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Lithos
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Article history: New thermochronological data record a complex cooling history in the Central and Western Cordilleras of
Received 22 September 2012 Colombia that is a function of Early Cretaceous to late Miocene tectonic events. Alkali-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar cooling
Accepted 15 December 2012 ages of ~138130 Ma immediately post-date the cessation of Jurassic arc-magmatism and a major unconformity
Available online 24 December 2012
within the retro-foreland region of the northern Andes. We interpret these ages as cooling driven by exhumation
in response to either compression driven by subduction of a seamount, or extension and oceanward migration of
Keywords:
Thermochronology
the slab during the earliest Cretaceous, giving rise to the Lower Cretaceous Quebradagrande arc sequence. Biotite
Colombia and alkali-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar data from the palaeocontinental margin reveal the presence of a younger cooling
Northern Andes event at 117107 Ma, which was contemporaneous with hornblende 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages obtained from
Plate tectonics mediumhigh PT metamorphic relicts of a Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous subduction channel. This cooling
Geodynamics event is attributed to exhumation driven by the collision and accretion of a fringing arc against the continental
margin, and obduction of the subduction channel onto the forearc. Inverse modelling of zircon and apatite ssion
track and (UTh)/He data from throughout the Central and Western Cordilleras reveals three periods of rapid
cooling since the Late Cretaceous. The earliest phase is recorded by Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids that cooled
rapidly during 7565 Ma. We attribute cooling to exhumation of the continental margin during ~7570 Ma
(~1.6 km/My), which was forced by the collision and accretion of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province in the
Campanian. The Central Cordillera exhumed at moderate rates of ~0.3 km/My during ~4530 Ma, which are
also observed over widely dispersed regions along the Andean chain, and were probably caused by an increase
in continentocean plate convergence rates. Exhumation rates drastically increased in the middlelate Miocene,
with the greatest amount occurring in southern Colombia as a consequence of the collision and subduction of the
buoyant Carnegie Ridge at 15 Ma.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0024-4937/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2012.12.008
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 229
proposed timing of collision varies between 15 Ma (Spikings et al., collision events, quantify the exhumational response and constrain
2001) and 1 Ma (Lonsdale and Klitgord, 1978). the post-accretionary history of the Colombian margin. Improving our
We combine hornblende, alkali feldspar and biotite 40Ar/ 39Ar, zircon understanding of these processes is useful because they resulted in
and apatite ssion track (FT) and zircon and apatite (UTh)/He data to net crustal growth of the South American Plate and can be used to
generate semi-continuous Cretaceous and Tertiary thermal history improve reconstructions of the southern margin of the Caribbean
paths through ~550 C40 C for crystalline and sedimentary rocks Plate, and hence the entire Caribbean region.
exposed along the Central Cordillera and accreted rocks exposed in
the Western Cordillera. These paths have been used to construct exhu-
mation histories since ~140 Ma, which have been combined with i) the 2. Geological framework of the Central and Western Cordilleras
sedimentological histories of surrounding basins, ii) UPb (zircon) ages of Colombia
of plutonic and metasedimentary rocks (Villagmez et al., 2011a), and
iii) geochemical analyses of intrusive and volcanic rocks (Kerr et al., Previous work in Colombia divided the region into a continental
1997; Villagmez et al., 2011a) to precisely determine the timing of and an oceanic province, which are juxtaposed across three major
Fig. 1. Digital elevation model of northwestern South America and surrounding tectonic plates showing the main cordilleras, faults and the subducting Carnegie Ridge (background model
from Gmez et al., 2007). Cretaceous sutures are shown as thick black and yellow lines, and the three sample regions (a, b and c) are highlighted (Fig. 2). Major rock sequences of the
Central Cordillera (Colombia) and Eastern Cordillera (Ecuador) are shown. AzBF: Amazon Border Fault, CAF: CaucaAlmaguer Fault, CC: Central Cordillera, CPV: CaucaPata Valley,
EC: Eastern Cordillera, ECE: Eastern Cordillera Ecuador, GF: Garrapatas Fault, IF: Ibagu Fault; LB: Llanos Basin, MMV: Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, OB: Oriente Basin, OPF: OtPericos
Fault, PE: Peltetec Unit, PF: Palestina Fault, RC: Raspas Complex, SJF: San-Jeronimo Fault, SMF: Santa MartaBucaramanga Fault, SNSM: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, SZ: Sub-Andean Zone
(Ecuador), UMV: Upper Magdalena Valley Basin, WC: Western Cordillera.
230 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
fault branches, which are the San Jernimo, SilviaPijao and Cauca continental margin (Pindell and Kennan, 2009; Villagmez et al.,
Almaguer Faults (Figs. 1 and 2). 2011a). Alternatively, outboard continental crust may have been re-
Continental crust of the Central Cordillera is exposed to the east of moved by faulting.
the San Jernimo Fault (Fig. 1), and consists of Paleozoic gneisses that The Quebradagrande Complex is in fault contact with tectonic slices
are in unconformable contact with metamorphic rocks of the Triassic of garnet-bearing amphibolites, eclogites and lawsonite-glaucophane
Cajamarca Complex (Villagmez et al., 2011a). Widely dispersed schist of the Arqua Complex that is exposed along the western ank
Permo-Triassic granitoids formed during Permian arc magmatism of the Central Cordillera (Figs. 1 and 2). These mediumhigh PT meta-
along the western Pangea, and anatexis during its Triassic fragmenta- morphic rocks crop-out between the Silvia-Pijao and the Cauca
tion (Cardona et al., 2010; Villagmez et al., 2011a). These lithologies Almaguer faults and have not yielded reliable geochronological data.
are intruded by Jurassic calc-alkaline (continental arc) granitoids of Previous radiometric ages (40Ar/ 39Ar phengite ages of 12060 Ma,
the Ibagu Batholith (UPb zircon ages of 165170 Ma, Villagmez Bustamante et al., 2011) must be interpreted with caution due to the
et al., 2011a), and Late Cretaceous intrusive rocks of the Antioquia potential for excess 40Ar in phengite extracted from high-pressure
Batholith (UPb zircon ages of 9584 Ma, Villagmez et al., 2011a). rocks (e.g. DeJong et al., 2001).
