,c g = 72.8 W m2
qconv the air layer.

,c g = 70.3 W m 2
qrad
, g a = 111.2 W m 2
qconv 3.7
Given: normal = 0.7512 0.138 (T f ,in Ta ) I c
, g a = 31.1 W m 2
qrad
To handle the bottom surface, the thermal resistance K = 1 0.15 (1 cos i 1)
due to conduction is readily found as Sep 15, Ac = 6 m2, = 30, south facing,
t 0.03 m2 K = 0.3 m3 (water), Ts,0 = 30 C
Rbot = i = = 0.75 Find: qu of each hour and whole day
ki 0.04 W
Ts for each hour
There is no convective cooling at the bottom as the
collector is assumed here to be on a roof. Therefore
From Eq. (2.23), the solar declination is taken as
the overall heat loss coefficient is found as
constant through the day at 2.217. From Eq. (2.30),
1 1
Uc = + the hour angle at sunrise and sunset are
Rbot Rtop ,c g + Rtop , g a hsr = 91.26 = 5 : 55AM
=
1
+
1 hss = +91.26 = 6 : 05PM
Rbot 1 ( hc + hr )c g + 1 ( hc + hr ) g a Determine the angle of incidence for Gainesville (L
W = 29.68 N) as a function of the hour angle. For
= 3.84 south facing surface,
m2 K
In comparison, Eq. (3.23) yields for the top of the cos i = sin ( L ) sin s + cos ( L ) cos s cos hs
single cover collector = C1 + C2 cos hs
W Assume a profile for the ambient temperature
hc , = 5.7 + 3.8V = 17.1 2
m K between 6 AM and 6 PM as
C = 250 1 0.0044 ( 90 ) = 299.5
Ta = 30C + 5C sin ( hs + 90 )
90
120
f = (1 0.04hc , + 0.005hc2, ) (1 + 0.091N ) = 1.94
This profile will have the hottest temperature at 2 PM
1 solar time, and a daily average of 30 C. For the
U top = 0.33
N ( Tc C ) (Tc Ta ) ( N + f ) + hc,1 incident radiation, use Eqs. (2.42), (2.43), (2.45)
and (2.47).
(Tc2 + Ta2 ) (Tc + Ta ) I c = I b ,c + I d ,c + I r ,c
+
1 p + 0.05 N (1 p ) + ( 2 N + f 1) g N = I b , N cos i + C cos 2 ( 2 )
= 2.061 + 1.074 + ( sin + C ) sin 2 ( 2 )
= 3.14 The reflectivity is taken as 0.2, and from Eq. (2.39),
Finally, adding the top and bottom loss coefficients,
I b , N = Cn Ie k sin
1
U c = U bot + U top = + 3.14 Cn = 1 assuming clear, and from Eq. (2.35)
0.75
W I = I 0 1 + 0.034 cos ( 360n 356.25 )
= 4.47 2
m K W
= 1340.5
This is 17 % higher than the value determined by m2
the previous method.
Values from Table 2.4 are found to be
k = 0.1816
C = 0.0978
The solar altitude angle is taken from Eq. (2.28) as
sin = sin L sin s + cos L cos s cos hs
= C3 + C4 cos hs
The collector efficiency is measured for normal
angles of incidence. Thus for other angles, the
collector efficiency includes the incidence angle
modifier as
c = 0.7512 K 0.138 (T f ,in Ta ) I c
The figure above shows the rise in the storage tank
temperature, determined with the above method for
1 hour angle increments. The useful energy
collection over the entire day was
qutotal = 131, 261 kJ
Over each hour, the totals are given below.
Although nearly symmetric over solar noon, it is not
exactly as the ambient temperature profile is not
symmetric over solar noon nor is the fluid inlet
(storage) temperature.
usuful energy collection per hour

Thus the thermal efficiency is in terms of the hour

useful energy kJ
25000
angle and fluid inlet temperature only. However, the 20000
fluid inlet temperature, assumed to be the average 15000
10000
storage tank temperature, depends on the collector 5000
efficiency. Thus a numerical solution is used, taken 0
over small hour angle steps. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. The initial condition is at sunrise, with the fluid hour
inlet temperature equal to the ambient temperature
of 30 C, ie.
T f0,i = Ta ( sunrise ) = 30C
The useful energy at this step is: 3.8
qu0 = Acc0 I c0 = 0.7512 Ac K0 I c0 Given: T0 = 10 C, c = 50%
2. Assume this useful energy delivery is constant Find: 2 for Tc = 70 C, 200 C, 2500 C
over the step.
3. Assuming a small hour angle (or equivalently) The second law efficiency can be defined as the
time step, hs , the storage tank temperature rise is first law efficiency over the maximum efficiency
found as for a device between the high (sun) and low
(ambient) temperatures. That maximum efficiency
= water water C p , water (T f1,i T f0,i )
3600 s
qu0 hs is the Carnot efficiency as:
15
T
With this new fluid temperature, increase the hour max,sun = 1 0
angle by the step size and repeat until the desired Tsun
hour angle is reached. The best first law efficiency for a device operating
4. Add up the useful energy over the full duration of at the collector temperature is likewise
interest. T0
max,collector = 1
storage and ambient temperatures Tcollector
Therefore, for a perfect collector, the second law
efficiency of the combined collector and device to
130
convert the energy to useful work is:

temperature (C)

110
2perfect = max,collector
90 max,sun
70 As the collector is specified as not perfect, it has a
certain collector efficiency such that the overall
50
second law efficiency becomes
30
time (6am to 6pm )
 2 = c
max,collector FR U c (T f ,o Ta )
c =
max,sun exp ( U c F Gc p ) Ic
1 T0 Tc
= 0.5
1 T0 Tsun
Tsun = 5762 K, such that for collector temperatures 3.11
of 343 K, 473 K and 2773 K, 2nd law efficiencies Derive Eq. (3.43) without the exponent term,
are 9.2%, 21.1% and 47.2%, respectively. using Taylor series expansion. Find range so new
equation agrees to within 1%.

3.9 Eq. (3.43) is given as

Show that F is given by Eq. (3.55) Gc p U F
FR = 1 exp c
As said in the text, U c Gc p
qu The generic Taylor series expansion to use is
F =
qtotal x x2
e = 1 + + + ...
x

If the plate is at the local fluid temperature, there is 1! 2!

no loss and such that Eq. (3.43) becomes
hc Ac (Tp Ta ) Gc p
2
Uc F 1 Uc F
F = FR = 1 1 ...
hc Ac (Tp Ta ) + U c Ac (Tp Ta ) Uc Gc 2 Gc
p p

hc
Gc p U c F 1 U c F
2
=
hc + U c = ...
U c Gc p 2 Gc p

A second order approximation yields
3.10 1 Uc F
Write Eq. (3.46) in terms of T f ,o FR F 1
2 Gc p
and a less accurate first order approximation as
Begin with Eq. (3.46)
FR F
U c (T f ,i Ta )
c = FR To determine the range for 1% maximum deviation
Ic from the original equation,
The heating of the fluid is F approx FR
1% = R
& p (T f ,o T f ,i ) = c I c Ac
qu = mc FR
c I c FRapprox
T f ,i = T f , o 0.99 1.01
Gc p FR
where the mass flux is where
G = m& Ac FRapprox A 0.5 A2
= 2nd order
Eq. (3.46) becomes FR 1 e A
FR U c (T f ,o Ta ) A
c = = 1st order
(1 FRU c Gc p ) Ic
and
1 e A
From Eq. (3.43) A = U c F Gc p
FRU c U F
= 1 exp c Working out the solution, the required range is
Gc p Gc
p

Such that the collector efficiency is

 Uc F
0< < 0.237 2nd order 3.15
Gc p
Given: Tc = 85 C, = 45 C, L = 0.02 m, Tp = 40
Uc F
0< < 0.02 1st order C, single cover flat plate
Gc p Find: P to eliminate convection
Note that the simpler, first order approximation is
accurate in a smaller range. A convection text should be supplemental for this
solution. Convection is suppressed when the
Nusselt number, Nu 1 . This is when convection
3.12 and conduction effects are of the same order. The
Given: 0 = 75%, Uc = 4.5 W/m2K, Ic = 900 Rayleigh number needs to be greater than a critical
value of 1708 for buoyancy forces to overcome
W/m2, Ta = 20 C, flat plate collector
viscous forces, such that in this tilted enclosure,
Find: Tc,max
1708
Ra = = 2415.5
Combining Eq. (3.74) and (3.73), cos
U (T T ) A where from the definition,
c = 0 c c a r 2g (T1 T2 ) L3 Pr
Ic Aa Ra =
For a flat plate collector, the concentration ratio is 2 (T1 + T2 )
unity. Solving for the collector temperature, In terms of the density,
I
Tc = (0 c ) c + Ta
1

Ra (T1 + T2 ) 2
2
Uc =
2 g (T1 T2 ) L Pr
3
the stagnation temperature occurs when the
collector efficiency is zero, Take the average temperature of the air in the gap as
900 335.5 K. With properties from Table A3.1 as
Tc ,max = ( 0.75 0 ) + 20 = 170C
4.5 335.5 K = 2.048 x10 5 kg m s
Pr 335.5 K = 0.700
3.13 335.5 K = 1.050 kg m3
Given: Same as 3.12, except CR = 2.0, 0 = 70% the density is solved to be
Find: Tc,max = 0.371kg m3
In going from the density at atmospheric pressure
Using the same method, and 335.5 K to the required density at the same
900 temperature, the required pressure is approximated
Tc ,max = ( 0.70 0 ) CR + 20 = 300C ideally as
4.5
Patm P 14.7
= P= ( 0.371) = 5.19 psia
atm 1.050
3.14
Given: Fig. 3.19, c = 50%, Ic = 800 W/m2
Find: Tc 3.17
Given: Example 3.3, with m& air
new
= 2m& air
From Fig. 3.19, Find: FRnew , and % increase
W
FRU c = 1.4 ; FRopt = 0.54
m2 K In example 3.3, Re = 7066. Doubling the flow rate,
Assume the ambient temperature is 20 C. Then
Re new = 14,132
From Eq. (3.46),
From Eq. (3.53),
Tc = ( FRopt c ) c + Ta = 42.86C
I
FRU c
 0.0192 ( Re new ) W
34
Pr I eff = I b ,c cos it + cos ic
Nu new
= = 34.00 D
1 + 1.22 ( Re new )
1 8
( Pr 2 )
+ I d ,c FTS (1 + F )
The old Nusselt number was 22, such that
For tubes spaced one diameter apart, the shape
Nu new kJ
hcnew = hc = 1.55hc = 102.8 2 factors above are
Nu m hr C
F 0.34
and
FTS 0.43
h new 102.8
F new = newc = = 0.851 Another shape factor, , is in the range 0.6-0.7 for
hc + U c 102.8 + 18 tubes spaced one diameter apart, so is taken as 0.65.
Finally solving Eq. (3.56), Thus the effective radiation is
( 0.0256 )(1) 1 exp ( 0.851)18 3600 I eff = 600 ( cos it + 0.39 cos ic ) + 162.646 W/m2
FRnew =
18 3600 ( 0.0256 )(1) The optical efficiency is from Eq. (4.51) <1st ed> as
e r I eff
= 0.784 0 =
The % increase is simply I b ,c + I d , c
F new FR or upon substitution,
% increase = R x100
FR 0 = 0.001I eff
0.784 0.677 Therefore, the optical efficiency is only in terms of
= x100 the hour angle. For the two specified hour angles,
0.677
= 15.8%
hs = 0 hs = 30
it ( ) 2.75 4.65
3.18 ic ( ) 2.75 28.88
Given: evacuated tube collector, Nov 13, L = 30,
= 45, Ib,c = 600 W/m2, Id,c = 100 W/m2, I eff (W m2 ) 995.69 965.56
e r = 0.70, W = D, = 0.60 0 0.996 0.966
Find: 0

(Several equations that appear in this solution are 3.19

only available in the 1st edition.) Given: Trough concentrator
Find: CRmax for 2 max = 10, 25, 36
For November 13, Table 2.2 gives s = - 17.75.
From Eq. (3.86),
The incidence angle on the tubular surface is given
as Eq. (2.16) <1st ed> as 1
CRmax,2 D =
cos 2 it = 1 sin ( L ) cos s cos hs sin max
Thus the maximum concentration ratios for 10, 35
+ cos ( L ) sin s
2
and 36 acceptance angles are 11.47, 4.62 and 3.24,
The incidence angle on the flat part of the collector respectively.
surface is given by Eq. (2.13) <1st ed> or modified
from Eq. (2.44) <2nd ed> to become
cos ic = sin ( L ) sin s + cos ( L ) cos s cos hs 3.20
Given: CR = 5000, s = 0.8, ir = 1
The effective radiation falling onto the tubular
collector is directly from the sky or by reflection Find: Tr
from the flat collector surface. From Eq. (4.56) <1st
ed>, From Eq. (3.95),
 1 From Fig. 3.45, the concentration is 1.5, and then
CR 4
Tr = Ts (1 c ) s
from Fig. 3.44 the average number of reflections
ir CRmax follows as about (the figure is not detailed)
From section 3.5.2, n 0.3
1 From section 3.7.4, the reflectance loss follows as
CRmax,3D = 52,525 R.L. = 1 mn
sin (1 4 )
2

The sun temperature is 5760 K. The receiver
temperature is a maximum when the collector
efficiency is zero. Solving,
Tr ,max = 3025.8 K
where the reflectance for the silver mirror is taken
from Table 3.4 as 0.88, and 0.82 for anodized
aluminum. Therefore,
R.L. = 1 0.880.3 = 0.0376 silver
R.L. = 1 0.820.3 = 0.0578 anodized aluminum

3.21
Given: CR = 5, full CPC 3.23
Find: Depth for Aa = 1 m, 0.01 m Given: = 9
Find: n for full and 50% truncated CPC
From the geometry in Fig. 3.40,
A 2 + Aa 2 From Figs. 3.44 and 3.45, for the full CPC,
D= r n = 1.08
tan max
refector
The tangent term is eliminated by using the identity = 6.4
aperture
1 1
= 1 Assuming the reflector area varies directly with the
tan max sin max
2
height, the 50% CPC will have
and further from section 3.7.3, refector 6.4
1 A = = 3.2
CR = = a aperture 2
sin max Ar and from Fig. 3.45, CR = 5.75. Then from Fig. 3.44,
Combining equations, for the 50% CPC,
A + Aa n = 0.8
D= r CR 2 1
2
A 1
= a + 1 CR 2 1 3.24
2 CR
Given: = 7, CPC
For the 1 m aperture, D = 2.94 m. For the 1 cm Find: CR for 25%, 33% and 50% truncated
aperture, D = 2.94 cm.
From Fig. 3.45 for the full CPC,
refector
3.22 = 8.3
aperture
Given: 50% truncated CPC, = 36
Find: reflectance loss for silver and anodized With the truncation, this value is reduced. Then
aluminum mirror surfaces from Fig. 3.45, the new CR is found. The results are

From Fig. 3.45, truncation reflect. / apert. CR

height 25% 6.225 8.1
= 1.1 33% 5.536 7.9
aperture 50% 4.15 7.3
For a 50% truncated CPC,
height 1.1
= = 0.55
aperture 2 3.25
Explain how Figs. 3.44 and 3.45 can be used to
show truncation effects on n for a CPC. Sketch The slope accuracy is given as
a qualitative map of the effect. 1 = 2 mrad = 0.115
The variance is found from Eq. (3.113) as
( )
From Figs. 3.44 and 3.45, graph of truncation
L2a 42 + 2 ( 2 + cos )
y =
versus average number of reflections is made by: 2 1 2

1. For each constant acceptance angle , obtain 12 sin

CR and reflector/aperture ratio for full CPC Assume the sun beam accuracy is the sun half-angle
(0% truncated). 2 = 0.25
2. Reduce reflector/aperture by % truncated
and get corresponding CR from Fig. 3.45 for The above is then solved to be
the same acceptance angle. y = 1.7 mm
3. For the CR from (2), get the corresponding To solve for the aperture diameter from Eq. (3.114),
n for the same acceptance angle. use Table A3.10 with = 0.92 to obtain
4. Plot % truncation against corresponding n . Dr
5. Repeat for other constant acceptance angles. = 1.405 Dr = 2.39 mm
y
Such a map would look like:
Finally from Eq. (3.73),
A 500
CR = a = = 66.63
Ar Dr