The San Jernimo Fault separates Jurassic and older crystalline Accreted Late Cretaceous mac and ultramac rocks occur to the
rocks of the Central Cordillera from an intensively deformed belt of west of the CaucaAlmaguer Fault along the margins of the Cauca
volcanic (UPb zircon 114.3 3.8 Ma; Villagmez et al., 2011a) and Pata Valley, the Western Cordillera and the ChocPanam Terrane
marine sedimentary rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex (Figs. 1 (Fig. 1). Geochemical analyses suggest that lenses of mac and ultra-
and 2), which are locally unconformably overlain by quartz-rich sedi- mac volcanic rocks along the eastern margin of the CaucaPata Valley
mentary rocks of the Lower Cretaceous Abejorral Fm. to the east. Nivia (e.g. Amaime Fm.; Fig. 2B) formed in an oceanic hot-spot setting (Kerr
et al. (2006) propose that the Quebradagrande Complex formed within et al., 1997; Villagmez et al., 2011a). Radiometric analyses of the
a continental marginal basin during the AptianAlbian, although the Amaime Fm. are restricted to K/Ar ages of 10478 Ma (De Souza et al.,
absence of continental crust to the west of the San Jernimo Fault, com- 1984) and a single whole rock, total fusion 40Ar/39Ar age of 76.3
bined with a lack of continental-derived detritus to the west of the basin 1.7 Ma (Sinton et al., 1998), which do not accurately constrain its em-
suggest that it was partly isolated from continental input (Restrepo placement age. The arc-related Buga Batholith intrudes these sequences
et al., 2009) and may have formed in an island arc that fringed the and its UPb zircon age range of 9290 Ma (Villagmez et al., 2011a)
Fig. 2. Geological maps of the study regions (see Fig. 1) within the Central and Western Cordilleras and the CaucaPata Valley of Colombia (after Gmez et al., 2007), showing sample
locations and the thermochronological ages acquired in this study. A) Northern Colombia, B) Central Colombia, and C) Southern Colombia. All ages are in Ma with an uncertainty
of 2, and sample codes are shown in blue (DV#). AzBF: Amazonian Border Fault, CPF: CaliPata Fault, HP: Hatillo Pluton, IF: Ibagu Fault, MB: Mande Batholith, OPF: Ot
Pericos Fault, PF: Palestina Fault, PP: Piedrancha Pluton, SPF: SilviaPijao Fault.
Table 1
Summary of thermochronological data from the Western and Central Cordilleras of Colombia.
40
Sample Unit Lithology Stratigraphic Elevation Latitude Longitude Phase Ar/39Ar Inverse MSWD1 Zircon FT Apatite FT Apatite MTL Zircon Apatite
age (m) N dms W dms age 2 Isochron age (Ma) age (Ma) (m) 2 (U-Th)/He (U-Th)/He
(Ma) Age 2 2 2 (c-axis age (Ma) age (Ma)
(Ma) corrected) 2 2
Central cordillera
The Anioquia and Sonsn batholiths, and their local basement (north of 5N)
DV53 Antioquia Batholith Diorite 9584 Ma 1958 61839.7 753016.3 72.9 18.8 13.43 0.32 13.4 1.4
DV54 Antioquia Batholith Diorite 9584 Ma 1958 61941.1 752849.6 Hbl 70.4 6.3 (W) 64.1 5.4 4.33 74.4 10.6 15.05 0.12
DV56 Antioquia Batholith Granite 9584 Ma 2192 60319.8 751242.7 65.5 6.0 40.2 2.6
231
232
Table 1 (continued)
40
Sample Unit Lithology Stratigraphic Elevation Latitude Longitude Phase Ar/39Ar Inverse MSWD1 Zircon FT Apatite FT Apatite MTL Zircon Apatite
age (m) N dms W dms age 2 Isochron age (Ma) age (Ma) (m) 2 (U-Th)/He (U-Th)/He
(Ma) Age 2 2 2 (c-axis age (Ma) age (Ma)
(Ma) corrected) 2 2
DV81 Ibagu Batholith Granite 170165 919 42016.5 751147.6 Or 136.4 0.5 (P) 136.0 16.2 5.33 103.6 13.0
DV82 Permian intrusives Granite ~272 Ma 1051 41715.5 751359.2 Or 137.3 0.9 (W) 137.9 7.1 44.20 77.6 10.8 68.3 8.2 13.31 0.28 11.1 0.7
DV84 Permian intrusives Granite PermoTriassic 816 41354.1 751301.8 Or 134.3 0.7 (W) 133.0 10.4 28.37
DV85 Cajamarca Complex Schist Triassic 1403 42752.6 751623.1 30.5 5.8
DV86 Cajamarca Complex Schist Triassic 1420 42818.0 751631.7 35.0 8.2 9.3 0.8
DV129 Undiff. intrusion Gneiss Jurassic 2350 11002.5 765132.7 8.21 1.2 9.3 0.5 4.5 0.3
DV133 Ibagu Batholith Granodiorite ~176 Ma 1397 10458.2 764345.7 3.5 0.3
DV134 Ibagu Batholith Granodiorite ~176 Ma 1638 10432.5 764350.4 109.2 10.8 15.9 4.4
DV136 Ibagu Batholith Granite ~176 Ma 2260 10421.7 764453.5 106.8 13.6 13.7 2.2
DV139 Ibagu Batholith Dacitic porphyry ~176 Ma 1874 10501.8 764758.2 112 16.6 18.7 7.4
ChocPanam Terrane
DV165 Mande Batholith Diorite 4342 Ma 799 54604.7 761456.3' 41.6 5.4 37.8 5.2 14.46 0.29
DV166 Mande Batholith Diorite 4342 Ma 794 54609.4 761451.2 32.8 1.9 3.9 0.3
DV167 Mande Batholith Granodiorite 4342 Ma 782 54615.1 761451.1 46.4 5.8 38.1 5.4 13.47 0.15
P: plateau, >3 contiguous heating steps that span >50% 39Ar released (the age is the weighted mean age of the plateau).
39
W: weighted mean age over >3 contiguous heating steps that yield distinguishable ages that differ by less than 5%, and span > 50% Ar released.
TF: Total fusion age.
n/a: Not Applicable.
1
Mean square of weighted deviates of the inverse isochron linear regression.
Mineral abbreviations: Hbl: hornblende, Bt: biotite, Pl: plagioclase, Or: orthoclase.
P(2) values for all zircon and apatite ssion track ages are >5%.
(UTh)/He ages are weighted mean ages of 2 or more aliquots when the aliquot ages are indistinguishable.
Additional data for the 40Ar/39Ar, ssion track and (UTh)/He methods is provided in Supplementary Tables A1, A2 and A3.
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 233
constrains the minimum age for the Amaime Fm. Mac volcanic rocks ii) K/Ar and Rb/Sr ages of metamorphic and granitic rocks of the Central
(Volcanic Fm.) and ultramac cumulates (Bolvar Ultramac Complex) Cordillera range between 343 and 57 Ma (see Aspden et al., 1987).
crop out in the Western Cordillera (Fig. 2) and are oceanic hot-spot Most of these ages have been interpreted to record thermal events
derived material (Kerr et al., 2004). Gabbros and basalts of the Volcanic during the early Mesozoic and during ~6555 Ma (McCourt et al.,
Fm. yield radiometric ages of 99.7 1.3 Ma (zircon UPb; Villagmez 1984), although the degree of partial resetting is undetermined.
et al., 2011a) and 91.7 2.7 Ma (whole rock 40Ar/ 39Ar; Kerr et al.,
1997), and the Bolvar Ultramac Complex (Fig. 2B) yields zircon A signicant quantity of thermochronological data has been gen-
UPb ages of 97.1 2.0 Ma and 95.5 1.1 Ma (Villagmez et al., erated in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia (e.g. Mora et al., 2010;
2011a). The igneous basement of the Western Cordillera and the Parra et al., 2012). Those data showed that the Eastern Cordillera
CaucaPata Valley probably forms part of the same Late Cretaceous was subject to intense shortening and exhumation during 60
Caribbean Plateau, and are grouped here as the Calima Terrane (e.g. 50 Ma, 4030 Ma, ~ 20 Ma and 63 Ma. Apatite FT analyses in the
Kerr et al., 1997, 2004; Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988; Fig. 1). This inter- southern Eastern Cordillera (Garzn Massif; Fig. 1) yielded ages of
pretation is consistent with that proposed for equivalent rock sequences b10 Ma, whereas zircon FT ages of ~ 120 Ma (Andriessen, 1996)
within the Western Cordillera and at forearc region of Ecuador, where from the same region led the authors to propose that the massif
they are grouped into the PinPallatanga Terrane (Luzieux et al., cooled rapidly during the Early Cretaceous.
2006; Vallejo et al., 2009), which is considered to represent a relict sliver
of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province. 4. Analytical techniques
Cretaceous, plume-derived (Kerr et al., 1997) mac igneous rocks
crop-out along the Pacic coast, west of the Garrapatas Fault (Fig. 1), We obtained thermochronological data using the 40Ar/ 39Ar
and yield whole rock and plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 78 (hornblende, biotite, orthoclase), FT (zircon and apatite) and (UTh)/
73 Ma (Kerr et al., 1997). Toussaint and Restrepo (1994) proposed He method (zircon and apatite). A summary of the data is presented
that these form the basement of the ChocPanam Terrane (Fig. 1). in Table 1 and the ages are shown in Fig. 3 (all uncertainties quoted
Wide disagreement exists regarding the timing of collision and accretion are 2). Complete data sets are provided in Supplementary Tables
of the ChocPanam Terrane with the Colombian margin, with opin- A1 (40Ar/39Ar), A2 (FT) and A3 ((UTh)/He). Detailed analytical infor-
ions varying between 25 and 23 Ma (Farris et al., 2011) and the latest mation is provided in the Supplementary le analytical techniques.
Mioceneearly Pliocene (Mann and Corrigan, 1990). Fish Canyon Tuff sanidine was used as a uence monitor for 40Ar/
39
Ar analyses, with an age of 28.02 0.16 Ma (1 internal uncertainty;
3. Previous thermochronological work Renne et al., 1998), and ages were calculated using the 40K decay
constant of Steiger and Jger (1977).
A paucity of reliable geochronological and thermochronological data The majority of the FT data were obtained using the external
from the Central and Western Cordilleras of Colombia has hampered detector method (Gleadow, 1981), although the uranium content of
previous attempts (Aspden et al., 1987; Villagmez et al., 2011a) to four apatite samples was determined using LA-ICP-MS (e.g. Hasebe
temporally constrain the principal tectonic events that assembled et al., 2004) by A to Z Inc. 252Cf irradiation was used to enhance the
the rocks onto the South American plate. Previously published number of conned track-in-tracks available for length measurement
thermochronological data are: (Donelick and Miller, 1991). Maximum etch-pit diameters (Dpar)
were measured and used to assess the inter-grain variation of annealing
i) Apatite (UTh)/He data from the northern Central Cordillera pro- kinetics in apatites in some of the samples. Individual age populations
vide evidence for exhumation-related cooling episodes during (Table A2) have been resolved using the software BINOMFIT
4540 Ma and 2520 Ma (Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009). (Brandon, 1996) when the P(2) is b5% (Green, 1981).
Fig. 3. Compilation of thermochronological ages (2) from the Central and Western Cordilleras, and the CaucaPata Valley in Colombia. Apatite FT and (UTh)/He ages young
towards the south within the Central Cordillera.
234 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
Age (Ma)
260
MSWD: 7.78
220 2
180 116.40.9 Ma
1
140
100 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
109.71.3 Ma
120
2
100 1
Disturbed spectra
Total Fusion: 109.4 0.2 Ma 0
80
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
MSWD: >100
160 109.82.9 Ma 2
120 1
80 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
2
130
114.10.9 Ma 1
100
Fig. 4. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and isotope correlation diagrams for orthoclase extracted from autochthonous rocks located north of the Ibagu Fault, Central Cordillera. Or: orthoclase.
Grey squares in the isotope correlation plots represent heating steps that are included in the age calculation, and dene the grey regression line. White squares were derived from
heating steps that dene disturbed parts of the age spectrum, and do not form part of the age calculation. Plateaus are dened according to Dalrymple and Lanphere (1974). Bt:
biotite, Hbl: hornblende, Or: orthoclase, Plag: plagioclase. All uncertainties are 2.
5. Thermochronological data from the Central Cordillera >60% of the total 39Ar released. These ages are younger than 40Ar/
39
Ar ages of samples located south of the Ibagu Fault (see below). Dis-
5.1. Jurassic granitoids and their local basement (central and southern cordance is a consequence of excess 40Ar in the rst 20% of the total
39
Colombia) Ar released, and 39Ar recoil, perhaps due to the presence of perthitic
lamellae. The age spectrum yielded by orthoclase DV09 (Fig. 4D) may
5.1.1. 40Ar/ 39Ar dates (closure temperatures >~ 300 C) represent a classic volume diffusion (40Ar loss) prole from a weighted
Jurassic granitoids of the Ibagu Batholith (zircon UPb age of mean age of 114.1 0.9 Ma towards a younger age of ~100105 Ma.
~176 Ma, Cochrane et al., 2011) located north of the Ibagu Fault Permian and Jurassic granites located south of the Ibagu Fault yield
in central Colombia yield Early Cretaceous 40Ar/ 39Ar ages (Fig. 2B). Early Cretaceous 40Ar/39Ar ages (Fig. 2B), which are older than those
Orthoclase extracted from four felsic intrusive rocks of the Ibagu Bath- obtained from granitoids located north of the fault. Biotite and ortho-
olith (DV01, DV06, DV07 and DV09; Fig. 4AD) yielded disturbed 40Ar/ clase extracted from granite (DV81) of the Ibagu Batholith yielded
39
Ar age spectra with weighted mean ages of ~115 Ma (DV01 and plateau ages of 130.2 2.8 Ma and 136.4 0.5 Ma, respectively
DV09) and ~110 Ma (DV06 and DV07) over the attest regions (Fig. 5A, B). Orthoclase from Permian granites DV82 (zircon UPb age
of their age spectra, where contiguous step ages differ by b5%, over 271.9 3.7 Ma; Villagmez et al., 2011a) and DV84 yielded weighted
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 235
Age (Ma)
2
120 1
Weighted Plateau
Total Fusion: 127.71.6 Ma 0
100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
0 20 40 60 80 100
B) DV81-Or: Granite,
Ibague Batholith
150 4
Weighted Plateau
140 3
MSWD: 5.33
130 2
136.40.5 Ma
120 1
110 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
3
140 MSWD: 44.20
2
130 137.30.9 Ma
1
120 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
120 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar
40
Fig. 5. Ar/39Ar age spectra and isotope correlation diagrams for biotite and orthoclase extracted from autochthonous rocks located south of the Ibagu Fault, Central Cordillera.