3.26
Given: PTC, i = 30, perfect optics and tracking,
no end supports, r r = 0.75, m = 0.80,
5% shaded
Find: optical efficiency

From Eq. (3.107),

0 = ( m r r ft ) F (1 A tan i ) cos i
For perfect tracking, F = 1. For perfect optics, =
1. For no end supports, A = 0. To account for the
shading,
f t = 1 0.05 = 0.95
Therefore,
0 = ( 0.8 )( 0.75 )( 0.95)(1)(1) cos 30 = 0.494

3.27
Given: PTC, La = 0.5 m, = 50, slope accuracy
= 2 mrad, = 0.92
Find: CR, Dr
 Chapter 4 Vsalt 125, 700
= = 0.26
Thermal Energy Storage and Transport Vwater 483, 670
Clearly, the salt has the highest energy storage per
4.1 volume owing to its phase change.
Given: Tlow = 30C, Thigh = 60C
Find: Q/V for water, rock and Glaubers salt;
compare volumes 4.2
Given: Ac = 100 m2, Pc = 7 kPa, flat plate, L =
Properties are from Table 4.1, and the volumetric 40 m
energy storage is computed as
Find: Ptot , D
Q
= c p T = cp 30C
V Some more information is needed. In this solution,
water rock it is assumed that
c p ( kJ / kgK ) 4.19 0.880 1) flow rate is 0.03 gpm per ft2 of collector
( kg / m ) 3 1000 1600 2) pipe velocity is 3 ft/s
3) fittings add 200 equivalent feet of pipe
Q V ( kJ m ) 3 125,700 42,240 4) actual pipe length is 2.5 times the distance L
The flow rate is then determined as
10.76 ftc2 gpm
m& = (100m2c )
For Glaubers salt, there will be a phase change as
the melting point is 32.4 C. The volumetric energy 2 0.03 2
mc ftc
storage is then
= 32.3gpm
= avg c p , s (Tm Tlow ) + fg + c p ,l (Thigh Tm )
Q
Distance is 40 m = 131.2 ft. The pipe distance is
V
where the density is an average of the solid and assumed to be 2.5 times this, or 328 ft. Adding the
liquid densities equivalent pipe length due to fittings, the total pipe
length is then 528 ft. From Fig A4.3, the friction
+ l
avg = s loss is found as 3.5 ft head / 100 ft pipe. Thus,
2
3.5 ft water 62.4 lb ft 3
Ptot = Pc + 528 ft pipe
100 ft 144 in 2 ft 2
With the properties for Glaubers salt taken from
Table 4.3, pipe
= 7 kPa + 8.008 psi
Tm ( C ) 32.4
= 9.023 psi
c p,s ( kJ / kgK ) 1.76 Also from Table A4.3, the required pipe diameter is
c p ,l ( kJ / kgK ) 3.32 read as 2.5 in. This should match approximately to
the pipe diameter calculated by continuity for the
s ( kg / m ) 3 1460 assumed flow rate and pipe velocity.
l ( kg / m ) 3 1330

fg ( kJ kg ) 251 4.3
QV ( kJ m3 ) 483,670 Given: Collector as in 4.2, cylindrical storage
tank with D = H, Tst = 70 C, Ta = 16 C, t
= 0.15 m
For the same energy storage, the volume of rock Find: heat loss rate qcyl
needed relative to water is
Vrock 125, 700 Typical storage is 50-75 kg mc2 , so assume here a
= = 2.98
Vwater 42, 240 value of 60. The mass of storage is then
The volume of Glaubers salt needed relative to mst = ( 60 kg mc2 )(100mc2 ) = 6000kg
water is
For water at 70 C, Table A3.2 lists the density as
978 kg/m3. Therefore the volume is
 D3 m P = 9.5MPa = 93.9atm = 1380.6 psi
Vst = = st = 6.136m3 D = 1.984m
4 water
The insulation property is approximated from Table
4.8 as k = 0.4 W/mK. The heat loss rate is given by 4.6
Eq. (4.28) as Given: Vmax = 4 ft/s, m& = 500 gpm, L = 500 ft
2 kL Find: D, P
qcyl = (Tst Ta ) = 1912 W
ln ( ( D + 2t ) D ) From Fig. 4.7, with the given flow rate and fluid
This assumed no losses from the top or bottom of velocity,
the cylinder. D = 7 in
1.5 ftloss
loss =
100 ft pipe
4.4
The pressure drop is then
Given: Load = 1.5 GJ, Tst = 20 C
1.5 ftloss
Find: Vst, cost if 4 m3 carbon steel tank costs P = ( 500 ft pipe ) = 7.5 ftloss
100 ft
$1000 pipe

The storage mass is determined as

load 1.5GJ 4.7
mst = = = 17,857 kg
c p Tst ( 4.2 kJ kgK )( 20 K ) Given: twenty 40 ft2 panels in parallel, flow rate
The corresponding storage volume is = 0.03 gpm/ft2, D = 1 in, L = 5 ft
Find: P through manifold
Vst = mst water = 17.86m3
The cost analysis is presented in Ed. #1 as The mass flow rate per collector is
n
V 8.33
cost = base Fm st m& c = ( 40 ft 2 )( 0.03 gpm ft 2 ) = 0.167 lbm s
Vbase 60
For carbon steel, Fm was given as 1. For steel, n = The total mass flow rate is
0.46. Therefore, m& total = ( 20 )( 0.167 ) = 3.332 lbm s
0.46
17.86 The Reynolds number for the array is determined
cost = $1000 (1) = $1990
4 for half the flow, according to
0.5m& total D 2m& total
Re = = = 38, 626
A D
4.5 The dynamic viscosity was taken as 6.59x10-4
& = 0.4 m3/min
Given: L = 50 m, D = 1 in, kg/ms. Assuming a smooth pipe, Fig. 4.7 yields the
Find: P Darcy friction factor as 0.04. From Eq. (4.26),
8 fL
Kf = 2
The fluid velocity is gc D5
& 4&
V= = = 13.16
m 8 ( 0.04 )( 5)
A D 2 =
s
( 62.4 )( 32.2 )(1 12 )
2 5

Assume the fluid is water at 70 F. The properties

are found from Table A3.2 as = 997.4 kg/m3 and = 20.1
lbf
= 9.8x10-4 kg/ms. The Reynolds number is then ft
VD Finally from Eq. (4.25) for the manifold only,
Re = = 340,121

P =
( K f m& c2 ) j ( 2 j + 1)( j + 1) lbf
= 1383 2
Assuming a smooth pipe, use Fig. 4.7 to obtain the 6 ft
Darcy friction factor, as defined in Eq. 4.18. P = 9.6 psi
P
f = 0.014 = where j = 20-1.
2 ( L D ) ( V 2 )
 As before, for the cold fluid to exit at the hot fluid
4.8 inlet temperature,
Given: Cc/Ac = Cst/Ac = 300 kJ/m2hrC, FR = 0.9, Ahx
Uc = 5 W/m2K
Find: Fhx for hx = 0.25, 0.5, 0.9
4.11
With the collector and storage fluid capacitance Given: shell and 2 tubes, Ahx = 4.5 m2, Tw,i = 290
rates being equal, Eq. (4.44) reduces to K, Tw,f = 350 K, Ta,i = 400 K, U = 300
{ }
1
Fhx = 1 + FRU c Ac ( mc
& ) [1
p hx 1] W/m2K, m& a = 0.5 kg/s
Find: m& w
{ }
1
= 1 + ( 0.9 )( 5 )( 3600 ) ( 300, 000 ) [1 hx 1]
The specific heats are taken from Tables A3.1 and
= {1 + 0.054 [1 hx 1]}
1
A3.2 as
c p , w = 4.2 kJ kgK
hx Fhx c p ,a = 1.01 kJ kgK
0.25 0.861 The procedure to find the mass flow rate of water is
0.5 0.949 iterative.
0.9 0.994
1. Guess m& w .
2. Determine the air exit temperature from
m& w c p , w
4.9
Given: counterflow, Tw,i = 340 K, Tw,f = 350 K, Tg,i
Ta , f = Ta ,i
m& a c p , a
(Tw, f Tw,i )
= 350 K, Tg,f = 345 K, m& w = 70 kg/min, U = 3. Determine the minimum heat capacity as
300 W/m2K
Find: Ahx
{
Cmin = smaller ( mc
& p ) , ( mc
w
& p)
a
}
4. Calculate the effectiveness as
The cold fluid exits at the hot fluid inlet m& wc p , w (Tw, f Tw,i )
=
temperature, indicating that the heat exchange area
must be infinite. ( mc
& p ) (Ta ,i Tw,i )
min

Ahx 5. Calculate the NTU as

UAhx
This can be verified. An energy balance yields NTU =
Cw ( 350 340 ) = Cg ( 350 345) ( mc
& p)
min

C g = 2Cw 6. Determine the ratio of heat capacities as

Therefore the cold fluid (water) has a lower heat C = Cmin Cmax
capacity and from Eq. (4.39), 7. Calculate the effectiveness from Table 4.9
Tw, f Tw,i 350 340 as
c = = =1 1
Tg ,i Tw,i 350 340 1 + exp N 1 + C 2

From Fig. 4.11, as 1, NTU and so Eq. = 2 1 + C + 1 + C 2

1 exp N 1 + C 2
(4.40),
NTU ( Cw ) 8. Compare the effective calculated in 4 with
Ahx =
U that from 7. If they do not agree, guess
another water flow rate and repeat steps.
Working through the iteration, the effectiveness
4.10 converges to 0.569 when
Given: Same as 4.9, except shell and tube now m& w = 0.1255 kg s
Find: Ahx
4.12 The effectiveness for a heat exchanger with phase
Given: cross-flow fin-and-tube, q = 300 kW, U = change is also given as
50 W/m2K, Ta,i = 290 K, Ta,f = 300 K, Tw,i = 1 e NTU
= 340 K, Tw,f = 310 K Solving for NTU,
Find: Ahx, m& a UAhx
NTU = 0.4966 = Ahx = 0.167m 2
( mc
& p)
cw
The mass flow rates are obtained from an energy
balance as
300kW
m& a = = 29.7 kg s
(1.01 kJ kgK )( 300 K 290 K )
300kW
m& w = = 2.38 kg s
( 4.2 kJ kgK )( 340 K 310 K )
Therefore, the heat capacities are
q 300 kW
Ca = m& a c p ,a = = = 30
Ta 10 K
q 300 kW
Cw = m& wc p , w = = = 10
Tw 30 K
Clearly water has the lower heat capacity and the
ratio of the two, C, is 0.33. The effectiveness is
calculated from Eq. (4.33) as
q 300
= = = 0.6
( mc
& p ) (Tw,i Ta ,i ) 10 ( 340 290 )
min
From Fig. 4.11(a), NTU is found as 1.13. Thus the
required area is
NTU ( mc& p) 1.13 (10, 000 )
Ahx = min
= = 226m 2
U 50

4.13
Given: condenser shell and 2 tubes, m& s = 0.8
kg/min, Ps = 80 kPa, Tcw,i = 290 K, Tcw,f =
320 K, U = 3000 W/m2K
Find: Ahx

Saturated steam properties are found in Table A3.8,

which at 80 kPa gives
Ts = 366.65 K
h fg = 2274.1 kJ kg
Assuming only latent heat transfer from the steam,
q = m& s h fg = ( 0.8)(1 60 )( 2274.1) = 30.32kW
The minimum heat capacity fluid is the sensible
fluid (cooling water), and the effectiveness is

=
q
=
(Tcw, f Tcw,i ) = 0.391
( mc
& p ) (Ts Tcw,i )
cw
(Ts Tcw,i )
 Chapter 5 5.3
Solar Heating Systems Given: Denver, q = 150,000 Btuh for T = 75 F,
qi = 20,000 Btuh, Ti = 70 F
Find: Energy demand
5.1
Given: Eq. (5.6)
The peak load gives
Find: Modify to include losses through a slab
150, 000 Btu
which are independent of the ambient q = UAT UA = = 2000
75 hr F
Eq. (5.5) gives the internal generation as balancing From Eq. (5.6), the generation gives the no-load
the losses due to ventilation and infiltration as temperature as
qi = UA ( Ti Tnl ) Tnl = 70 F
20, 000 Btuh
= 60 F
2000 Btuh / F
If there is an ambient temperature independent loss
From Table 5.3 for the given no-load temperature
through a slab, that can be modeled as
and Denver as the location,
qslab = U slab
*
Aslab C days = 2622
Then the balanced equation becomes or conversion to Fahrenheit,
qi qslab = UA (Ti Tnl ) F days = 4720
or in terms of the no-load temperature, the modified Therefore the annual energy demand for a 60 F
Eq. (5.6) is difference is