mean ages of 137.30.9 Ma and 134.30.7 Ma, respectively (Fig. 5C, D), which lie within the same range as those obtained from northern
that do not strictly meet the plateau criteria of Dalrymple and Lanphere Colombia (Fig. 3). Apatite FT ages from metasedimentary rocks of the
(1974). However, we consider those ages to be meaningful because Cajamarca Complex and granitoids of the Ibagu Batholith in central
contiguous age steps differ by less than 0.8% over >70% 39Ar released, Colombia range between 68.3 8.2 Ma and 19.6 4.2 Ma, with no
and the weighted mean ages are indistinguishable from the isotope geographic trends (Fig. 2B). The large age variation is probably due to
correlation ages (e.g. Spikings et al., 2002). displacement of the Palestina fault, the high angle reverse OtPericos
Fault and the dextral Ibagu Fault and their splays. Indistinguishable
5.1.2. Fission track and (UTh)/He data (closure temperatures apatite FT ages that range between 30.5 5.8 Ma and 37.1 5.8 Ma
b~ 300 C) (DV86, 85, 9, 6, 3, 2) have been obtained from samples located within
Twelve zircon FT ages from granitoids of the Jurassic Ibagu Batho- the Ibagu and OtPericos fault zones (Fig. 2B). The youngest apatite
lith and its metasedimentary basement (Cajamarca Complex) in central FT age of 19.6 4.2 (DV18) Ma was obtained from a gneiss (zircon
Colombia range between 107 and 54 Ma, and most samples yielded UPb age of 237.5 5.5 Ma; Villagmez et al., 2011a) of the Cajamarca
Late Cretaceous ages (Fig. 2B). With the exception of metasedimentary Complex, located close to the Palestina Fault. Older apatite FT ages that
rocks (Cajamarca Complex) DV14, DV17 and DV19, all zircon FT ages range between 59.8 16.8 Ma and 68.3 8.2 Ma (DV82, 7, 5, 4) were
yield P(2) values >5%. Zircon (UTh)/He ages of 43.0 3.0 (DV09) obtained from rocks with a lower density of brittle fractures and faults
and 47.7 2.7 Ma (DV06) were acquired from the Ibagu Batholith, (Fig. 2B). Five of these samples yielded partially annealed mean track
236 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
lengths (13.7611.30 m; Table 1). Apatite (UTh)/He ages (Table 1) consequence of radiation damage (Table A3; U >850 ppm). Apatite FT
obtained from various Jurassic and older (Villagmez et al., 2011a) ages from the granitoids range between 69.7 8.6 Ma and 44.3
intrusive bodies yielded ages that span between 6.2 0.4 Ma and 6.2 Ma (DV156, 155, 153, 148, 70, 58), with partially annealed mean
11.1 0.7 Ma (DV82, 7, 5, 4), and a metasedimentary rock of the lengths ranging between 13.740.28 m and 13.00 0.27 m. A single
Cajamarca Complex yielded an age of 9.3 0.8 Ma (DV86). These ages mica schist of the Triassic Cajamarca Complex (DV154) yields an apatite
are signicantly younger than apatite FT ages from the same region, FT age of 56.6 7.4 Ma. Finally, apatite (UTh)/He ages from the same
and are younger than apatite (UTh)/He ages obtained from the northern rocks are 39.1 2.1 Ma (DV70), 32.0 1.9 Ma (DV58) and 30.7
Central Cordillera (Fig. 3). 1.8 Ma (DV156), which are the oldest obtained from the cordilleras of
Three granitoids of the Jurassic Ibagu Batholith, located in a single Colombia.
fault block in southern Colombia (DV139, 134 and 136; Fig. 2C) were Diorites located along the western slopes of the Altiplano
collected over an elevation range of 1630 to 2260 m, and yield zircon Antioqueo yield apatite FT ages of 74.4 10.4 Ma (DV54) and 72.9
FT ages that range between 106.8 13.6 Ma and 112 16.6 Ma, 18.8 Ma (DV53) from the Antioquia Batholith (9487 Ma; Villagmez
which overlap with the range of zircon FT ages obtained for the same et al., 2011a; Fig. 2A), with mean apatite FT lengths of 13.99 0.18
batholith in central Colombia. Orthogneiss DV129, located proximal to and 11.70 0.44 m, respectively. These are amongst the oldest apatite
the Ecuadorian border, yielded a zircon (UTh)/He age of 9.3 FT ages obtained in the Colombian Andes (Fig. 3). Diorite DV53 yielded
0.5 Ma, which is the youngest in the Central Cordillera. The same an apatite (UTh)/He age of 13.4 1.4 Ma, which is considerably youn-
three granitoids yielded indistinguishable apatite FT ages that range ger than its apatite FT age. Granite from the Manizales pluton (K/Ar
between 13.7 2.2 Ma and 18.7 7.4 Ma (DV139, 136, 134). An biotite age 5955 Ma; Fig. 2A; Brook, 1984) yielded a zircon FT age of
orthogneiss of the Ibagu Batholith located on a separate fault block 43.9 4.2 Ma (DV161).
(Fig. 2C), yielded a younger apatite FT age of 8.2 1.2 Ma (DV129). Zircon FT ages yielded by the Antioquia Batholith and the Hatillo
No useful FT track length data could be obtained from this region. The pluton along the eastern slope of the Altiplano Antioqueo are 74.8
youngest apatite (UTh)/He ages in this study have been obtained 7.4 Ma (DV63) and 55.3 5.4 Ma (DV163), respectively, which are
from the southern Central Cordillera, close to the Ecuadorian border consistently older than their apatite FT ages. A Triassic schist of the
(Figs. 2C and 3). An orthogneiss and granodiorite of the Ibagu Batholith Cajamarca Complex (DV67), located in the same region, yielded the
located at elevations between 1400 m and 2350 m yielded apatite oldest (albeit imprecise) apatite FT age of 113.4 22.8 Ma from the
(UTh)/He ages of 4.5 0.3 Ma (DV129) and 3.5 0.3 Ma (DV133) cordilleras (Fig. 2A). Additional apatite FT ages from the eastern slope
respectively. range between 64.1 9.6 Ma and 41.0 6.6 Ma (DV80, 65, 64, 63),
and gneiss DV65 Cajamarca Complex) yielded a mean apatite FT length
5.2. The Antioquia and Sonsn Batholiths, and their local basement of 13.69 0.29 m. The Tertiary Hatillo pluton (53.0 1.8, biotite K/Ar;
(north of 5N) Vesga and Barrero, 1978; Fig. 2A) yielded an imprecise apatite FT age of
39.6 7.0 Ma (DV163), and aplite DV63 (Antioquia Batholith) yielded
5.2.1. 40Ar/ 39Ar dates (closure temperatures >~ 300 C) an apatite (UTh)/He age of 20.9 1.2 Ma, which is signicantly youn-
A Triassic gneiss (DV65, Fig. 2A) located proximal to the Late ger than its apatite FT age.
Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith in the northern Central Cordillera
yielded a biotite 40Ar/ 39Ar plateau age of 80.8 0.3 Ma (Fig. 6A).
An undeformed diorite of the Antioquia Batholith (9487 Ma; 5.3. The Quebradagrande Complex (west of the San Jeronimo Fault)
Villagmez et al., 2011a) yielded a hornblende, weighted mean
40
Ar/ 39Ar age of 70.4 6.3 Ma (DV54; Fig. 6B) from the attest part Apatite FT analyses of diorites and sandstones of the Early
of a slightly disturbed region of the age spectrum. We consider the Cretaceous Quebradagrande Complex (UPb zircon 114.3 3.8 Ma;
weighted mean age to be geologically meaningful because contiguous Villagmez et al., 2011a), located along the western ank of the
step-ages differ by less than 5% over ~ 90% of 39Ar released. Biotites Central Cordillera (Fig. 2A), yielded ages that range between 78.6
from two granitoids of the Antioquia Batholith yielded plateau 40Ar/ 19.8 and 51.8 7.4 Ma (DV160, 176, 177, 179). These are amongst
39
Ar ages of 72.30.3 Ma (DV58) and 68.90.6 Ma (DV70; Fig. 6C, D). the oldest apatite FT ages obtained in the Colombian Andes (Fig. 3)
Feldspars extracted from granite located at the southernmost expo- and are similar to apatite FT ages obtained from the western
sure of the batholith yielded disturbed age spectra, albeit with indis- Antioquia Batholith. Unfortunately, no statistically useful track length
tinguishable weighted mean ages of 62.6 1.1 Ma (orthoclase; information could be obtained.
DV58) and 62.6 0.7 Ma (plagioclase; DV64; Fig. 6E, F). We consider
these ages to be interpretable because the contiguous step ages
differ by less than 3%, over 42% and 60% of the total 39Ar released, 5.4. The Arqua Complex (west of the SilviaPijao Fault)
respectively.
Garnet amphibolites of the highmedium PT metamorphic rocks
5.2.2. Fission track and (UTh)/He data (closure temperatures of the Arqua Complex, exposed on the western border of the Central
b~ 300 C) Cordillera (Fig. 2A, B) yielded similar 40Ar/ 39Ar ages to those found in
The Late Cretaceous Antioquia and Paleocene Sonsn (6555 Ma; the Jurassic Ibagu Batholith. Hornblende extracted from amphibo-
UPb zircon; Ordez-Carmona et al., 2001) batholiths, and several lites (DV89A and DV89B) sampled from the same outcrop yielded
basement inliers form the broad, high (mean elevation 2500 m) imprecise and indistinguishable plateau ages of 117.2 9.4 Ma and
plain of the Altiplano Antioqueo (Fig. 2A). Zircon FT ages from this 112.0 3.7 Ma (Fig. 7A, B). Hornblende DV89A yielded a humped
region show no spatial trend and range between 71.4 9.8 Ma and age spectrum that may be diagnostic of 39Ar recoil, and hence we con-
47.9 5.2 Ma (Sonsn Batholith; DV156 and 155), and 66.6 sider the plateau age of DV89B (112.0 3.7 Ma) to be the most accu-
8.0 Ma55.4 5.2 (Antioquia Batholith; DV153, 148, 70, 56). These rate hornblende age for this sequence, in this region. Hornblende
ages are either indistinguishable, or slightly older than the apatite FT from a garnet amphibolite (DV28) located closer to the SilviaPijao
ages yielded by the same samples. Zircon (UTh)/He ages of 45.5 Fault (Fig. 2B) than the other amphibolites yielded a younger plateau
40
3.1 Ma (DV58) and 40.2 2.6 Ma (DV56) have been obtained from Ar/ 39Ar age of 64.4 3.6 Ma (Fig. 7C). This age is similar to 40Ar/
39
granites located at 1140 and 2190 m, respectively. The zircon (UTh)/ Ar ages obtained from continental crust exposed in the northern
He age of granite DV58 is younger than its apatite FT age, which may Central Cordillera, and we consider it to be a reset age, which is not
reect enhanced He diffusion in two of the zircon aliquots, as a indicative of the timing of crystallisation.
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 237
5.5. The Crdoba Pluton isochron age of 80.4 18.1 Ma (Fig. 8A). Hornblende from a pegma-
tite of the Late Cretaceous Bolvar Ultramac Complex (DV94), locat-
The Crdoba pluton intrudes into the Quebradagrande Complex, ed along the eastern ank of the Western Cordillera, yielded a
and yields a zircon UPb age of 79.7 2.5 Ma (Villagmez et al., disturbed age spectrum with a total fusion age of 69.3 4.8 Ma
2011a; Fig. 2B). Diorite (DV26) of the pluton yielded a hornblende (Fig. 8B), which is indistinguishable from its inverse isochron age of
plateau 40Ar/ 39Ar age of 67.9 1.6 Ma (Fig. 7D), with an indistin- 67.6 15.3 Ma. The progressive reduction in age from low to high
guishable inverse isochron age of 65.9 5.1 Ma. temperature heating steps suggests that the discordance may be a
Zircon and apatite and FT ages of 45.6 7.6 Ma and 13.9 2.4 Ma, consequence of excess 40Ar that is not resolved by the inverse
respectively were obtained from granite DV26, and the same sample isochron.
yielded a younger apatite (UTh)/He age of 6.1 0.4 Ma. Plagioclase from a diorite (DV91) of the Buga Batholith (zircon UPb
ages span 9290 Ma; Villagmez et al., 2011a), located within the
6. Thermochronological data from Late Cretaceous accreted CaucaPata Valley (Fig. 2B), yields a highly disturbed age spectra
mac rocks with an uninterpretable total fusion age of 79.2 2.6 Ma (Fig. 8C).
6.1. The Western Cordillera and the CaucaPata Valley (Calima Terrane) 6.1.2. Fission track and (UTh)/He data (closure temperatures
b~ 300 C)
6.1.1. 40Ar/ 39Ar dates (closure temperatures >~ 300 C) Two pegmatite dykes (DV94, DV95) of the Bolvar Ultramac Com-
The mac basement of the Western Cordillera and the CaucaPata plex, located along the eastern ank of the Western Cordillera
Valley is characterised by mac crystalline rocks and minor granitoid (Fig. 2B) yielded zircon FT ages of 67.9 7.4 and 62.5 5.2 Ma, and
intrusions that are ~ 100 Ma or younger, and are allochthonous to apatite FT ages of 61.5 9.4 Ma and 62.8 6.8 Ma. These samples
South America (Villagmez et al., 2011a). yielded partially annealed mean apatite FT lengths of 11.28 0.74 m
With the exception of gabbro DV42, mac crystalline rocks (Figs. 1 and 12.02 0.67 m and large Dpar values of 3.4 m (DV94) and
and 2b) yield disturbed 40Ar/ 39Ar age spectra (Fig. 8). A gabbro of 2.5 m (DV95).
the Volcanic Fm. (DV42; Fig. 2B; zircon UPb age 99.7 1.3 Ma; Two granodiorites of the Buga Batholith (UPb zircon ages span
Villagmez et al., 2011a) yielded an imprecise hornblende plateau 9092 Ma; Villagmez et al., 2011a), located west of the Cauca
40
Ar/ 39Ar age of 77.6 5.7 Ma, with an indistinguishable inverse Almaguer Fault within the CaucaPata Valley in central Colombia
80 MSWD: 0.18
80.80.3 Ma 2
70
1
60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
3 MSWD: 4.33
250
200
2
150
100 70.46.3 Ma
1
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
3
70
2
72.30.3 Ma
1
60
40
Fig. 6. Ar/39Ar age spectra and isotope correlation diagrams for mineral phases extracted from autochthonous rocks of the northern (~6N) Central Cordillera.