Tnl = Ti
( qi Uslab
*
Aslab ) Q = ( F days ) UA
24h
UA day
= ( 4720 )( 2000 )( 24 )
= 227 x106 Btu
5.2
Given: Garage on building north wall, garage Ar,
Awi, Ad, Awa
5.4
Find: Effective U in terms of other U values
Given: January, Washington DC, water heating
system, Ac = 100 m2, Q = 4 m3/day, Tw,o =
The garage gains heat through the north wall, and
65 C, Tw,i = 12 C
all the heat is lost through the other garage surfaces
Find: solar load fraction
to the ambient at steady state.
q = U nw Anw (Ti Tg ) Ti Tg =
q
The energy input to heat the given volume flow rate
U nw Anw of water for January is
q = UAg (Tg Ta ) Tg Ta = q UAg Load = wQc p (Tw,o Tw,i )
Adding the two equations to remove the garage = (1000 )( 4 x31)( 4.18 )( 65 12 )
temperature,
= 27.47 GJ month
Ti Ta = q (1 U nw Anw + 1 UAg )
For a typical flat plate collector, Fig. 5.20 gives the
UAgU nw slope and y-intercept as
q= Anw (Ti Ta )
UAg + U nw Anw FRU c 4.6 2
W
Thus, the effective U value is m C
UAgU nw FR ( ) n 0.8
U= From Eq. (5.21), the time averaged value is given as
UAg + U nw Anw
FR ( ) = 0.95FR ( ) n = 0.76
where
UAg = ArU r + AwiU wi + AdU d + AwaU wa For no heat exchanger,
Fhx = 1
From Eq. (5.27) for a water system,
 Fhx FRU c Ac t H c = 2.28 ( 4.57 ) + 0.883 ( 2.81) + 0.088 ( 7.38 )
PL =
Load MJ
= 13.56
(11.6 + 1.18Tw,o + 3.86Tw,i 2.32Ta ) m 2 day
where the temperatures are in C, and the time Finally, from Eq. (5.19),
period as the total seconds per month. The average A F F ( ) H c ( # days )
ambient temperature for Washington can be looked Ps = c hx R
Load
up in an outside reference for January to be 36.9 F
= 2.72 C. Thus, 100 (1)( 0.76 ) (13.56 x106 ) ( 31)
=
1( 4.6 )(100 )( 31x 24 x3600 ) 27.47 x109
PL =
27.47 x109 = 1.16
(11.6 + 1.18 x65 + 3.86x12 2.32 x 2.72 ) Eq. (5.22), or Fig 5.21, can be used to find the solar
load fraction as
= 5.75
f s = 1.029 (1.16 ) 0.065 ( 5.75 ) 0.245 (1.16 )
2
Monthly averaged daily horizontal insolation values
+ 0.0018 ( 5.75 ) + 0.0215 (1.16 )
2 3
can be looked up for Baltimore in Table A2.3b
(near Washington) for January as
= 0.58
MJ
H h = 7.38 2
m day
From Table A2.2, the average daily horizontal 5.5
extraterrestrial insolation in January at 40 N Given: Same as HW 5.4, but for Albuquerque,
latitude is NM in July, Tw,i = 17 C
Wh MJ
H o , h = 4200 2 = 15.12 2 Find: solar load fraction
m day m day
Using the Liu and Jordan method from Ch. 2.6.1, The hot water load will be less and is given as
assuming a tilt angle of 40 N for optimal collection Load = wQc p (Tw,o Tw,i )
during the year,
= (1000 )( 4 x31)( 4.18 )( 65 17 )
KT = 0.488
MJ = 24.88 GJ month
Dh = 0.38 H h = 2.81 2 Collector parameters will remain the same from Fig.
m day
5.20. The average ambient temperature will be
MJ
Bh = H h Dh = 4.57 2 much higher, and can be found from an outside
m day reference as 78.5 F = 25.8 C in July.
Rd = 0.883 1( 4.6 )(100 )( 31x 24 x3600 )
PL =
Rr = 0.088 24.88 x109
assuming snow covered ground. The beam tilt (11.6 + 1.18 x65 + 3.86 x17 2.32 x 25.8)
factor is found at mid-month, Jan 15. With the = 4.66
declination as -21.27, the hour angle at sunrise is The lower value of the loss parameter is expected
found from Eq. (2.30), taking L = 40, as for the hotter ambient temperatures. The latitude is
hsr = 70.94 = 1.238rad about 35 N, such that Table A2.2 gives
Then the tilt factor from Eq. (2.56) becomes Wh MJ
H o , h = 11,172 2 = 40.22 2
cos s sin hsr m day m day
Rb =
cos L cos s sin hsr + hsr sin L sin s From Table A2.3b, in July,
= 2.28 H h = 27.03 2
MJ
Thus the daily average insolation on the collector is m day
given by Eq. (2.60) as Carrying through the Liu and Jordan method again
with the collector tilt equal to the latitude,
KT = 0.672
 MJ
Dh = 0.238H h = 6.44 The loss and solar load parameters are both
m 2 day
proportional to the collector size, according to
MJ
Bh = H h Dh = 20.59 2 PL = K L Ac
m day
Ps = K s Ac
Rd = 0.910
Thus for the original collector area, the two can be
Rr = 0.018 combined to obtain
assuming dry grass cover in July. With the K
declination as 21.52, the hour angle at sunrise is PL = L Ps
Ks
found from Eq. (2.30), taking L = 35, as
which is a straight line passing through the origin
hsr = 106.0 = 1.85rad
and point (Ps, PL). Note that if the collector area is
Then the tilt factor from Eq. (2.56) becomes changed while keeping the K values the same, the
cos s sin hsr above relationship will hold for the new collector
Rb =
cos L cos s sin hsr + hsr sin L sin s area as well. The modified loss parameter will be
= 0.797 PL' = K L Ac'
Thus the daily average insolation on the collector is which can be combined with a previous expression
given by Eq. (2.60) as for the loss parameter to get
H c = 0.797 ( 20.59 ) + 0.91( 6.44 ) + 0.018 ( 27.03) PL' Ac' A'
= PL' = PL c
MJ PL Ac Ac
= 22.76
m2 day The value of the solar load fraction is then at the
Finally, from Eq. (5.19), intersection of the two equations,
A F F ( ) H c ( # days ) K
PL = L Ps and PL' = PL c
A'
Ps = c hx R Ks Ac
Load
100 (1)( 0.76 ) ( 22.76 x106 ) ( 31)
Shown graphically, the intersection is located on a
= contour for the solar load fraction, at about fs =
24.88 x109 0.65, while the original collector area with point
= 2.16 (Ps, PL) gave fs = 0.8.
The higher solar parameter indicates there is more
sunshine. Eq. (5.22), or Fig 5.21, can be used to find
the solar load fraction as
f s = 1.029 ( 2.16 ) 0.065 ( 4.66 ) 0.245 ( 2.16 )
2

+ 0.0018 ( 4.66 ) + 0.0215 ( 2.16 )

2 3

= 1.03
Since the solar load fraction is greater than unity,
then it is expected that all of the monthly load can
be supplied by solar energy.
Notes:
If the collector area was reduced to 80 m2, for
example, then the solar load fraction would drop to
0.94. Hence with a reduction in the collector size,
the supplied solar energy will drop faster than the
collector losses and all of the load would not be 5.8
covered by solar energy. Given: Shell and tube Ash = 10 m2, Ush = 2000
W/m2K, Ac,sh = 100 m2; Tube coil Dtc =
1.27 cm, copper; storage 50 kg water per
5.6 m2 collector, Tst = 60 C, Tc = 70 C
Explain the graphical use of the f-chart for a Find: Ltc for same UA, tube % volume of
range of collector sizes, for an original Ps and PL storage tank
Eq. (3.71) is a relation for free convection from a 5.9
cylinder, from the 1st edition, but can be looked up Given: qu = 2500 MJ/m2yr, 30 kg/m2hr, F = 0.93,
from a heat transfer text. U = 4 W/m2K
hD
NuD = c tc = 0.53 ( GrD Pr ) Find: qu if flow rate is doubled
0.25

k
The Grashof number based on the tube diameter can From Eq. (3.43), assuming Tf,in = 20 C to get cp,
also be looked up in another text as
Gc p U F
2 g T ( Tw Tst ) Dtc3 FR1 = 1 exp c
GrD = U c
2 Gc p
and the Prandtl number as
=
( 30 3600 )( 4180 ) 1 exp 4 ( 0.93) 3600
c
Pr = p 4 ( 30 )( 4180 )
k
Combining, = 0.882
0.25
If the flow rate is doubled, keeping the same F,
2 g T c p
hc = 0.53
k
(Tw Tst ) Dtc3 FR 2 =
( 60 3600 )( 4180 ) 1 exp 4 ( 0.93) 3600
k
( 60 )( 4180 )
Dtc 4
Properties are found at the average film temperature
of 65 C from Table A3.2 as = 0.906
From Eq. (3.44),
2 g T c p
= 7.62 x1010 m3 K 1 qu
= Ac s I s U c (T f ,in Ta )
k FR
W
k = 0.659 Since nothing on the right hand side changes, we
mK can write
Thus, qu1 qu 2 F MJ
0.659 = qu 2 = R 2 qu1 = 2567 2
7.62 x1010 ( 70 60 ) 0.01273
0.25
hc = 0.53 FR1 FR 2 FR1 m yr
0.0127
W
= 972 2
m K 5.10
For having equivalent energy storage as with the Given: Denver, Aug 21, Ac = 1000 m2, Tc = 100
shell and tube heat exchanger, C, Ta = 35 C
Q& st = U sh Ash T = hc Dtc Ltc T Find: Heat rejection

Ltc =
( 2000W m 2 K )(10m 2 )
= 515.7 m From the hourly data in Table A2.6c for 40 N
( 972W m 2 K ) ( )( 0.0127 ) latitude and Aug 21, the highest hourly insolation is
The storage mass is for 50 kg per sq. meter of 311 Btuh/ft2 for the noon hour, and 30 tilt. Thus,
collector area, or 5000 kg total. For the listed assuming the sky is clear,
density in Table A3.2, the volume of water is Btuh W
I c = 311 2 = 981.2 2
5000kg ft m
Vst = 3
= 5.085m3
983.3 kg m The parameter needed to use Fig. 5.20 is
Tin Ta 100 35 W
The tube volume is = = 6.6 x102 2
Ic 981.2 m K
Vtc = Dtc2 Ltc = 0.065m3
4 Then Fig. 5.20 gives
Thus, the volume percentage of the storage tank = 0.44
occupied by the tubular collector is Therefore, the amount of heat rejection is the
0.065 amount of collected heat, which is
%V = x100 = 1.27%
0.065 + 5.085
 J Using the Liu and Jordan method from Ch. 2.6.1,
qu = I c Ac = 0.44 ( 981.2 )(1000 ) = 431, 728 assuming a tilt angle of 55 N for optimal collection
s
MJ during the year,
= 1554 KT = 0.501
hr
MJ
Dh = 0.37 H h = 3.36 2
m day
5.11 MJ
Given: Little Rock, January, Load = 40 x 106 Bh = H h Dh = 5.73 2
m day
Btu/month, L = 35 N, = 55, aw = 0, Ac
Rd = 0.787
= 1000 ft2, Ta = 40.6 F, collector efficiency
from Fig. 5.20, Fhx = 1 Rr = 0.160
Find: solar load fraction using f-chart assuming snow covered ground. The beam tilt
factor is found at mid-month, Jan 15. With the
For a typical flat plate collector, Fig. 5.20 gives the declination as -21.27, the hour angle at sunrise is
slope and y-intercept as found from Eq. (2.30), taking L = 35, as
W hsr = 74.18 = 1.295rad
FRU c 4.6 2
m C Then the tilt factor from Eq. (2.56) becomes
FR ( ) n 0.8 Rb = 2.16
From Eq. (5.21), the time averaged value is given as Thus the daily average insolation on the collector is
FR ( ) = 0.95FR ( ) n = 0.76 given by Eq. (2.60) as
For no heat exchanger, H c = 2.16 ( 5.73) + 0.787 ( 3.36 ) + 0.160 ( 9.09 )
Fhx = 1 MJ
= 16.48
From Eq. (5.27) for a water system, m 2 day
F F U A t Finally, from Eq. (5.19),
PL = hx R c c
Load A F F ( ) H c ( # days )
Ps = c hx R
(11.6 + 1.18Tw,o + 3.86Tw,i 2.32Ta ) Load
where the temperatures are in C, and the time 92.9 (1)( 0.76 ) (16.48 x106 ) ( 31)
period as the total seconds per month. Assume the =
4.22 x1010
collector gives water at 65 C and water enters the
= 0.855
collector at 15 C. In SI units, the area is 92.9 m2,
Eq. (5.22), or Fig 5.21, can be used to find the solar
the load is 4.22 x 1010 J/month, and the average
load fraction as
ambient temperature is 4.78 C.
f s = 1.029 ( 0.855 ) 0.065 ( 3.66 ) 0.245 ( 0.855 )
2
1( 4.6 )( 92.9 )( 31x 24 x3600 )
PL =
+ 0.0018 ( 3.66 ) + 0.0215 ( 0.855 )
2 3
4.22 x1010
(11.6 + 1.18 x65 + 3.86x15 2.32 x 4.78) = 0.50
= 3.66
Monthly averaged daily horizontal insolation values
can be looked up for Little Rock in Table A2.3b for 5.12
January as Given: same as Problem 5.11, with storage
MJ doubled and halved
H h = 9.09 2 Find: solar load fraction
m day
From Table A2.2, the average daily horizontal
From Eq. (5.25) in Table 5.8,
extraterrestrial insolation in January at 35 N 0.25
0.25
latitude is V V
PL = PL, nom s = PL ,nom s
Wh MJ 75 V
H o , h = 5039 2 = 18.14 2 s ,nom
m day m day
The nominal value of the load parameter is 3.66,
found in Problem 5.11. If the volume is doubled, 5.14
PL ,doubled = 3.66 ( 2 )
0.25 Given: same as Problem 5.13, with collector flow
= 3.08
rate doubled
and if halved, Find: solar load fraction
PL ,halved = 3.66 ( 0.5 )
0.25
= 4.35
With the solar parameter unchanged as 0.855, Eq. From Table 5.9, the modified loss parameter is
(5.22) or Fig. 5.21 yields given by
f s ,doubled = 0.531
0.28
Q
0.28
Q
PL = PL, nom c = PL ,nom c
f s ,halved = 0.465 10.1 Q
c ,nom
Thus with an increase in the storage volume, more Doubling the flow rate, and taking the nominal loss
of the heating load can be covered with solar. parameter value from Problem 5.13,
PL = 2.89 ( 2 ) = 3.51
0.28

5.13 With the solar parameter unchanged as 0.534 from

Problem 5.13,
Given: same as Problem 5.11, for FRU c = 0.64
f s = 1.040 ( 0.534 ) 0.065 ( 3.51) 0.159 ( 0.534 )
2

Btu/hr-ft -F and FR ( )n =0.50, air

2

+ 0.00187 ( 3.51) 0.0095 ( 0.534 )

2 3
heating
Find: solar load fraction = 0.30

Time averaging according to Eq. (5.21) gives

FR ( ) = 0.95FR ( ) n = 0.475 5.15
The solar parameter is modified as Given: data in Problem 5.11, = 0 and 90,
F ( ) assume Eq. (5.21) is valid for both cases
Ps = Ps ,nom R
FR ( )nom Find: solar load fraction for both collectors

0.475 For both collectors, the loss parameter is 3.66 as

= 0.855
0.76 found in Problem 5.11. The only modification will
= 0.534 be to the daily average insolation, and consequently
Conversion to SI gives the solar parameter, for each tilt angle.
1055 (1.8 ) W Ps = Ps ,nom
Hc
FRU c = 0.64 = 3.63 2
( 3600 )( 0.0929 ) m K H c ,nom
The loss parameter is modified as We had already found that from Tables,
FRU c MJ
PL = PL ,nom H h = 9.09 2
( FRU c )nom m day
Thus for the horizontal surface,
3.63
= 3.66 H
4.6 Ps ,hor = 0.855 h = 0.472
16.48
= 2.89 and so the solar load fraction is
Using Eq. (5.28) for air heating systems,
f s ,hor = 1.029 ( 0.472 ) 0.065 ( 3.66 ) 0.245 ( 0.472 )
2

f s = 1.040 ( 0.534 ) 0.065 ( 2.89 ) 0.159 ( 0.534 )

2

+ 0.0018 ( 3.66 ) + 0.0215 ( 0.472 )

2 3

+ 0.00187 ( 2.89 ) 0.0095 ( 0.534 )

2 3

= 0.22
= 0.34
As the horizontal collector faces the sun less than a
This is less than the solar load fraction found in
tilted collector in January, the solar load fraction is
Problem 5.11, indicating that water systems deliver
less than in Problem 5.11. It was also shown that
more energy.
 MJ The Hottel-Whillier-Bliss is Eq. (3.46), as
Dh = 0.37 H h = 3.36
m 2 day c = FR s s U c (T f ,in Ta ) I c
MJ
Bh = H h Dh = 5.73 2 Combining the last two equations and rewriting,

For the vertical surface,

m day
c =
FR
s s U c
(T f Ta )
1 FRU c 2Gc p Ic
Rd ,vert = 0.5
Hence, we have a linear equation with
Rr ,vert = 0.5 = 0.375
FR s s
assuming snow covered ground. The declination intercept =
1 FRU c 2Gc p
was -21.27, and the hour angle at sunrise was
hsr = 74.18 = 1.295rad slope =
FRU c
Then the tilt factor from Eq. (2.56) becomes 1 FRU c 2Gc p
Rb ,vert = 1.93 Rewriting the expression for the slope becomes
Thus the daily average insolation on the collector is FU
FRU c = 1 R c slope
given by Eq. (2.60) as 2Gc
p
H c ,vert = 1.93 ( 5.73) + 0.5 ( 3.36 ) + 0.375 ( 9.09 ) slope
FRU c =
= 16.15
MJ 1 + slope 2Gc p
m 2 day Finally, with
The solar parameter for the vertical collector is FU FU
16.15 1 R c = R c
Ps ,vert = 0.855 = 0.838 2Gc p slope
16.48 the intercept is rewritten as
and the solar load fraction becomes
FU
f s ,vert = 1.029 ( 0.838) 0.065 ( 3.66 ) 0.245 ( 0.838 ) FR ( ) = intercept 1 R c
2
2Gc
p
+ 0.0018 ( 3.66 ) + 0.0215 ( 0.838 )
2 3