238 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
Age (Ma)
68.90.6 Ma 2
60
1
Weighted Plateau
Total Fusion: 69.10.2 Ma
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
80 62.61.1 Ma
2
60
1
40
2
70 62.60.7 Ma
1
60
Fig. 6 (continued).
(Fig. 2B) yielded indistinguishable zircon and apatite FT ages of Additional thermochronological data (e.g. zircon (UTh)/He date and
41.3 4.2 Ma (diorite, DV91) and 44.8 8.4 Ma (tonalite DV30), grain size) yielded by those samples that constrains the t-T models
respectively. was used, when available.
Further south, a single apatite FT age of 25.8 4.8 Ma (DV121)
was obtained from granodiorite of the Miocene Piedrancha pluton 7.1. 550250 C
(K/Ar biotite, 23 3 Ma; Alvarez and Linares, 1979), in the southern
Western Cordillera (Fig. 2C). The same sample yielded an apatite Thermal history information has been extracted from the 40Ar/39Ar
(UTh)/He age of 12.2 0.9 Ma, which is older than apatite (UTh)/ data by estimating the closure temperatures (Tc) of each mineral phase
He ages obtained from the Central Cordillera at similar latitudes. using experimentally derived diffusion parameters (e.g. McDougall and
Harrison, 1999). Bulk Tc values for hornblende and biotite range between
6.2. The ChocPanam Terrane ~545511 C and 360325 C, respectively (10010 C/My). We have
utilised a broad closure temperature of 29060 C for the plateau and
Two granodiorites (DV167, DV165) of the Eocene Mande Batholith attest regions of age spectra obtained from orthoclase (Lovera et al.,
(Fig. 2A; zircon UPb ages of 4342 Ma; Cardona et al., 2010), which 1991), assuming that the gas is mainly derived from the largest lattice
form part of the ChocPanam Terrane (Fig. 1), yielded indistin- domains (e.g. Moni et al., 1994). We assume a bulk closure temperature
guishable zircon FT ages of 46.4 5.8 Ma and 41.6 5.4 Ma, and of 300225 C for plagioclase (Cassata et al., 2009). Those samples which
apatite FT ages of 38.1 5.4 Ma and 37.8 5.2 Ma, respectively. yielded both 40Ar/39Ar feldspar and zircon FT ages (Tc 290 C210 C;
Granodiorite DV166 (Mande Batholith) yielded a zircon (UTh)/He Brandon et al., 1998) gave consistently older 40Ar/39Ar ages, conrming
age of 32.8 1.9 Ma, and an apatite (UTh)/He age of 3.9 0.3 Ma, our feldspar 40Ar/39Ar closure temperatures. Raman spectroscopy was
which is the youngest in northern Colombia. routinely performed to distinguish between orthoclase and plagioclase.
The time of each coordinate is determined after evaluation of the age
7. Recovery of thermal histories spectrum.
Semi-continuous thermal histories have been determined for sam- 7.2. 25040 C
ples that yielded data which can be reliably inverted to generate t-T
models. This restricts modelling to samples which yielded apatite FT The FT and (UTh)/He methods have been applied to zircon and ap-
dates and a statistically useful quantity of track length measurements. atite for the purpose of generating integrated thermal histories between
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 239
Age (Ma)
180 117.29.4 Ma
2
120
60 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
2
100
112.03.7 Ma 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
C) DV28-Hbl: Amphibolite,
Arquia Fm.
100
Weighted Plateau 4 Inverse Isochron: 94.832.8 Ma
Total Fusion: 51.63.3 Ma 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 205.0102
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)
80
MSWD: 0.21
Age (Ma)
3
60
64.43.6 Ma 2
40
20 1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
80 MSWD: 1.51
2
60
67.91.6 Ma 1
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar
40
Fig. 7. Ar/39Ar age spectra and isotope correlation diagrams for hornblende extracted from the Arqua Complex and the Crdoba Batholith, Central Cordillera.
~25040 C (e.g. Farley and Stockli, 2002; Gleadow et al., 1986). Poten- partial annealing zone is 290210 C, and the mid-range value of
tial thermal history solutions have been derived by simultaneously 250 C has been plotted against the zircon FT age in this study to pro-
modelling He diffusion (Farley and Stockli, 2002; Flowers et al., 2009; duce a timetemperature constraint.
Reiners et al., 2004) and FT annealing in apatite (c-axis projected lengths; The diffusivity (apatite, 1.50.6 cm2/s; zircon, 0.46+0.870.3 cm2/s),
Ketcham et al., 2007) using the HeFTy software (v 1.6.7; Ketcham, et al., activation energy of diffusion (apatite, 330.5 kcal/mol; zircon 40
2007). The modelling procedure predicts FT and (UTh)/He parameters 0.9 kcal/mol) of He, grain sizes, corrections for alpha-loss (Farley and
for various thermal history paths and compares them with the observed Stockli, 2002) and corrections for radiation damage accumulation were
data. A controlled random search procedure identies those thermal used to model He diffusion in zircon (Reiners et al., 2004) and apatite
histories that most closely match the analytical data. (Flowers et al., 2009). The apatite He partial retention zone is taken to
Wide-ranging values for the temperature bounds of the zircon par- be ~9040 C (e.g. Farley and Stockli, 2002), whereas the zircon He par-
tial annealing zone have been published. Recently, Bernet and Garver tial retention zone is considered to span between ~220140 C (Reiners
(2005) proposed that a useful working approximation of the zircon et al., 2004).
240 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
Age (Ma)
MSWD: 0.59
80
60 2
40
77.65.7 Ma 1
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
120 2
60 1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
39Ar / 40Ar
C) DV91-Plag: Granodiorite,
Cretaceous Buga Batholith
120 Total Fusion age: 79.22.6 Ma
Age (Ma)
100
80
60
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%)
Fig. 8. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and isotope correlation diagrams for hornblende and plagioclase extracted from allochthonous rocks of the Western Cordillera and CaucaPata Valley
of Colombia.
8. Thermal histories of autochthonous rocks of the Central Gneiss DV65 of the Triassic Cajamarca Complex sampled along the
Cordillera of Colombia eastern ank of the Central Cordillera yields a best-t envelope with a
slow, approximately constant cooling rate during ~ 700 Ma (Fig. 9E).
8.1. Late CretaceousTertiary granitoids and their basement (northern Its biotite 40Ar/ 39Ar age (80.8 0.3 Ma) is distinguishably older than
Colombia) 70 Ma and hence extrapolation to temperatures >120 C is tentative,
although it supports elevated cooling rates during the Campanian.
Good-t thermal histories for the Antioquia Batholith reveal an No good-t solutions were obtained from the apatite FT and (UTh)/
initial period of high cooling rates at varied times between 76 Ma He data acquired from the Paleocene Sonsn Batholith (Fig. 9F)
and 50 Ma (Fig. 9AD). The earliest period of cooling was detected although granite DV156 yielded an acceptable-t showing rapid cooling
in diorite DV54 (located close to the SilviaPijao Fault), which cooled from 240 C to 100 C during 5545 Ma at rates of ~13 C/My, when
at rates ~ 30 C/My during ~ 7665 Ma. Diorite DV53 also cooled the t-T paths are extrapolated to the ZFT age. The batholith crystallised
rapidly during 7550 Ma, although no good-ts were obtained. Both during 6555 Ma (Ordez-Carmona et al., 2001), and cooling from
samples remained at approximately constant temperatures during 55 Ma was probably sub-solidus thermal relaxation of the pluton.