FU
= 0.49 = intercept R c
This is not a large change from that found in slope
Problem 5.11 for the 55 tilted collector. intercept
=
1 + slope 2Gc p
For the second case (b), the fluid inlet temperature
5.16 is written as
Explain how FR ( ) and FRU c can be I
T f ,in = T f ,out c c
determined from plots of efficiency versus Gc p
(a) (T f Ta ) I c or (b) (T f ,out Ta ) I c , in terms of Substitution into the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation,
slopes, intercepts, and fluid capacitance rates
c =
FR
s s U c
(T f Ta )
1 FRU c Gc p Ic
For the first case (a), the average fluid temperature
is given as and thus,
T + T f ,in FR s s
T f = f ,out T f ,out = 2T f T f ,in intercept =
2 1 FRU c Gc p
An energy balance for the collector gives FRU c
slope =
= c I c = Gc p (T f ,out T f ,in )
qu 1 FRU c Gc p
Ac This is similar to before, save for the factor of 2
Combining the above two equations, removed from the fluid capacitance term. Thus, the
I rewritten terms become
T f ,in = T f c c
2Gc p
 slope
FRU c =
1 + slope Gc p
intercept
FR ( ) =
1 + slope Gc p

5.17
Discuss a solar-assisted heat pump system and a
solar augmented heat pump system with respect
to different climates.
 Chapter 6
Solar Cooling and Dehumidification From table A6.1b, the refrigerant properties leaving
the condenser at saturated liquid at the system high
pressure are
6.1
Tc = 36.11C
Given: Houston, July 30, solar noon, tabulated
data hlc = 100.42 kJ kg
Find: cooling load Q& cool Leaving the evaporator, assuming saturated vapor,
the same table gives at the system low pressure
For July 30, n = 211, and Eq. (2.23) yields the Te = 0.3C
declination as 18.42. The latitude of Houston is hle = 247.06 kJ kg
29.44N. From Eq. (6.8), the angle of incidence for
sve = 0.9192 kJ kgK
the vertical wall is found as
With the cooling load from 6.1, the mass flow rate
cos i = sin sin ( L s ) = 0.191
of refrigerant is found from an energy balance at the
From Eq. (2.28), the solar altitude is found as evaporator, assuming the throttling is isenthalpic, as
sin = cos ( L s ) = 0.9816 Q& cool 14.05
m& r = = = 0.0958 kg s
Assuming no shading, the load for the south facing hve hlc 247.06 100.42
window is given as Eq. (6.1) From Table A6.2, the properties of the superheated
0.191
Q& wi = ( 8 ) (1)( 0.6 )( 580 ) + ( 0.80 )( 250 ) vapor leaving the compressor assuming isentropic
0.9816 expansion are found through a double interpolation
+ ( 0.55)( 200 ) + ( 6.2 )( 37 24 )} of the table. First, for the two listed pressures
encompassing the high pressure,
= 3666.5W 0.9MPa hvds = 270.47 kJ kg
The shaded window load is given by Eq. (6.2) as
1.0MPa hvds = 272.69 kJ kg
Q& wi , sh = ( 8 + 20 + 25 )( 6.2 )( 37 24 ) = 4271.8W
And interpolating the enthalpy at 0.915 MPa from
Assuming white paint with s , wa = 0.12 , the south these values,
facing wall load is given by Eq. (6.3) as 0.915MPa hvds = 270.80 kJ kg
0.191
Q& wa = ( 30 ) ( 012 ) 200 + 250 + 580
From the definition of the compressor efficiency,
0.9816 hs h
c = vd ve hvd = 273.44 kJ kg
+ (1.08)( 37 24 ) hvd hve
= 2447.5W Then from Eq. (6.16),
The shaded wall load is given by Eq. (6.4) as Q& cool
COP = = 6.18
Q& wa , sh = ( 30 + 75 + 75)(1.08 )( 37 24 ) = 2527.2W m& r ( hvd hve )
The roof load, assuming it is shaded, is given by Eq.
(6.5) as
Q& rf = ( 250 )( 0.35 )( 37 24 ) = 1137.5W 6.3
Neglect loads associated with infiltration and Given: Absorption-Refrigeration, LiBr-H2O, 1
ventilation. Therefore the total cooling load is kW cooling
Find: Q& a , Q& c , Q& e , COP, then Ac for Arizona,
Q& cool = 3666.5 + 4271.8 + 2447.5 + 2527.2 + 1137.5
= 14.05kW noon, August, FR ( ) = 0.81, FRU c = 3
W/m2K, 3 ton cooling

6.2 The given relations for enthalpy are not needed as

Given: Vapor-Compression, R134a, load from
6.1, Pc = 915 kPa, Pe = 290 kPa, c = 90%
Find: m& r , COP
the properties are already listed at the state points in
the given figure. Using the numbered points below,
the absorber heat removal is found from the energy
balance as
 assumed to be the generator temperature, 74 C. The
average ambient temperature for Arizona in August
is looked up in climatic data tables (not given in Ed
#2) as 87.5 F or 30.8 C. These values can also be
looked up either online or handbooks. From Table
A2.6b, for 32 N latitude at solar noon in August,
I 0 = 2388 Btu ft 2 day = 27.108 MJ m2 day
This is the maximum possible, which is for a tilt
angle of 22. Climatic data (found elsewhere)
indicates that on average 84% of the maximum
insolation is achieved in August for Arizona.
I c = 0.84 I 0 = 22.77 MJ m 2 day
(This value can also be estimated with the method
Q& a = m& 3 h3 + m& 5 h5 m& 4 h4 outlined example problem 2.8, or HW solution 6.6.)
Thus from Eq. (3.45),
= ( 0.406 )( 2.46489 ) + ( 9.35 )( 0.084 )
qu
( 9.76 )( 0.165 ) = ( 0.81)( 22.77 ) ( 3)(13hr )( 3600s )( 74 30.8 )
Ac
= 1.826kW = 12.38 MJ m2 day
The condenser heat removal is
This assumes that collection occurs for 13 hours per
Q& c = m& 1 ( h1 h2 ) day in August. Thus the minimum collector area is
= ( 0.406 )( 2.603 0.13408) 1811 MJ day
Ac = = 146.4m 2
= 1.0kW 12.38 MJ m 2 day
The amount of cooling is specified in the problem Notes:
statement as 1 kW. However, to be consistent, the This is based on a daily average. In reality, the
cooling is taken as that calculated from the given morning insolation values will not be high enough
properties as to provide the required cooling, assumed to be
Q& e = m& 2 ( h3 h2 ) steady at 3 tons throughout the day. There must be
some storage or backup source to provide the
= ( 0.406 )( 2.46489 0.13408) necessary heat input in the early and late day hours.
= 0.946kW
This assumes an isenthalpic expansion of the
condensed refrigerant. Then assuming small pump 6.4
work, the heat input is Design a Rankine refrigeration machine for a 20
Q& g = m& 1h1 + m& 5 h5 m& 4 h4 x 40 m ice rink in Denver, CO
= 1.88kW The heating of the ice from the ambient must equal
and the cooling produced by the refrigeration machine.
Q& e 0.946 The heating is through convection with the outdoor
COP = = = 0.503
Q& g 1.88 air and with radiative heating by the sun. Assume
For the 3 ton unit, that the ice surface temperature is at 0 C.
Q& = 3ton = 10.548kW Q& = Q& + Q&
heat conv rad
e
For year round use, the system must withstand hot
Q&
Q& g = e = 20.97 kW temperatures and high insolation. Obtain the
COP maximum insolation on the horizontal surface at
Assuming that refrigeration is required during the solar noon on the summer solstice June 21.
entire day, s = 23.45
Qgday = Q& g ( 24 hr day )( 3600 s hr ) = 1811.8 MJ day
With Denver at L = 39.74 N, From Eq. (2.28), the
The required collector area is determined using Eq. solar altitude is found as
(3.45), where the collector fluid inlet temperature is
 sin = sin L sin s + cos L cos s = cos ( L s ) Q& conv , nat = hconv ,nat A (Ta Ts ) = 22.5kW
= 0.960 This is significantly smaller than the radiative
or heating. Forced convection, assuming a 3 m/s
= 73.71 breeze in the lengthwise direction, would raise the
From Eq. (2.41), the beam normal radiation on a convection contribution. The Reynolds number is
horizontal surface is found as found at the film temperature again as
I h = Cn Ie k sin ( C + sin ) Re L =
VL
= 8.15 x106
Assume clear conditions, such that Cn = 1. The
optical depth is tabulated in Table 2.4 for sea level. The flow is turbulent and the appropriate correlation
This is an error that is not corrected for in this (taken from a heat transfer text) is
solution, as Denver is about a mile high in altitude. Nu L = ( 0.037 Re0.8 L 871) Pr
13
= 10379
From, Eq. (2.35), I = 1307.8 W/m2, and we get and
I h = (1)(1307.8 ) e 0.205 0.960 ( 0.134 + 0.960 ) k W
hconv , for = Nu L = 6.565 2
= 1155.6 W m 2
L m K
Assuming the reflectivity of the surface to be 0.8, where the Prandtl number at the film temperature is
assume the balance is absorbed by the ice as 0.71 for air. The individual forced convection
Q& rad = (1 0.8) AI h = 184.9kW
heating is then
Q& conv , for = hconv , for A (Ta Ts ) = 147.1kW
For a first approximation, assume there is no wind
such that there is only natural convection. From a The combined effect of natural and forced
heat transfer textbook, convection is found as
Nu D = 0.27 RaD0.25
3.5
Nuconv = Nu D3.5 + Nu L3.5 Nuconv = 10379
The Rayleigh number is found as Clearly, natural convection contributes minimally
g (Ta Ts ) D3 and so
RaD = hconv = hconv , for Q& conv = 147.1kW

Therefore the total heating of the ice is
( 9.81)(1 287 )( 28 )( 6.67 )
3

= Q& heat = 147.1 +184.9 = 332kW

(14.73x10 )( 20.78 x10 )
6 6
This value of heat must be removed by the vapor
= 92.8 x1010 compression system. Assuming a typical COP of 3,
where the characteristic length, the work input for the AC unit will be

D=
Area
=
( 20 )( 40 ) = 6.67m Q&
W&electrical = cool =
332
= 110.7 kW
Perimeter 2 ( 20 + 40 ) COP 3
This was calculated on a hot day with high
and the air properties are determined at the film
insolation. Thus, this work input can provide the
temperature. Assume a midday average temperature
peak cooling demand for the ice rink.
of 28 C on June 21 (taken from Climatic data).
Notes:
T f = (Ta + Ts ) 2 = 287 K Energy transfer due to mass transfer between the ice
The heat transfer coefficient therefore becomes and air was neglected.
k k W
hconv ,nat = Nu D = 0.27 RaD0.25 = 1.005 2
D D m K
where the thermal conductivity k = 0.0253 W/mK. 6.5
Here, the Nusselt number is Given: Desiccant heat pump, Tcond = 150 F
Nu D = 265 Find: COP
It should be noted that the range of applicability for
the Nusselt number relation is up to about During daytime operation, let the solar collector
temperature be 95 C and assume the room
RaD 1010
temperature is 20 C, such that from Table A3.8,
So there will be some error but this is only a first
approximation. The convective heating then is
 h368
fg
K
= 2270.2 kJ kg m& w = m& s m& r
h 293
fg
K
= 2451.1 kJ kg m& s = m& r
( X r X w ) = 20m& = 0.2848 kg
The daytime COP is the heating provided to the ( Xs Xw) r
s
house over the heat input to the collector. This is Assuming saturated vapor, the refrigerant leaving
approximately equal to the ratio of latent heats, the generator/rectifier is at
neglecting sensible heat changes. T1 ( P = 15bar , X r = 0.98 ) = 85.1C
2454.1
COPday = = 1.081 Assume the heat source is to be 5 C hotter,
2270.2 Tcollector 90C
Similarly at night, assume the outside air to be 10
Assuming that the heat input to the system is
C and the condensing temperature was specified as
required 24 hours a day, the daily load is
150 F = 65 C. From table A3.8,
Qgday = Q& g ( 24 hr day )( 3600 s hr ) = 5063 MJ day
h338
fg
K
= 2346.2 kJ kg
Assuming there is storage, this amount must be
h 283
fg
K
= 2477.7 kJ kg delivered by the collector each day of the year (for a
The desired effect is heating the house, and the constant 5 ton cooling requirement). A limiting case
energy supply is from the outside air. will be for a day with the least insolation. Using
2346.2 Jacksonville (L = 30.5 N) as the example, Table
COPnight = = 0.947 A2.3b gives the lowest average daily insolation in
2477.7
Thus, the overall COP is December as
COPavg 1
MJ
H h = 9.65 2
m day
Table A2.2 gives the maximum on the horizontal
surface for 30 N latitude in December as
6.6
Whr MJ
Given: 5 ton cooling, NH3-H2O, Fig. 6.9, Plow = 3 H o , h = 5463 2 = 19.67 2
bar, Phigh = 15 bar, Xr = 0.98, Xs = 0.6, Xw m day m day
= 0.58, COP = 0.3 From Eq. (2.50)
Find: Ac, Tc 9.65
KT = = 0.49
19.67
From the saturated ammonia Table A6.3 and water For the middle of the month (Dec 16), Eq. (2.23)
Table A3.8, the properties are added in the indicated and (2.30) give
proportion (0.98) to get s = 23.37
h2 ( P = 15bar , X r = 0.98 ) = 179.44 kJ kg hsr = 75.25 = 1.313rad
h4 ( P = 3bar , X r = 0.98 ) = 1413.74 kJ kg hss = +75.25 = +1.313rad
This assumes saturated liquid leaving the condenser From Eq. (2.52), the diffuse component is given as
and saturated vapor leaving the evaporator. With the Dh
cooling at 5 ton = 17.58 kW, the mass flow rate of = 0.775 + 0.347 hss
refrigerant is
Hh 2
Q& e
m& r = = 0.01424
kg 0.505 + 0.0261 hss cos ( 2 KT 1.8 )
( h4 h3 ) s 2
With the COP indicated as 0.3, the heat input to the = 0.345
generator is or
Q& 17.58 MJ
H D = 0.345 ( 9.65) = 3.33
Q& g = e = = 58.6kW m 2 day
COP 0.3
A total solution and ammonia mass balance at the and the horizontal beam component is thus
absorber allows the determination of the strong MJ
Bh = H h H D = 6.32 2
solution flow rate as m day
m& s X s = m& w X w + m& r X r
The best collector tilt for the winter season, when with the ambient temperature. So the winter cooling
the solar altitude is low, is taken as load would be lower and so would the required
= L + 15 = 45.5 collector area.
Then from Eq. (2.56),
cos ( 15 ) cos ( 23.37 ) sin ( 75.25 )
6.7
1.313sin ( 15 ) sin ( 23.37 )
Given: LiCl packed tower, m& dehum ,i = mreg ,o , eqn.
Rb =
sol
& sol
cos ( 30.5 ) cos ( 23.37 ) sin ( 75.25)
for m& reg
sol
, w , given properties

1.313sin ( 30.5 ) sin ( 23.37) Find: Tevap

= 1.98
and the beam component on the tilted surface is The saturated water pressure at the inlet temperature
given by Eq. (2.57) as of 30.4 C to the dehumidifier is found in Table
MJ A6.4 as 4353.2 N/m2. Therefore the partial pressure
Bc = Rb Bh = (1.98 )( 6.32 ) = 12.53 2 of the water vapor in the inlet follows as
m day
Pwair,i N
The diffuse portion on the tilted surface is given by i = sat Pwair,i = ( 0.667 )( 4353.2 ) = 2903 2
air

Eq. (2.58) as Pw,i m

MJ
Dc = Dh (1 + cos ) 2 = Dh ( 0.85 ) = 2.83 2 where the relative humidity was given as 66.7%.
m day The partial pressure of dry air is then
and the reflection components is given by Eq. (2.59) N
,i = Pi
Paair Pwair,i = 101325 2903.6 = 98421.4 2
air
as m
MJ
Rc = H h (1 cos ) 2 = H h ( 0.112 ) = 1.08 2
and the humidity ratio of the inlet air is
m day m& air M P air P air
Yi air = wair,i = w wair,i = 0.622 wair,i = 0.01835
The total on the tilted surface for December 16 is m& a ,i M a Pa ,i Pa ,i
therefore given by Eq. (2.60) as
The mass flow of air at the inlet is found as
m& iair = m& wair,i + m& aair,i = (1 + Yi air ) m& aair,i
MJ
H c = 12.53 + 2.83 + 1.08 = 16.44 2
m day
This has not assumed any collector inefficiencies m& iair 260 kg h kg
m& aair,i = = = 255.3
yet. From Eq. (3.54), the useful energy collection is (1 + Yi ) (1 + 0.01835)
air
h
qu
= ( 0.81)(16.44 ) ( 3)(10hr )( 3600s )( 85.1 20 ) Similarly, at the outlet of the dehumidifier, at 32.6
Ac C and 36.7% relative humidity,
= 6.29 MJ m 2 day Pwsat,o = 4960.7 N m 2
Values for the collector were taken as those from Pwair,o = 1820.6 N m 2
problem 6.3 as
FR ( ) = 0.81 ,o = 99504.4 N m
Paair 2

W Yoair = 0.01138
FRU c = 3
m2 K Thus, the condensed amount of water from the air in
Collection occurs for 10 hours per day in December the dehumidifier is found as
(based on the sunrise and sunset times), the ambient
m& w = (Yi Yo ) m& a ,i =
air air air air ( Yi air Yoair ) air
m&
was assumed to be 15 C, and the rectifier exit
temperature of 85.1 C was used as the heat source (1 + Yi air ) i
fluid inlet temperature. Thus the minimum collector kg
area is = 1.78
h
Qgday 5063 This of course assumes the mass flow of dry air is
Ac = = = 805m 2 constant in the process. This condensed amount is
Hc 6.29
added to the desiccant solution, such that the new
Notes:
mass flow rate of solution is
The refrigeration load was assumed to be constant
throughout the year. In reality, the load would vary
 kg
m& dehum ,o = mdehum ,i + mw = 850 + 1.78 = 851.78
sol
& sol & air
h
The mass flow of dry desiccant is assumed to be
constant, and is
kg
m& dsol = X dehum ,i mdehum ,i = ( 0.35 )( 850 ) = 297.5
sol
& sol
h
Therefore, with the added water to the desiccant
solution, the concentration at the dehumidifier
outlet and thus regenerator inlet is
m& dsol 297.5
X dehum ,o = X reg ,i = sol
sol sol
= = 0.3493
m& dehum ,o 851.78
The problem statement says to assume constant
flow rate of desiccant solution, such that the
regenerator will evaporate enough of the water to
bring the solution concentration back to 35%.
kg g
m& reg
sol
, w = mw = 1.78
& air = 0.494
h s
The equation for this amount of water evaporated
from the desiccant solution in the regenerator is
given in the problem statement in terms of the
regenerator temperature and the inlet desiccant
solution concentration.
m& reg , w = f ( Treg , X reg ,i )
sol sol

Thus, we can solve for the required regenerator

temperature. However, a trial and error solution
shows that there is no solution for the calculated
concentration of 0.3493. Solutions are only possible
at the required evaporation rate for solution
concentrations of 0.339-0.348, and at temperatures
below 12.4 C. This is obviously too low a
temperature, as the solution was still accepting
water at 32.6 C and the regeneration temperature is
expected to be higher. There must be an error in the
given equation.
 Chapter 7 7.3
Passive Methods Given: Fig. 7.4
Find: Thermal circuit diagram for (a) attached
7.1 sunspace (b) thermal storage roof and (c)
(a) A window is a passive solar feature since it can direct gain buildings
be a means of letting in solar heat into the space as
well as a source of light. (a)

(b) A window is an energy conservation feature

since the use of solar lighting offsets the need for
artificial lighting. The cooling load on the space is
also lower by using solar lighting since the heat
generated by lighting fixtures such as lamps is
removed.
(b)
(c) Both functions (a) and (b) can be performed
simultaneously. A window can let in daylight and
serve as a source of solar heat.

7.2
Given: Passive solar system
Find: Equation for calculating cost and savings
life-cycle economics

The annual cost of the passive solar system can be

written as (see Ch. 12 for more details)

Cann = Cs ,tot CRF ( i, t ) + Tprop Cs ,ass + M ES annCE

Here,
Cs ,tot is the extra cost of using passive features over
(c)
an equivalent conventional facility
CRF is the capital recovery factor
Tprop is the assessed tax rate for the property
Cs ,ass is the marginal assessed value of the passive
features
M is the annual maintenance cost
ES ann is the annual energy savings
CE is the cost of energy. Another factor can be
7.4
added to account for the change in energy Given: 200 m2 Denver residence
prices annually. Find: Aux. Heating required, solar projected
area and concrete storage mass for 10 C
Note that the maintanence cost can be negligibly temperature swing. Use rules of thumb
small in a well designed passive system. Operating
costs are neglected, tax credits are also neglected. For aux. heating energy required, use Eq. (7.5).
Assume
NLC Floor area = 120 ( kJ / C day.m 2 )
 NLC = 24, 000 ( kJ / C day )
Good LCR (cold climate) = 410 (kJ/m2. C-day)
Table 5.3 has degree data for Denver.
Qnet = NLC ( No. of degree days )
Total DD in the year = 2622
Q storage mass and dimensions
SSF = 1 aux
Qnet
Qaux = (1 SSF ) NLC ( No. of degree days )
From Fig. 7.5, a reasonable value of SSF for Denver
= 0.7
Qaux = (1 SSF ) NLC ( No. of degree days )
= (1 0.7 ) 24, 000(kJ / C day )2622( Deg .C days )
= 18,878, 400(kJ )
7.5
Given: 2000 ft2 house in Boston, MA. NLC=
12,000 Btu/F-day, Ap=150 ft2. Direct gain
system, double glazing, night-time
insulation, and 30 Btu/ft2F thermal
storage capacity. Use LCR method.
Find: annual aux. heating energy requirement,
LCR = NLC Ap = 12, 000 ( Btu / F day ) 150 ft 2 ( )
(
LCR = 80 Btu / ft 2 .F .day )
From Table A7.1 in Appendix 7, system
classification is A3
Using Table A7.2 (LCR tables for Boston)
DD=5621
SSF=0.1653

(a) Aux. Annual heating requirement

= (1 SSF ) NLC DD
The projected solar area can be calculated using Eq.
(7.6)
NLC = (1 0.165 ) 12,000 ( Btu / F day ) 5621( F day )
LCR =
Ap = 56.32 106 ( Btus )

Ap =
24, 000
410
= 58.5 m2( ) (b) For heat capacity of 30 Btu/ft2-F, using the
To find the concrete storage mass required, assume data for masonry
direct absorption of radiation by the storage mass, Required mass density is
thermal swing of storage temperature for 10 C (
30 Btu / ft .F
2
)
room air-temperature swing is 20 C.
t
=
0.2 ( Btu / lb.F )
( )
= 150 lb / ft 2

Heat capacity required based on rule of thumb This corresponds to 1 ft thick walls.
613 ( kJ / o C ) per m2 of projected glazing area.
Assuming Trombe wall area same as the projected
Therefore area,
mc p T = Ap 613 T
Ap 613 Mass = 22,500 lbs.
m=
cp

m=
( ) (
58.5 m 2 613 kJ / m 2 o C ) 7.6
Given: house in P 7.5
kJ kg .o C
( o
)
0.2 Btu lbm. F 4.187 o Find: Annual SSF for different types of passive
Btu lbm. F systems
= 42,824 ( kg )
Use appropriate table from Appendix 7
Thermal capacity of concrete from Table A3.5.
Type Classification SSF
direct gain DGA3 0.165
vented Trombe wall TWD4 0.172
Unvented Trombe wall TW14 0.145
waterwall WWB4 0.179 For Boston, Heating degree days in March = 846 F-
sunspace SSB4 0.193 deg.day,
Use table A7.1(b) to find system classification
DGB3 system.
7.7
Given: 200 ft2 vented 12 thick Trombe wall 12, 000 ( Btu/F-day )
LCR = (
= 80 Btu/ft 2 .F-day )
added to house in P 7.5, similar storage.
Find: Annual aux. Heating requirement,
( )
150 ft 2

Trombe wall dimensions
For more than one reference system, determine
individual reference system SSF using total area.
The determine aperture area weighted SSF for the
combination.
From table A7.3 for DGB3 system, A=0.5601,
B=0.9839, C=1.3520, D=1.1510, R=0.8879,
G=2.38, H=0.00, LCRs=0.0, STDV=0.032
Using Eq.(7.8) in book,
K = 1 + G LCR = 1 + 2.38 80 = 1.03

Total projected area = 200 + 150 = 350 ft2 Calculate S, the monthly insolation absorbed by a
vertical surface per unit of projected solar area.
(
LCR = NLC Ap = 12,000 350 = 34.3 Btu / ft 2 .F .day ) Insolation = 961 Btu/ft2.day, from weather data in
Passive Solar Design Handbook. This can also be
Use Table A7.1C to determine classification as calculated by correlations from Horizontal surface
TWA3 data.
Using LCR tables in A7.2for Boston
S = 961( Btu / ft 2 .day ) 31( days ) 0.8 0.96
SSF=0.226
Similarly for the reference system in Problem 7.5
SSF = 0.294 (
= 22,879.5 Btu / ft 2 .month )
Calculate aperture weighted SSF.
Eq. (7.10) gives
150 0.294 + 200 0.226
SSF = = 0.255 22,879.5 846 0.0 0.00
350 X=
80 1.03
= 0.328
(a) Annual Aux. Energy Requirement
Since X R
= (1 SSF ) NLC DD F = AX
= (1 0.255 ) 12, 000 ( Btu / F day ) 5621( F day ) = 0.5601 0.328
= 0.184
= 50.25 106 ( Btus )
(b) For Trombe wall of 12 inch thickness, the From Eq. (7.7)
storage capacity per unit area is 30 Btu/ft2-F SSF = 1 1.03 (1 0.184 )
The Trombe wall mass, assuming a face area same = 0.159
as Ap is (refer P7.5) 52,500 lbs
Qaux = (1 0.159 )12, 000 ( Btu / F .day ) 846 ( F .deg.day )
= 8.54 106 ( Btu / month )
7.8
Given: 2000 ft2 house in Boston. NLC=12,000
Btu/F-day, Ap=150 ft2, direct gain system
Find: Use SLR method, find Aux. Energy
7.9
required in March
Given: Boston House of P 7.8
Find: Heating season Aux. Energy Requirement
Use the LCR method. From tables in Appendix enough, it is reasonable to assume that comfort
A7.2 conditions exist.

SSF=0.169
DD for heating season in Boston = 5621 7.12
Qaux = (1 0.169 )12, 000 ( Btu / F .day ) 5621( F .deg.day ) Given: 4m 5m 3m room
= 56.05 106 ( Btu / year ) Find: Design a stack effect solar chimney

Target flow rate:

This problem can also be solved using SLR method
for each month. Calculate and compare.
7.10
Given: House in Dallas, TX, 2 m high window
Find: Length of overhang
If the stack vent inlet is towards the bottom, then
the velocity would be experienced more towards the
lower portion of the room. Assume that an average
velocity of 0.3 m/s is experienced in the lower half
of the room.

Use the overhang factors from Table 7.1

For the latitude (32 51' N), use the values for North (
Q = 5 1 0.3 = 1.5 m 3 /s )
Latitude of 32 degrees. Assume an average stack temperature of about 5 C
above ambient
F=6.3 to provide shading until Aug 1
H 2 Using Eq. (7.13)
L= = =0.317 m
F 6.3
Length of overhang = 0.32 m Q = 0.116 Aj h (Ts To )
Assuming a stack height of about 3 m (the height of
Note: The same problem can be solved using the space) and assume that the southside of the
more exact methods discussed in chapter 2 building is the one with the 5 m length.
( )
1.5 m3 s = 0.116 Aj 3 ( 5 )
7.11
Given: Wind blowing into room through window
Aj = 3.339 m 2( )
Find: If thermal comfort exists Dividing by 5 m,
This gives us an opening of about 67 cm both above
Assume that the wind blowing into the room blows and below.
through due to some cross-ventilation effect.

Volume of wind blowing into the room, Eq. (7.12) 7.13

( )
Q = 0.6 88 ( fpm mph ) 10 ( mph ) 15 ft 2
Given: An open tank in Chicago, given
dimensions
(
= 7920 ft 3 / min ) Find: Estimate radiant cooling in July.
Compare convective and evaporative
cooling values.
The velocity in the room using the cross-sectional
area of the wall is Average July temperature in Chicago, IL = 24.2 C
Using Fig. 7.7, the air-sky temperature difference is
Va = Q Ax = 7920 (8 12 ) = 82.5 ( fpm ) about 10F in Chicago.

For 80 F and 82.5 fpm velocity, and the Based on the average temperatures, the radiative
information given in page 309, using a linear heat transfer per unit area can be calculated as
interpolation, 80 F and 86 fpm velocity would be
at comfort conditions. Since the numbers are close
 (
qrc = Tbody
4
Tsky
4
) 7.16
(
= 0.9 5.67 108 303.154 291.84 ) Given: An office space with dimmer control

( )
system
= 61 W / m 2 Find: payback period for dimmer control system

Convective heat transfer
For quiescent air, the free convection coefficient
would be expected to be around 5-10 W/m2.K.
Assuming a value of 10, the convection heat
transfer would be around 10(30-24.2) = 58 W/m2.
The lighting control system would cost $600.00 to
install for this given space at $1 / ft2
Assume that the office operates 50 hours a week
throughout the year. The lighting energy saving is
(
ES L = 50 ( hr/week ) 52 ( weeks/yr ) 2 W/ft 2 )
600(ft 2 )0.3/1000

= 936 (kWh)
7.14 Using Eq. (7.24)
Given: Buried Pipe Example (7.4) f
Find: Which flow rate leads to least expensive EST = ES L 1 + c
installation? COP
0.5
= ES L 1 +
Case #pipes Length/pipe Total 2.5
= 1.2 ES L
length
250 cfm 8 200 ft 1600
750 cfm 2 250 ft 500 Total energy savings (annual) is 1123.2 kWh
1250 cfm 2 286 ft 572 Annual saving is $112.30
A simple payback period of 5.34 years is then
calculated. Considering interest rates, the actual
Of the cases considered, the best option is to use the
payback period would be longer.
750 cfm case, since the total length of pipe required
is the smallest, to meet the design conditions. The
pressure drop and the cost of a blower should also
factor in the calculations, but are not considered 7.17
here. Given: Vertical, south facing windoe at solar
noon. 36N
Find: Illuminances (sun, sky and ground
reflected) on clear and overcast days on June 21st
7.15
and Dec 21st.
Given: Data from Fig. 7.9
Find: Design, 9 ft deep ground pipe, in Dallas
For June 21st.
(June) for 1000 cfm @ 75F, when outside
Julian day = 172
temp = 90F
Hour angle hs = 0
Calculate declination angle from Eq. (2.23) as
The year round average temperature for Dallas is
about 66F. Factoring in a phase lag of 75 days for s = 23.45sin 360 ( 284 + n ) 365
The temperature in the ground, a temperature of = 23.45o
about 65F (value chosen for convenience) is a Altitude angle from Eq. (2.28)
reasonable assumption. From Fig. 7.9, for that sin = cos L cos s cos hs + sin L sin s
flowrate, the temperature drop per 100 ft at 1000
cfm is about 5F. = 77.45o

The temperature drop is linear in the pipe, upto The sun-window azimuth angle difference (asw)can
about 250 feet. Assume it holds upto 300 feet. be easily shown to be zero.
Then we need around 3000 feet of pipe.
Using Figs. 7.13 and 7.14, the various illuminances
can be calculated. The table below summarizes the Cs Ks Esp
results.
Max 0.0206 0.145 456 fc
June 21st Dec. 21st
Mid 0.0153 0.110 257 fc
Min 0.0106 0.105 170 fc
Solar Altitude 77.45 Solar Altitude 30.55
Direct Sunlight 2000 fc Direct sunlight 6800 fc
E gp = C g K g K m Esg Aw
Clear Summer Skylight Clear Winter Skylight
1300 fc 1100 fc Ground reflected: Table 7.4 c
Overcast 1200 fc Overcast 400 fc Cg Kg E gp
Horizontal Surface Horizontal Surface Max 0.0147 0.124 21 fc
Clear sky + direct Clear sky + direct = Mid 0.0128 0.123 18 fc
=10800 fc 5500 fc Min 0.0106 0.0994 12 fc
Overcast Sky = 1900 fc Overcast sky = 1000 fc
Reflectivity = 0.10 Reflectivity 0.10
Reflected component Reflected component
Clear sky + direct - Clear sky + direct -
7.19
540 fc 275 fc
Given: Room, dimensions, and window position,
Overcast sky - 95 fc Overcast sky - 50 fc
date and time.
Find: Clear sky day and cloudy day illuminances