5015 Ma, and diorite DV53 subsequently cooled to surface tempera-
tures during 150 Ma from within the He partial retention zone. Further 8.2. PermianJurassic granitoids and their basement (central and
east, granodiorite DV153 yielded a good-t solution with rapid cooling southern Colombia)
between 75 and 70 Ma from ~280 C to 80 C at rates of 40 C/My.
Subsequently, moderate cooling occurred during 6550 Ma from 80 C 8.2.1. North of the Ibagu Fault
to 60 C at rates of 2 C/My, and no reliable information exists below Granitoids (DV06 and DV09) of the Ibagu Batholith and gneiss
60 C. The northernmost exposures of the batholith (DV70) yielded a (DV03) of the Triassic Cajamarca Complex located north of the Ibagu
good-t solution after integrating four different thermochronometers Fault experienced distinctly different cooling histories to samples located
(Fig. 9D), which reveal rapid cooling during ~7050 Ma from ~320 C south of the fault (Fig. 10B, C, E). Orthoclase cooled through 29060 C
to ~100 C, at 10 C/My. during ~115110 Ma, and the ages of low-temperature 40Ar/39Ar
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 241
ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
0
D) DV70, granodiorite
20
40
A)DV54, diorite 60
0
Unconstrained 80
20
100
Temperature (C)
Temperature (C)
40 Mean length
120
60 observed: 15.050.64 m
best-fit: 15.150.72 m 140
80 Apatite (U-Th)/He
160 Measured: 39.12.1 Ma Mean length
100
0.6 N: 118 180 Best-fit: 39.0 Ma observed: 14.540.94 m
120 GOF: 0.84 GOF: 0.80 best-fit: 14.661.03 m
AFT 200
140 AFT
Measured: 74.410.4 Ma 220 N: 191
Best-fit: 74.9 Ma 0.3 Measured: 54.85.8 Ma 0.4 GOF: 0.68
240 Best-fit: 53.8 Ma
500 GOF: 0.92
260 GOF: 0.74
520
Ar (hbl): 70.46.3 Ma 280 ZFT
540 0.0 Measured: 58.15.2 Ma
0.2
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 300
Time (Ma) Length (m) 320 Ar (bt): 68.90.6 Ma
340 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
0
B) DV53, diorite Time (Ma) Length (m)
20
Temperature (C)
40
CAJAMARCA FORMATION
60
80 E)DV65, gneiss
0
100 Unconstrained
120 40
140 Mean length
observed: 13.431.13 m
160 80
Temperature (C)
100 0
120 Mean length 20
140 observed: 14.410.76 m 40
AFT best-fit: 14.600.73 m
160 60
Temperature (C)
Measured: 69.78.6 Ma
180
Best-fit: 68.1 Ma 0.6 N: 86 80
200 GOF: 0.94 100
GOF: 0.71
220 120 Mean length
Apatite (U-Th)/He
ZFT Measured: 30.71.8 Ma observed: 14.950.71 m
240 0.3 140 best-fit: 14.880.91 m
Measured: 66.68.0 Ma Best-fit: 39.2 Ma
260 160 GOF: 0.14
N: 66
280 180 0.50 GOF: 0.27
AFT
300 0.0 200 Measured: 48.24.8 Ma
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 481216 20 220 Best-fit: 44.7 Ma
Time (Ma) Length (m) GOF: 0.15
240 0.25
260 ZFT
Measured: 47.95.2 Ma
280
300 0.00
600 50 40 30 20 10 481216 20
Time (Ma) Length (m)
Fig. 9. Timetemperature solutions for autochthonous rocks of the northern (~6N) Central Cordillera of Colombia obtained by inverse modelling of apatite FT age and length data,
and weighted mean (UTh)/He dates and grain size data (calculated using the weighted mean of the diffusion lengths), using the kinetic relationship of Reiners et al. (2004) for
diffusion of He in zircon, Flowers et al. (2009) for the diffusion of He in apatite and Ketcham et al. (2007) for FT annealing in apatite. A controlled random search procedure was
used to search for best-t data. Dark grey regions are envelopes for good ts and light grey are acceptable ts. The thick black line shows the statistically best-tting solution.
Measured and predicted data for the best t model are shown. Solutions were considered to be good ts when track length histograms and model ages passed the Kuiper's statistic
test with values of >0.5, and acceptable with values of >0.05. The models are extrapolated to temperatures of partial retention of argon when i) the 40Ar/39Ar ages of ferromag-
nesian phases overlap with the timing of cooling obtained from inverting the FT and (UTh)/He data, or ii) there are interpretable alkali feldspar 40Ar/39Ar ages. Dashed lines high-
light paths that have been manually interpolated using the 40Ar/39Ar data. GOF: Goodness-of-t.
242 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
Mean length
PERMIAN BATHOLITH IBAGUE BATHOLITH observed: 13.421.15 m
Mean length
observed: 13.311.16 m best-fit: 13.051.53 m
best-fit: 13.351.18 m
D. DV05, granodiorite N: 57
A. DV82, granite 0 0.30
GOF: 0.12
0 N: 70 20
20 0.30 GOF: 0.68 40
40 60 0.15
Temperature (C)
60 80
0.15
Temperature (C)
80 100
100 120 0.00
120 140 4 8 12 16 20
0.00 Apatite (U-Th)/He Length (m)
140 4 8 12 16 20 160 Measured: 7.50.5 Ma
Apatite (U-Th)/He Length (m) Best-fit: 12.8 Ma
160 Measured: 11.10.7 Ma 180 GOF: 0.16
180 Best-fit: 10.5 Ma 200
GOF: 0.91 AFT
200 220 Measured: 59.816.8 Ma
220 AFT 240 Best-fit: 46.0 Ma
Measured: 68.38.2 Ma GOF: 0.12
240 260
Best-fit: 68.3 Ma
260 ? GOF: 0.99 280 ZFT
Measured: 85.318.2 Ma
280 300
ZFT 100 80 60 40 20 0
300 Measured: 77.610.8 Ma Time (Ma)
320
Ar (ortho): 137.30.9 Ma
340 E. DV06, granite
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0
AFT
Time (Ma) 20 Measured: 35.84.6 Ma
40 Best-fit: 35.4 Ma Unconstrained
GOF: 0.83
CAJAMARCA FORMATION Mean length 60
observed: 14.950.77 m
80 Zircon (U-Th)/He
B. DV03, gneiss
Temperature (C)
best-fit: 15.170.68 m Measured: 47.72.7 Ma
Temperature (C)
Mean length 20
GOF: 0.81 0.50 N: 91
120 observed: 14.070.93 m
best-fit: 14.190.93 m 40 GOF: 0.05
140 ZFT
Measured: 74.66.7 Ma 60
160 0.4 N: 63 80
Temperature (C)
Fig. 10. Timetemperature solutions for autochthonous rocks of the Central Cordillera of Colombia at ~4N. See the caption of Fig. 9 for details.