Refer to solutions of problem 7.17 and 7.18 to

7.18 understand this solution in detail. The results of the
Given: Room and window dimensions, various calculations are shown here.
illuminances at window
Find: Side lighting work plane illuminances Using appropriate solar position equations, Eq.
(2.23, 2.28) etc, calculate the solar angles as
Use lumen method of sky lighting for vertical Solar Altitude
windows. Steps 1 and 2 have been completed to
= 36.73o
gives 3000 fc direct+clear sky and 200 fc ground
Solar Azimuth = 0
reflected illuminance at the window.
Sun-Window azimuth angle difference
Ew = 3000 fc
asw = 10o
Egw = 200 fc
For these angles, using Figs. 7.13 and 7.14, the
Assume clear glass window. illuminances are calculated as follows.
= 0.87 Direct sun plus clear sky 6500 + 1100 = 7600 fc
Determine light loss factors, making reasonable Overcast 400 fc
assumptions about window and room conditions. On a horizontal surface
WDD = 0.83, RSDD = 0.94 (assume) Direct sun + clear sky 6000 fc
K m = WDD RSDD Overcast 1200 fc
= 0.83 0.94 = 0.78 Assume = 0.06 for dry grass, E gw = Esg 2
Reflected clear day 180 fc
From table 7.4 b&c, for light colored walls, the
Reflected, overcast day 36 fc
following values can be (the table does not have
data for 15 ft, therefore use the 20 ft data).
Alternatively, one could go back to the original For clear glass window.
reference for more information. = 0.87
Clear Sky: Table 7.4 b Determine light loss factors, making reasonable
assumptions about window and room conditions.
Esp = Cs Ks K m Esw Aw
WDD = 0.83, RSDD = 0.94 (assume)
K m = WDD RSDD and June 21st
= 0.83 0.94 = 0.78
Assume: Time referred to in problem statement is
From table 7.4 b&c, for light colored walls, the solar noon for simplicity in calculations
following values can be assumed for the room
geometry The procedure involved is to determine the solar
altitude angle and to then use Fig. 7.14.
Clear Sky: Table 7.4 b Determining the altitude angle is a standard
Esp = Cs Ks K m Esw Aw procedure covered in chapter 2 and in solution to p
7.17

Cs Ks Esp City Latitude Dec 21 Jun 21

Max 0.0137 0.125 1237 fc Miami 25.8N 40.8 87.8
Mid 0.0062 0.110 493 fc LA 34.0N 32.5 79.4
Min 0.0047 0.107 363 fc Denver 39.7N 26.8 73.7
Boston 42.4N 24.2 71.1
E gp = C g K g K m Esg Aw Seattle 47.6N 18.9 65.8
Ground reflected: Table 7.4 c
From Fig. 7.14
Cg Kg E gp
Max 0.0098 0.140 23 fc City Dec 21 June 21
Mid 0.0062 0.107 11 fc Clear Overcast Clear Overcast
Min 0.0041 0.0984 7 fc sky (fc) (fc) sky (fc) (fc)
Miami 7,200 1,300 11,000 2,000
LA 5,500 1,100 11,000 2,000
For overcast conditions. Denver 4,700 1,000 10,600 1,900
Table 7.4 a Boston 4,000 1,000 10,500 1,900
Esp = Cs Ks K m Esw Aw Seattle 3,200 800 10,200 1,800

Cs Ks Esp
Max 0.0188 0.122 262 fc 7.21
Given: Skylight dimensions, properties
Mid 0.0054 0.0939 58 fc
Find: Net transmittance
Min 0.0029 0.101 33 fc
Determine effective dome transmittance using Eq.
E gp = C g K g K m Esg Aw (7.32)
Ground reflected: Table 7.4 c TD1 = 1.25 0.8 (1.18 0.416 0.8 )
Cg Kg E gp
= 0.85
Max 0.0098 0.140 4.3 fc
Mid 0.0062 0.107 3.6 fc TD2 = 1.25 0.7 (1.18 0.416 0.7 )
Min 0.0041 0.0984 2.4 fc
= 0.78
Note that the ground reflected values do not
contribute much in the overcast situation. Use Eq. (7.33) to combine the single dome
transmittances
0.85 0.78
7.20 TD =
Given: 5 cities 0.85 + 0.78 0.85 0.78
Find: Determine clear and cloudy day horizontal = 0.68
illuminances on skylights on Dec 21st
The well index is calculated as Eq. (7.34)
 2 ( 3 + 5) K u = Tn ( RCU )
WI =
235 = 0.45 0.9536
= 0.533 = 0.43
Using Fig. 7.16, for 80 % reflective wall The required work-plane illuminance is known.
N w = 0.75 Use Eq. (7.39) to determine number of skylights
Given, needed.
RA = 0.9
Tc = 1 A
ETWP = EH T K u K m
AWP
Using Eq. (7.35), the net skylight transmittance can
10 4 n
be calculated as 100 = 6000 0.429 0.70
Tn = TD N w RATc 2500
= 0.682 0.75 0.9 1 Where n is the number of skylights.
= 0.46
This gives a value for n=3.44

Therefore 4 skylights can be used to get the

7.22 required illumination values. One method of
Given: Skylight and room dimensions, distributing them would be to place them at the
horizontal illuminance, Tn center of each quadrant of the space.
Find: Number of skylights required for a given
work place illuminace requirement 7.23
The best procedure to get uniform illuminance
Use the Lumen Method of Skylighting. Steps 1 and using both skylighting and sidelighting is to use the
2 are done. Go from Step 3 onwards. skylights in the minimum and mid point illuminace
Light loss factor: regions of the sidelighting situation.
RSDD = 0.94
SDD = 0.75
K m = SDD RSDD
= 0.75 0.94 = 0.70

Room cavity ratio, assuming workplane at 3 ft from

the floor, from Eq. (7.37)

5 7 ( 50 + 50 )
RCR =
( 50 50 )
= 1.4

Room Coefficient of Utilization (Use Eq. 7.36)

1
RCU =
1 + 0.0288 (1.4 )
1.560

= 0.9536

The fraction of external luminous flux entering the

workplace through the skylight, using Eq. (7.38)
 Chapter 8 T p h s
Solar Thermal Power and Process Heat (C) (Mpa) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
1 45.81 0.01 191.8 0.6492 Sat. liq.
8.1 2 45.81 5 196.8 0.6492 s.cool-liq.
Given: Reheat Rankine cycle conditions, 90% 2 46.1 5 197.35 0.6508 s.cool liq.
kJ
turbine and pump efficiencies wp = 5.55
Find: Work and heat inputs/outputs, efficiency kg steam
For the heat input to the cycle,
From the properties of steam (use Tables A3.8 and qboiler = ( h3 h2 ) + ( h5 h4 )
A3.9 or use any standard steam property calculating
software/table), and referring to the figure below for = 2870.65 kJ / kg .water
a diagram illustrating the cycle, The vapor quality at the exit of the high pressure
and low pressure turbine can be easily found by
interpolation using the saturated liquid and vapor
properties. At the high pressure turbine exit, x =
0.999 and a the low pressure turbine exit, x = 0.91.
The cycle efficiency is

=
( 285.3 + 782.1 5.55 ) = 0.329
2870.65

T p h s 8.2
(C) (Mpa) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K) Given: Regenerative Rankine cycle conditions,
3 350 5 3068 6.449 s.h. vap. 90% turbine and pump efficiencies
4 188 1.2 2751 6.449 wet vap. Find: Work and Heat inputs/outputs, efficiency
4 188 1.2 2782.7 6.519 wet vap.

To calculate state 4, use

h3 h4
turbine =
h3 h4
Using the properties above (the middle column
gives the condition for isentropic expansion), the
high pressure turbine work output is found as
kJ
wt ,hp = 285.3
kg steam
To calculate state 5, use To determine the mass of steam extracted from the
h h turbine for regeneration, use the energy balance
turbine = 5 6
h5 h6 equation given below. Assume that the outlet state
T p h s from the regenerator (state 3) is saturated liquid.
(C) (Mpa) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K) T p h s
5 350 1.2 3154 7.212 s.h. vap. (C) (Mpa) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
6 45.81 0.01 2285 7.212 wet vap. 3 143.6 0.4 604.7 1.777 Sat. liq.
6 45.81 0.01 2371.9 7.483 wet vap. 5 500 5 3434 6.976 SHV
kJ 6 158.9 0.4 2772 6.976 SHV
wt ,lp = 782.1 6 189.4 0.4 2838.2 7.123 SHV
kg steam
7 45.81 0.01 2257 7.123 Wet vapor
For the pump work, use 7 45.81 0.01 2315.1 7.305 Wet vapor
h h
pump = 1 2 1 45.81 0.01 191.8 0.6492 Sat. liquid
h1 h2 2 45.82 0.4 192.2 0.6492 Comp. liq
2 45.83 0.4 192.24 0.6493 Comp. liq Based on the assumption of an ideal gas, that can be
3 143.6 0.4 604.7 1.777 Sat. liquid written as
4 144.2 5 609.9 1.777 Comp. liq V
4 144.3 5 610.5 1.778 Comp. liq Qin = mcV (TH TR ) + mRTH ln 4
V3
h3 = (1 f ) h2 + fh6
The efficiency is then
f =
( h3 h2 ) W
= net
( h6 h2 ) Qin
Substituting from the table above, the fraction of V4
steam extracted to the feed water heater is R ln (TH TL )
V3
f=0.156 =
V
Heat added to the boiler per unit mass of working CV (TH TR ) + RTH ln 4
fluid is V3
kJ Using the relations
h5 h4 = 2823.5
kg V1 V4
=
Work output from the turbine is V2 V3
kJ
( h5 h6 ) + (1 f )( h7 h6 ) = 1037.3 cp
=k
kg steam cv
Work for the low pressure pump is
R = c p cv
(1 f )( h2 h1 ) = 0.37 kJ / kg
Work for the high pressure pump is R = ( k 1) cv
( h4 h3 ) = 5.8 kJ / kg (TR TL ) T T = 1 e T T
e= ( H R ) ( )( H L )
The efficiency of cycle is (TH TL )
Wnet 1037.3 0.37 5.8 It can be easily shown that
= = 0.365
Qin 2823.5 (TH TL )
=
CV (TH TR )
+ TH
R ln (V4 V3 )
8.3
Given: Stirling engine with imperfect =
(TH TL )
regenerator TH + (1 e ) ( k 1) (TH TL ) ln (V1 V2 )
Find: Efficiency
Which is the same as Eq. (8.36). For the specific
Net work output = Work of isothermal expansion -
case considered upon substituting values,
Work of isothermal compression
=
( 400 80 )
673.15 + ( 400 230 ) ln ( 5 ) (1.4 1)
= 0.341 = 34.1%

8.4
This is easily shown to be Given: Engine efficiency, load and collection
V4
Wnet = mR ln (TH TL ) conditions
V3 Find: Collector area required
The heat added is the sum of the heat required to
preheat the gas from the regenerator temperature to The efficiencies and the heat input are calculated
the temperature of isothermal heat addition and the according to
heat input in the isothermal expansion process.
 273 + 5 net = e c
carnot = 1 = 0.244
273 + 95 U r (Tr T ) T
0.244 ( ) ( )
engine = = 0.122 I c CR Tr
2 =k
Ur T2
4kW +
T
Qinput = = 32.79kW I c CR Tr
0.122
Assuming that the pump operates only during the Differentiate with respect to Tr and equate to zero.
day, the required collector area is d net U r T2 T
32.79 3600 =k 2 1 + ( ) 2 = 0
Ac =
0.5 2800
= 84.3m 2 dTr I c CR Tr Tr
Solving for Tr
( ) I c CR
Tr = T + T
8.5
UR
Given: Rankine cycle efficiency vs. max cycle
temperature, various working fluids Use the following ambient temperature values of
Find: Preliminary analysis of three different 13.8 C (287 K) for both locations, based on
collector types and corresponding suitable weather data. For the linear-focus collector, assume
working fluid for Washington D.C. and collector characteristics of
Albuquerque, NM U r = 5W / m2 K , ( ) = 0.8, = 0.9, CR = 1.5
For Washington, assuming 8 hours of sunlight,
The key is to match the receiver temperature, which I c = 3000 / 8 = 375 W/m2.
will be closely related to the maximum working
0.8 0.9 375 1.5
fluid temperature, to the choice of working fluid at Tr = 287 + 287
each location. Solar data for each location obtained 5
from: = 325K
For Albuquerque, use I c = 5000 / 8 = 625 W/m2.
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook/at
las/ 0.8 0.9 625 1.5
Tr = 287 + 287
5
Refer to the footnote on pg. 586, for Table A2.3b.
= 348K
The average annual radiation is
For the paraboloid disk collector,
kWh/m2.day Washington Albuquerque
Concentrator (single 3-4 5-6 U r = 2W / m 2 K , ( ) = 0.8, = 0.9, CR = 30
axis track) For Washington, assuming 8 hours sunlight
2-Axis tracking 4-5 6-7 I c = 4000 / 8 = 500
2-Axis tracking flat 6-7 8-10
0.8 0.9 500 30
plate Tr = 287 + 287
2
To estimate the receiver temperature, determine the = 1278K
collector efficiency first as For Albuquerque, use I c = 6000 / 8 = 750 W/m2.
U (T T )
c = ( ) r r Tr = 287
0.8 0.9 750 30
+ 287
I c CR
2
The cycle/engine efficiency can be expressed as a
fraction of the Carnot efficiency as = 1550K
For the CPC
T
e = k 1 U r = 2W / m 2 K , ( ) = 0.8, = 0.9, CR = 3
Tr It is reasonable to assume that 2-axis tracking CPC
The total efficiency is would see all of the direct and a good fraction of the
diffuse radiation. Hence, the 2 axis tracking flat
plate collector radiation data is used, although the
estimate could be a little high. For Washington, 305
assuming 8 hours sunlight e = 0.6 1
423
I c = 6000 / 8 = 750
net = e c
0.8 0.9 750 3 = 0.17 0.61 = 0.10 = 10%
Tr = 287 + 287
2 The pump power input is 37.3 kW (50 hp). Thus,
= 561K the required collector area is
For Albuquerque, use I c = 8000 / 8 = 1000 W/m2. 37,300
Ac = = 504 m2
740 0.10
0.8 0.9 1000 3
Tr = 287 + 287
2
= 626K 8.7
From the temperature values, converting to Given: Energy delivery eqn for solar collector
Fahrenheit and using the supplied efficiency chart, Find: Expression for work output for solar
In both Washington and Albuquerque, use R-12 powered heat engine
for line-focus collectors.
Use multistage steam plants with Paraboloidal The useful energy or energy delivered is given as
concentrators for both Washington and T f4
qu = ( )eff I c
Albuquerque. CR
Toluene is a good choice using CPCs For the Carnot cycle case,
Albuquerque has much better clear sky conditions W = c qu
as compared to Washington D.C., so the storage
T T f4
( eff ) I c
requirements would be substantially lower there. = 1
Tf
Notes: CR
This is only a preliminary analysis. There are
T T f3 T f4
several other factors that affect the choice of = ( eff ) I c ( eff ) I c TT f
1
+
working fluids and operating temperature for any CR CR
location and collection system. Differentiate with respect to T f and equate to zero.
T T f2 T f3
= ( eff ) I cTT f2 + 3
dW
4
8.6 dT f CR CR
Given: Solar powered ORC pumping water T T f4 T f5
Find: Collector area needed in Albuquerque 0 = ( eff ) I cT + 3 4
CR CR
Assume a heat rejection temperature of 305 K and For the Brayton cycle case,
that the ORC engine works at 60% of the Carnot W = B qu
efficiency. Then the engine efficiency is CT T f4
T = 1 B
( eff ) I c
e = 0.6 1 Tf CR
Tr
with Tr = 423 K, T8 = 305 K. = ( eff ) I c CB ( eff ) I c TT f1
U (T T ) CBT T f3 T f4
c = ( ) r r +
I c CR CR CR
Assuming some values for these factors Differentiate with respect to T f and equate to zero.
( ) = 0.8, = 0.9, CR = 3,U r = 2W / m2 K C T T f T f 2 3

= CB ( eff ) I cTT f2 + 3 B
dW
Assume the solar intensity of direct radiation is 4
dT f CR CR
about 740 W/m2K from the previous problem.
2 ( 423 305 ) CBT T f4 T f5
c = 0.8 0.9 = 0.61 0 = CB ( eff ) I cT + 3 4
740 3 CR CR
 Chapter 9 0.36 1068 5.34 0.41 2.17
Photovoltaics 0.365 1132 5.66 0.41 2.33
0.37 1181 5.91 0.42 2.46
0.375 1157 5.79 0.42 2.45
0.38 1120 5.60 0.43 2.40
0.385 1098 5.49 0.43 2.38
9.1 0.39 1098 5.49 0.44 2.41
Given: GaAs 0.395 1189 5.95 0.45 2.65
Find: Wavelength corresponding to bandgap 0.4 1429 7.15 0.45 3.22
From table 9.2, bandgap of GaAs is 1.40 eV 0.405 1644 8.22 0.46 3.75

=
hc
=
( ) (
6.625 1034 3 108 ) 0.41 1751 8.76 0.46 4.05
0.415 1774 8.87 0.47 4.15
E 1.40 1.6 1019 0.42 1747 8.74 0.47 4.14
= 8.87 107 m = 0.887 m 0.425 1693 8.47 0.48 4.06
0.43 1639 8.20 0.48 3.97
9.2 0.435 1663 8.32 0.49 4.08
Given: Blue light incident on GaAs 0.44 1810 9.05 0.50 4.49
Find: Theoretical max efficiency 0.445 1922 9.61 0.50 4.82
E 0.45 2006 10.03 0.51 5.09
max = BG 0.455 2057 10.29 0.51 5.28
E photon 0.46 2066 10.33 0.52 5.36
1.40 1.6 1019 0.465 2048 10.24 0.52 5.37
=
( )
6.625 1034 3 108 0.45 106
0.47
0.475
2033
2044
10.17
10.22
0.53
0.54
5.39
5.47
= 0.507 = 50.7% 0.48 2074 10.37 0.54 5.61
0.485 1976 9.88 0.55 5.40
0.49 1950 9.75 0.55 5.39
9.3 0.495 1960 9.80 0.56 5.47
Given: GaAs cell 0.5 1942 9.71 0.56 5.47
Find: Theoretical maximum efficiency 0.505 1920 9.60 0.57 5.47
Use the zero air mass spectrum from appendix 2 0.51 1882 9.41 0.57 5.41
Only radiation of wavelength smaller than 0.887 m 0.515 1833 9.17 0.58 5.32
has sufficient energy to excite the material 0.52 1833 9.17 0.59 5.37
0.525 1852 9.26 0.59 5.48
Calculate efficiency at all wavelengths and 0.53 1842 9.21 0.60 5.50
0.535 1818 9.09 0.60 5.48
numerically integrate
0.54 1783 8.92 0.61 5.43
Wavelength energy in band efficiency output
2 2 2 0.545 1754 8.77 0.61 5.39
(m) W/m .m (W/m ) (W/m )
0.55 1725 8.63 0.62 5.35
0.29 482 36.15 0.33 1.58
0.555 1720 8.60 0.63 5.38
0.295 584 2.92 0.33 0.97
0.56 1695 8.48 0.63 5.35
0.3 514 2.57 0.34 0.87
0.565 1705 8.53 0.64 5.43
0.305 603 3.02 0.34 1.04
0.57 1712 8.56 0.64 5.50
0.31 689 3.45 0.35 1.20
0.575 1719 8.60 0.65 5.57
0.315 764 3.82 0.36 1.36
0.58 1715 8.58 0.65 5.61
0.32 830 4.15 0.36 1.50
0.585 1712 8.56 0.66 5.65
0.325 975 4.88 0.37 1.79
0.59 1700 8.50 0.67 5.65
0.33 1059 5.30 0.37 1.97
0.595 1682 8.41 0.67 5.64
0.335 1081 5.41 0.38 2.04
0.6 1660 8.30 0.68 5.61
0.34 1074 5.37 0.38 2.06
0.605 1647 8.24 0.68 5.62
0.345 1069 5.35 0.39 2.08
0.61 1635 12.26 0.69 8.43
0.35 1093 5.47 0.39 2.16
0.62 1602 16.02 0.70 11.20
0.355 1083 5.42 0.40 2.17
0.63 1570 15.70 0.71 11.15
 0.64 1544 15.44 0.72 11.14 e V e V I
0.65 1511 15.11 0.73 11.07 exp o m 1 + o m = 1 + s
kT kT Io
0.66 1486 14.86 0.74 11.06
eoVm
0.67 1456 14.56 0.76 11.00 = 37.044
0.68 1427 14.27 0.77 10.94 kT
0.69 1402 12.62 0.78 9.82 Solve by trial and error to get
0.698 1374.6 6.87 0.79 5.41 Vm = 0.389 V
0.7 1369 8.21 0.79 6.48
0.71 1344 13.44 0.80 10.76 Determine current at max power point from Eq.
0.72 1314 11.83 0.81 9.60 (9.14)
0.728 1295.5 6.48 0.82 5.32 eoVm
0.73 1290 7.74 0.82 6.37
I L ,m =
kT
0.74 1260 12.60 0.83 10.51 ( I s + Io )
eoVm
0.75 1235 13.59 0.85 11.49 1+
0.762 1205.5 12.06 0.86 10.36 kT
0.77 1185 10.67 0.87 9.26
0.78 1159 11.59 0.88 10.19 =
37.044
(
(1 + 37.044 )
)
5 + 1.8 10 7
0.79 1134 11.34 0.89 10.10
0.8 1109 8.87 0.90 8.00 = 4.675 A
0.806 1095.1 13.69 0.91 12.44 PL , m = I L ,mVm
0.825 1048 12.58 0.93 11.70
= 1.819W
0.83 1036 5.18 0.94 4.85
(c) To obtain 100 W output,
0.835 1024.5 8.20 0.94 7.72
0.846 998.1 12.48 0.95 11.90
100/1.819 = 55 cells are needed.
0.86 968 11.62 0.97 11.26
To obtain 12 V output,
0.87 947 7.10 0.98 6.97
12/0.389 = 30.84 = 31 cells are needed
0.875 436.5 3.71 0.99 3.66
0.887 912.5 11.41 1.00 11.41
total 548.79
To meet the load, use 62 cells with two sets of
31 cells in series in parallel with each other.
Efficiency = 548.79/1353 = 40.6%
9.5
9.4
Given: Insolation, collection area, V and I
Given: Si cell, Io, Isc
Find: Array efficiency
Find: OCV, Pmax, and No. of cells to supply a
load
Array power output:
(a) Voc : Use Eq. (9.10)
Pout = V I
kT J s
Voc = ln + 1 = 50 15
eo J o
= 750W
Js Is
=
Jo Io Efficiency
23 750
1.381 10 313.15 5 =
Voc = 19
ln 7
+ 1 650 10
1.602 10 1.8 10
= 11.54%
= 0.463Volts
(b) Max power output
Using Eq. (9.12) to determine Vm
9.6
Given: Pmax, Insolation
Find: Insolation for increased power output
Assuming that the efficiency of the array does not Find: PV output required
change with increasing illumination intensity: Since the average PV output is 200 W, the battery
would not be required, assuming clear sky
600 17 conditions. Then the PV output requirement is
Intensity = = 1020W / m 2
10 Load inverter = 480 0.85
= 564.7Wh / day

9.9
Given: System from P 9.7
Find: Sunlight for batt. Charging
Assume that the battery is at 100 % charge level and
depleted by the load at night.

The power requirement has been calculated in P 9.7.

Refer to figure 9.8 from the textbook reproduced
above. Evidently, both the short circuit current and
open circuit voltage increases at higher illumination
intensities.
9.7
Given: Battery + inverter system efficiency, AC
load
Find: Energy collection requirement
batt = 0.77
cc = 0.96
inverter = 0.85
The net efficiency going from PV output to AC is
PV AC = 0.77 0.96 0.85 = 0.63 (c) Use efficient devices. For instance, using an
Total load = 120 (W ) 4 ( h ) = 480Wh
Energy that needs to be gathered is
Load batt AC = 480 0.63
= 764Wh / day
9.8
Given: System from P 9.7, daytime load
Assume that the average output of the panels is 200
W in the day (from P 9.8). The sunlight
requirement is
764
= 3.82h
200
Based on this, a non-tracking PV system would
probably suffice.
9.10
Given: Equipment energy consumption in small
cabin
Find: Daily energy requirement, methods to
minimize requirement
Refer to the table given in the following page for
problems 9.10-9.14
(a) The total energy consumption using based on the
loads is 3737.5 Wh/day
(b) The alarm clock uses 192 Wh/day, which can
be avoided with the use of a wind up clock.
LCD display for the computer monitor would
reduce monitor energy consumption by 50 %. A
wind up alarm clock would reduce loads. A
fluorescent outdoor safety lamp rated at about may
reduce the load, depending on the type of lights
being used currently. It may be possible to use a
propane stove to heat the water for coffee and avoid
the coffee pot. Use DC devices to eliminate inverter
efficiency loss.
Load Power Run time Run time Energy
(W) am (hours) pm(hours) (Wh) Day Night Total
Alm Clock (DC) 8 12 12 96 96 192
Lighting (DC) 25 2 4 50 100 150
Outdoor lights (DC) 48 0 8 0 384 384
Fridge (DC) 125 3 3 375 375 750
Water Pump (DC) 400 1.5 0.5 600 200 800
Ans. m/c (AC) 7 12 12 84 84 168
Stereo (AC) 40 3 2 120 80 200
Printer (AC) 175 0.25 0 43.75 0 43.75
Computer (AC) 250 3 0 750 0 750
Coffee Pot (AC) 1200 0.25 0 300 0 300
2418.75 1319 3737.75
DC 1121 1155 2276
AC 1297.75 164 1461.75

________________________________________________________________________________________

9.11 so that the coffee pot is supplied. This

Given: Data as in p 9.10. would require ensuring that no load is on
Find: How many 50 W panels required for all when the coffee pot is operating.
DC load? (tracking and non-tracking) b. Refer to the AC loads in table
( 200 + 750 + 43.75 + 168 + 300 )
1
Assume all daytime loads are directly met and 1
0.88
night-time loads are from battery
=199.3 Wh/day
Total daily requirement =
1319
2418.75 + = 4177.4 Wh/day 9.13
0.75 Given: System component information
4177.4 (Wh / day ) Find: Design system
(a) # Panels = = 17
50 (W / panel ) 5 ( h / day )
Rounded off Assumptions:
3 days storage in battery
(b) 11 panels for tracking system calculated from System wired to supply load in different ways
4177.4 (Wh / day )
6 hours sunlight a day
= 11 Load: Refer table above for loads.
50 (W / panel ) 8 ( h / day )
Note: Your answers will vary depending on how System efficiencies:
you decide to supply the load. An alternate PV to DC Load = 0.95
configuration could supply all the loads from a PV to AC Load = 0.950.9=0.855
battery. Battery to DC Load = 0.720.95=0.684
Battery to AC Load = 0.720.950.9 = 0.6156

9.12 # of panels required and batteries required depends

Given: Loads listed, inverter efficiency
Find: Inverter size (peak watts), extra energy
over all DC system
a. The cheapest solution would be to use a
1200 W or the closest available larger size
on the configuration used to supply load. The
conservative choice would be to use the panels to
charge the batteries and supply all loads from the
battery.
# Panels =
( 2276 0.684 ) + (1461.75 0.6156 )( Wh/day )
42 ( W/panel ) 6 ( hrs/day )
= 23 panels (rounded up)
No. of batteries
3 5702 ( Wh/day )
=22.8
125 ( Ah ) 6 ( V )
Use 24 or 22 batteries to provide a system voltage
of 12 V with pairs of 2 in series. Using 22 batteries
would give slightly less than 3 days of storage.
Since the peak AC load is 1200 W, use the next
closest inverter, rate at 2000 W.
9.14
Given: System component information
Find: Design system
Assumptions:
3 days storage in battery
System wired to supply load in different ways
6 hours sunlight a day
Load: Refer table above for loads.
System efficiencies:
PV to DC Load = 0.97
PV to AC Load = 0.970.91=0.8827
Battery to DC Load = 0.780.97=0.7566
Battery to AC Load = 0.780.970.91 = 0.6885
# panels required and batteries required depends on
the configuration used to supply load. The
conservative choice would be to use the panels to
charge the batteries and supply all loads from the
battery.
Use 6 or 8 batteries to provide a system voltage of
24V with pairs of 2 in series. Using 6 batteries
would give slightly less than 3 days of storage.
Since the peak AC load is 1200 W, use the next
closest inverter, rate at 1200 W inverter. The other
option would be to use a 2500 W inverter, if the
home owner wants more flexibility and is willing to
bear the costs.
9.15
Given: System component information
Find: Design system
The heaviest load appears to be in the winter.
1
Average time on: 13 ( hrs ) 3600 ( s/hr )
4.6
=10173.9 seconds / 24 hour period
Daily Load =
9 1
10173.9 24 + 2.64 + 4.68
10 10
=273108.7 J/24 hours
=273.2 kJ
14 days of storage is needed and the battery should
not go below 30 % depth of discharge.
Energy the battery must supply is
273.2 14
= 1.062 kWh
3600
Assume a 85% discharging efficiency for battery
and 95 % efficiency for charge controller used to
disconnect batteries if voltage drops below 11 V.

# Panels = # of batteries required

( 2276 0.7566 ) + (1461.75 0.6885 )( Wh/day ) 1062 ( Wh )
51( W/panel ) 6 ( hrs/day ) 105 ( Ah ) 12 ( V ) 0.85 0.3 0.95
= 17 panels (rounded up) =3.5, round up to 4 batteries.
Use 18 panels to provide 24 volt nominal output.
Daily PV panel energy requirement is (75% battery
No. of batteries efficiency)
3 5131.2 ( Wh/day ) 273.2
=6.4 batteries @ 12 V = 106.5 Wh
200 ( Ah ) 12 ( V ) 3.6 0.75 0.95

Assuming, 5 hours of useful sunlight, the required

PV panel capacity is 106.5/5 = 21.3 W.
 Assume 80 % degradation due to various effects
The specified panel provided 17.2 2.3 = 39.6 W @ and no storage.
25 C and 1 kW/m2.
Power output per
Assuming reasonable intensity values at the
location, one panel should be able to satisfy the panel= 63 ( W )
(8 kWh/m 2day )
= 504 ( Wh/day )
load. (
1 kW/m 2)
8,584
# panels = = 20.03
504 0.85
9.16 21 panels are required
Given: System component information
Find: Design system 7 panels in series to exceed 105 V DC, assuming 15
V panel output. Three such sets in parallel.
Roatan, Honduras (16 N, 86 W, 15-30 C temp
range)
Each compressor draws 125 = 60 W
Summer Winter
Fridge 9 h/day 5h/day
Freezer 7 h/day 4 h/day
16 h/day 9 h/day
Multiply by 60 960 Wh/day 540 Wh/day

Use the conservative assumption that batteries are

charged and then used to supply the load. Also
assume 5 days of storage (?) and a 30 % depth of
discharge limit, which would typically be seen with
a deep-discharge battery.

9.17
Given: Pumping application
Find: Design system

Antigua (17 N, 61 W, 15-30 C temp range)

Pumping application: 5000 gal/day

Assuming 50 m head, the daily energy requirement

is

=
( VgH
& )
p

=
( )
1( kg/l ) 5000 ( gal ) 3.78 ( l/gal ) 9.81 ms -2 50 ( m )
0.30
= 30.9 ( MJ/day )
= 8,584 ( Wh/day )

Panel output = 63 W @ 1000 Wm-2 and 25 C

 Chapter 10 ln (.001)
t=
Solar Photochemical Applications 0.0128
= 539.7 ( min )
case(c) 100 % destruction will take an infinite
amount of time, but most environmental (e.g. EPA)
10.1.1 regulations specify destruction to levels that are
Given: Destruction data for o-xylene undetectable by standard methods. A concentration
Find: Corrected first order destruction rate of less than 1 ppb would approach those limits.
From Fig. 10.8, the o-xylene concentration goes
from 300 ppb to about 300 ppb in 180 minutes. The 10.1.3
first order apparent reaction rate constant is Note: See errata for changed problem statement.
Given: Destruction information
kapp = ln ( C f Ci ) ( t ) Find: Reaction rate constant
= ln ( 30 300 ) (180 )
The volume of the reactors is calculated to be
(
= 0.0128 min -1
) VR = 1 10 2 (m) 3 102 (m) 3(m) 140 250
= 40 140 = 0.286 = 31.5(litres )
= 31.5 1, 000 = 0.0315
Using Eq. (10.17) For 90% destruction, the apparent reaction rate
1+ constant can be calculated as
k = kapp
C
kapp = 1 ln f t
1 + 0.286 Co
= 0.0128
0.286 = 1 ln ( 0.1) ( 7 60 )
(
= 0.057 min -1 ) = 0.0064 min -1

The actual reaction rate constant is

10.1.2 1+
Given: Same system as above k = kapp

Find: Residence time for levels of destruction
1.0315
= 0.0064(min -1 )
Initial concentration, from Fig. 10.8 is 800 ppb. 0.0315
kapp t
= 0.210(min -1 )
Using C = Co e
10.1.4
ln ( C Co ) Given: Inddor test data for p. 10.1.3
t=
kapp Find: Required intensity

case (a), 10 ppb Use Eq. 10.20 to determine the required intensity.
ln (10 300 ) I k
t= I= o
0.0128 a ko
= 265.7 ( min ) =
35 0.210

1.14 0.283
case(b) 99.9 % destruction = 22.8(W/m 2 )
10.2
Short answer questions
a. Illumination Intensity: Photocatalytic reaction
rates increase with higher illumination intensity.
However, the increase is not linear. The
generally observed dependence shows a
x
I
k = ko
function of the form
Io
x <1

b. Catalyst type: The type of catalyst used has a

distinct effect on the photocatalytic reaction.
TiO2 and ZnO are couple of good catalysts.
TiO2 is one of the best performing
photocatalysts. The anatase form of TiO2 is
generally considered to have a better
performance than the rutile crystal. However,
the performance in catalytic activity also shows
a very strong dependence on the production
method used.

c. Addition of inorganics and organics:

Photocatalysis is not organic contaminant
specific, so the addition of organics lowers the
destruction rate of a specific compound as the
added component competes for reaction sites.
Several inorganics are known to interfere with
the reaction by adsorbing onto the photocatalyst
surface.

d. DO concentration: The photocatalytic reaction

slows down dramatically or even stops in the
absence of DO in water. Well aerated systems
with high DO show the best destruction rates.

e. pH of solution: The effect of the pH of the

solution varies from contaminant to
contaminant. However, the destruction
proceeds better at acidic or basic pH values.

f. Temperature: Temperature only has a very

small influence on the destruction rate.

g. Metalization of catalyst: Metalization of

catalyst with Pt, Pd, Ag etc. have been shown to
improve catalyst performance.

h. Dye sensitization: The results of dye

sensitization research are inconclusive. It has
the potential to increase the band of useful
radiation into the visible range with TiO2.
 Chapter 11
Capturing Solar Energy through Biomass
11.1
Given: Biomass based power plant efficiency,
fuel types
Find: Crop area required
The heat input to a 50 MW plant operating at 42 %
thermodynamic efficiency is calculated as
Qin = W th = 50 0.42 = 119.05MW
Assuming that the plant operates at full capacity, 24
hours a day, 365 days a year, the area needed to
cultivate the biomass feedstock can be calculated as
Area = (Qin 3600 24 365) (HHV yield )
Using Tables 11.2 and 11.4, the hybrid poplar
cultivation area can be calculated as
Area =
(119.05MJ / s 3600 24 365)
(19.38MJ / kg 14000kg / ha.)
Area = 13,837 hectares
For Sugarcane Bagasse grown in Hawaii
Area =
(119.05MJ / s 3600 24 365)
(17.33MJ / kg 7200kg / ha.)
Area = 30, 089hectares
Notes:
The assumption of the power plant operating at full
capacity 24/7/365 is not really valid.
11.2
Given: Fuel ethanol plant
Find: capacity of plant using wheat straw
feedstock
One of the factors limiting maximum capacity of
the fuel ethanol plant would be the availability of
feedstock. Assuming maximum throughput of
trucks through the facility 24/7/365, the maximum
amount of biomass feedstock available for
processing per year is
(25 24 365 20 50) = 2.19 108 kg / year
The average yield of ethanol from wheat straw is
490 litres/ton (see section 11.4.1). Therefore, the
maximum capacity of the plant is
capacity =
( 2.19 108 kg / year 490liters / ton )
907.185kg / ton
capacity = 11.83 106 liters / year
11.3
Given: Ethanol-water mixture
Find: Enthalpy of oxidation
A mixture of 50% ethanol in water (mole basis) is
oxidized in air. To calculate the heat of combustion,
the chemical reaction, including the non-reacting
components would be written as
1 3 1
C2 H 5OH (l ) + O2 ( g ) + H 2O (l ) + 5.643 N 2 ( g )
2 2 2
CO2 ( g ) + 2 H 2 O( g ) + 5.643 N 2 ( g )
The enthalpy change in the reaction can be
calculated from Eq. (11.12). The heat of reaction at
298 K can be calculated from the heats of formation
Eq. (11.13).
H R = 393,520 ( kJ / kmol ) + 2 241,820
( 0.5 277, 690 + 1.5 0 + 0.5 285,830 )
H R = 595, 400(kJ / kmol )
The enthalpy change for oxidizing this mixture in
air with products coming out at 1000 K would be
calculated by substituting values into Eq. (11.12),
and using data from Table 11.6 for enthalpies at
different temperatures
1( 42, 769 9364 ) + 2 ( 35,882 9,904 )
+5.643 ( 30,129 8, 669 )
595, 400 12 ( 0 ) + 32 ( 0 ) + 12 ( 0 ) + 5.643 ( 0 )
= 388,940.2(kJ / kmol )
11.4
Given: 2-MW carbonate fuel cell plant, 55%
thermodynamic efficiency
Find: Heat rate and methane fuel requirement
To express the thermal efficiency as a heat rate
E
HR = in ( Btu / kW h)
Eout
=
(1000(kW ) 0.293110 3
(kW h / Btu )
550(kW )
= 6203.3( Btu / kW h)
Since the overall thermodynamic efficiency is 55 %,
the methane requirement can be calculated from the
heat of reaction of the oxidation of methane.
Assuming that the reactants are at 298 K
 CH 4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2 H 2O (l )
H R = 393,520 + 2 285,830 + 74,850
11.7
= 890,330 kJ / kmol Given: 2000 bpd ethanol plant using Jerusalem
= 55, 645.6 kJ / kg artichokes
Hence, it is an exothermic reaction. The kg/h of Find: Feedstock and crop area requirement
methane required can be calculated as
2, 000 3600(kJ / h) 2,000 bpd ethanol plant, using Jerusalem artichokes.
m& methane (kg / h) =
( 0.55 55, 645.6(kJ / kg ) ) From Table 11.4, yield is 45,000 kg/ha. Ethanol
yield from Jerusalem artichokes is 90 liters/ton
= 235.25(kg / h) (section 11.4.1).
2000 barrels = 317,940 litres
Therefore, quantity of Jerusalem artichokes required
11.5 is
Given: Coal plant considering co-firing, alkali 317,940 /90 = 3533 tons.= 3,204,765 kg.
limit in ash The annual land area needed to cultivate feedstock
Find: Max. switchgrass content in feedstock, therefore is
expected sulfur emissions 3, 204, 765 365
= 26, 000ha.
45, 000
Switchgrass has a heating value of 18.4 MJ/kg, with
15.1 % Alkali in ash, and 10.1 % ash in fuel.
Assuming all of the alkali content comes from 11.8
switchgrass and using the limit of 0.34 kg alkali/GJ Given: 10 MW power plant, cycles
fuel heating value, the quantity of switchgrass Find: annual fuel cost
required for 0.34 kg alkali content is
0.34
= 22.294kg 10 MW power plant fueled with Hybrid Poplar
0.101 0.151 ($48/ton). For a conventional steam plant with a
The mass of coal required with 22.294 kg heat rate of 14,000 Btu/kWh, the thermodynamic
switchgrass to bring heating value up to 1 GJ is efficiency of the steam plant can be calculated as
6
( 6
)
1, 000 10 22.294 18.64 10 = 20.873kg th =
1
3
=
1
HR 0.2931 10 14, 000 0.2931 103
28 106
The maximum percentage of switchgrass is 51.6 %. 1
= = 0.2437
Then the expected sulfur emission is 4.1034
20.873 0.04kg / GJ = 0.835kg / GJ Annual energy input for the 10 MW plant operating
365/24 is

11.6
( 10
0.2437) 365 24 3600MJ = 1.294 109 MJ

Given: Base plant capacity and cost Using heating value of hybrid poplar from the text
Find: Predicted cost for twice capacity as 19 MJ/kg, the fuel requirement is
6.81 107 kg
Base plant 5000 bpd @ $60 million. or approximately 75,067 tons of hybrid poplar
Cb = 60, 000, 000 annually. At $48/ton, the fuel cost is $3.6 million
per year. By gasifying, the net thermal efficiency of
Sb = 5000
biomass to electricity conversion is
Using Eq. (11.24), using n= 0.6
th = 0.5 0.85 = 0.425
( )
0.6
C = 60, 000, 000 10, 000 Following the calculations above, the biomass
s 5, 000
requirements would be calculated to be 43,040 tons
= 90,900, 000 annually. The fuel cost at $48/ton is $2.07 million.
The predicted cost for a plant of twice the capacity
is about $91 million.
11.9
Given: coal and switchgrass costs
Find: tax required don CO2 emissions to make
biomass (switchgrass) competitive

Coal costs $1 /GJ, with HV = 28 MJ/kg, 70% C by

weight. Switchgrass costs $2.50 / GJ. 1 GJ requires
1 109 28 106 = 35.71 kg coal
Assuming complete stoichiometric conversion of all
C in the coal to CO2, amount of CO2 produced per
GJ is
35.71 0.7 44
= 91.65 kg CO 2 / GJ
12
from coal. The difference in the cost of coal and
switchgrass will have to be charged as a CO2 tax to
penalize the use of coal. That tax would then
amount to
$1.50 907.18
= $14.85 / ton CO2
91.65
Obviously, the CO2 tax amount is rather high!
 Chapter12
Solar Economics

12.1
Given: Initial cost, interest rate, mortgage term
Find: Annual payment

From Eq. 12.13

Pann = S .CRF ( i, t )
From table 12.2
CRF ( 8%,15 yrs ) = 0.11683
Pann = 5000 ( 0.11683) = $584.15

12.2
Given: Solar system cost, energy delivered, interest rate, backup fuel cost, inflation
Find: Total cost curve, cost-optimal system size

Work the problem using life-cycle totals of actual cost outlays.

CRF (10, 25) = 0.1102
Therefore, the cost of 1 m2 of collector over 25 years at 10 % interest is
$ 537 / m2
The cost of fuel per year for 25 years inflating at 8 % per year is
(1 + 0.08 ) 1
25

cf = 7 = $511.74 / GJ
0.08

Calculate the cost of backup fuel using

Cbu = $511.742 (1 f s ) 1000GJ

Collector area Energy Cs Cbu Ctot

Delivered
0 0 0 511,742 511,742
100 336 53,700 339,797 393,497
150 444 80,550 284,529 365,079
200 531 107,400 240,007 347,407
250 612 134,250 198,556 332,806
300 673 161,100 167,340 328,440
400 791 214,800 106,954 321,754
500 856 268,500 73,691 342,191
600 915 322,200 43,498 365,698
The least cost system is 400 m2.

600000

500000

400000
cost($)

300000

200000

100000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
collector area

solar cost backup cost total cost

12.3
Given: payment, discount rate
Find: present worth

Assume that the present year is 2003.

From Eq. (12.3)
X 1, 000
P= = = $582
(1 + i ) (1.07 )
t 7

12.4
Given: p 12.3, new discount rate
Find: present worth

Using Eq. (12.7)

i j 0.07 0.04
i = = = 0.0288
1+ j 1.04
X
P= = $796.81
(1 + i)
t

Note that inflation lowers the effective interest rate.

12.5
Given: Extra initial solar cost and other economic data
Find: Annual cash flow for 10 years

The costs involved are the mortgage costs (principal and interest), tax savings on interest,
power cost, maintenance cost, scrap value, and fuel savings.

For $6,000, 10 years, 9 %, the annual payments are

A= $ 934.92
These payments are broken up into principal and interest. The tax credit is 0.32 times the
interest paid. The annual value of the salvage value ($3,000) is the present worth of the
scrap value spread out over the 10 years. The maintenance and power cost are escalated
at 10 % per year as is the fuel saving.

Year Ann. payment M&P Tax credit Ann. Salvage Fuel saving Cash flow
1 934.92 90 172.80 197.25 550.00 -104.87
2 934.92 99 161.43 197.25 605.00 -79.24
3 934.92 108.90 149.03 197.25 665.50 -32.04
4 934.92 119.79 135.52 197.25 732.05 10.11
5 934.92 131.77 120.79 197.25 805.26 56.61
6 934.92 144.95 104.73 197.25 885.78 107.81
7 934.92 159.44 87.23 197.25 974.36 164.48
8 934.92 173.38 68.16 197.25 1071.79 226.90
9 934.92 192.92 47.37 197.25 1178.97 275.75
10 934.92 212.22 24.70 197.25 1296.87 371.68

10
Cash flow
Present worth = = $425.20
(1.09 )
n
n =1

Yes, it is cost effective.

12.6
Given: 8 %, 20 year loan
Find: Difference in CRF for monthly and annualized payments

On an annual scale
CRF(8,20) = 0.10185

On a monthly time scale, i=8/12 = 2/3 %

CRF(0.00667,240) = 0.00836 /month

The monthly time scale would require an annual payment of 1.45% less than the annual
time scale.
12.7
Given: Collector data, P 12.2
Find: Production function

1000

900
y = 332.39x - 1214.2
800
R2 = 0.9963
700

600
Qs (GJ)

500

400

300

200

100

0
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7

ln(Ac)

Using the data in a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel, the production function
can be easily computed. See plot above

Qs = 1214.2 + 332.39 ln ( Ac )

12.8
Given: Production function for a solar water heating system and costs
Find: cost-optimal collector area

The solar cost function is

C y = 20 Ac
The non-solar cost function is
Ca = 9Qa
= 9 ( QT Qs )
(
= 9 140 12 Ac0.6 )
The total cost function is
CT = C y + Ca

(
CT = 20 Ac + 9 140 12 Ac0.6 )
Differentiating and equating to zero
dCT
= 20 64.8 Ac0.4 = 0
dAc
Solving for optimal collector area
Ac ,opt = 18.9 m2

12.9
Given: Building heat demand data for January
Find: Compare proposed solar system and energy conservation measures

Cost for Solar System $

Mortgage cost 50.00
Electricity cost
200 kWh 7.41
800 kWh @ 0.03117 /kWh 24.94
1800 kWh @ 0.02130 /kWh 38.34
Total 120.69

Energy conservation system $

Mortgage cost 50.00
Electricity cost
200 kWh 7.41
800 kWh @ 0.03117 /kWh 24.94
1800 kWh @ 0.02130 /kWh 58.21
Total 140.56

The solar system is cheaper