heating steps of orthoclase DV09 (Fig. 4D) suggest that it continued to not been found in the good-t solutions of the remaining samples
cool until ~100 Ma, at a reduced rate. Acceptable-t envelopes for grano- north of the Ibagu Fault.
diorites DV07 and DV05 reveal elevated cooling rates during a poorly Late Eoceneearly Oligocene (4530 Ma) rapid cooling of 9 C/My
constrained period within the Late Cretaceous (Fig. 10D, F), which has is shown by all good-t models derived from north of the Ibagu Fault,
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 243
and is most precisely dened for granodiorite DV06 during 4540 Ma the best-t solutions with crystallisation ages suggests that cooling
(Fig. 10E), at a high rate of ~24 C/My. Several samples located in this was not related to sub-solidus thermal relaxation. Rather, close tempo-
region, and in northern Colombia along the eastern ank of the Central ral correlations between sedimentation in the foreland Magdalena
Cordillera, yield EoceneOligocene apatite FT ages and cooling may Valley Basin (Fig. 1; E.g. Moreno et al., 2011; Nie et al., 2010; Saylor
have been a response to displacement of the Palestina, Ibagu and et al., 2012) with high cooling rates in the cordilleras suggests that
OtPericos faults (Fig. 2B). cooling was a consequence of exhumation.
Almost all samples taken north of the Ibagu Fault reveal a period of A present-day average geothermal gradient of 2025 C/km has
elevated cooling at rates of 4 C/My during 150 Ma, which is been obtained from wells in the Llanos Basin of Colombia (Bachu
more precisely dened by samples that yielded apatite (UTh)/He et al., 1995; Fig. 1). Rock advection occurs at higher rates than heat
data (e.g. Fig. 10A). In contrast, a majority of samples taken from the conduction during high exhumation rates, causing isothermal spacing
Altiplano Antioqueo region of the northern Central Cordillera to reduce and an increase in geothermal gradients of up to 60%
(Fig. 2A) did not experience rapid cooling during the Miocene (Fig. 9). (Mancktelow and Grasemann, 1997). Therefore, we assumed a con-
stant MesozoicCenozoic geothermal gradient of 30 C/km, with at
8.2.2. South of the Ibagu Fault isotherms, similar to that used in previous thermochronological anal-
The good-t envelope of solutions for a Permian granite (DV82) yses of the northern Andes (e.g. Mora et al., 2010; Spikings et al.,
located south of the Ibagu Fault shows rapid cooling from > 250 C 2000, 2010), and a mean surface temperature of 20 C.
to ~ 60 C during 8070 Ma at high rates of 20 C/My (Fig. 10A). Iso-
thermal conditions prevailed until ~ 1510 Ma, when the sample 10.1. 145130 Ma: BerriasianHauterivian
cooled at rates of 3 C/My until the present day. Granite DV82
yielded a broad at region on its orthoclase 40Ar/ 39Ar age spectrum Exhumation of the Central Cordillera during 138130 Ma (Figs. 5
(Fig. 5C), suggesting that it cooled rapidly through 290 60 C during and 10a; plateau alkali feldspar ages of 130138 Ma) slightly post-
~ 140135 Ma. Similarly, plateau and broad, at regions on the ortho- dates the termination of the Jurassic continental arc (180145 Ma;
clase 40Ar/ 39Ar age spectra of granodiorites (DV81 and DV84; Fig. 5) Villagmez et al., 2011a; E.g. Ibague Batholith; Fig. 1), and coincides
of the Ibagu Batholith, located south of the Ibagu Fault shows that with a region-wide angular unconformity in the Upper Magdalena
they also cooled rapidly through 290 60 C during ~ 140135 Ma. Valley Basin (Fig. 1) in Colombia (Jaimes and de Freitas, 2006), the
Oriente Basin in Ecuador (Balkwill et al., 1995) and in northern
8.2.3. Southernmost Colombia Peru (Jaillard et al., 1990), which spans ~140130 Ma (Fig. 13A, B).
Thermal history solutions have not been obtained from rocks Litherland and Aspden (1992) proposed that a major period of rock
located in the southern Central Cordillera because they did not yield ap- uplift occurred in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (Fig. 1) during
atite FT length data. However, three granitoids of the Jurassic Ibagu 140120 Ma. The cessation of arc magmatism and subsequent gap in
Batholith yielded apatite FT ages which i) are the youngest from the sedimentation were previously accounted for by i) the accretion of
Central Cordillera (Figs. 2C and 3), and ii) yield a weighted mean age allochthonous terranes (e.g. Litherland and Aspden, 1992), and
of ~14 Ma, which is comparable in age with apatite (UTh)/He ages ii) changes of plate motion kinematics (Jaillard et al., 1990). Exhuma-
obtained from central Colombia, and the timing of the onset of cooling tion may have been a consequence of compression, driven either by
of some samples in central Colombia. The apatite FT ages, when com- the advance of the upper plate towards the oceanic plate, or the colli-
bined with two Pliocene apatite (UTh)/He ages, are diagnostic of sion of an oceanic seamount (Fig. 13B), although clear evidence for an
high cooling rates in the southern Central Cordillera since the middle oceanic terrane in Colombia with an age older than ~140 Ma has not
Miocene. Conversely, the southern Central Cordillera yields the oldest been reported. Alternatively, exhumation and interruption of the Juras-
zircon FT ages, suggesting that it underwent a lower magnitude of sic arc may have occurred during extension. Mantle-derived mac rocks
exhumation than more northern regions during ~10015 Ma. have been identied in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, which yield
hornblende 40Ar/39Ar ages of 136120 Ma and were emplaced in a rift
9. Thermal histories of allochthonous rocks of the Western setting (Vsquez et al., 2010). Early Cretaceous crustal thinning and
Cordillera of Colombia rifting in eastern Colombia have also been proposed in the tectonic
models of Sarmiento-Rojas et al. (2006) and Pindell and Kennan (2009).
Good-t solutions for the Bolvar Ultramac Complex (Fig. 11A, B), We propose that the termination of arc magmatism was a conse-
located along the eastern margin of the Western Cordillera (Fig. 2B) quence of oceanward migration of the subduction zone, which accounts
reveal rapid cooling from > 250 C to 10080 C during 7565 Ma for the outboard position of the younger Quebradagrande Complex
at rates of ~ 15 C/My, followed by isothermal conditions until (114.3 3.8 Ma; UPb zircon; Villagmez et al., 2011a; Fig. 1), which
~ 30 Ma. Subsequent, slower cooling (2 C/My) towards the surface fringed the continental margin. Arc migration may have been driven
commenced at ~ 30 Ma. The timing of the onset of Late Cretaceous by a change in plate kinematics, which drove trench roll-back, exten-
cooling of this part of the Western Cordillera precisely overlaps sion and exhumation of the continental margin.
with that found in the central and northern regions of the Central
Cordillera. 10.2. 130100 Ma: BarremianAlbian
Granitoids of the Eocene Mande Batholith cooled rapidly during
5040 Ma (Fig. 11C, D), giving rise to K/Ar hornblende ages of 56 Elevated exhumation rates during ~117107 Ma (Fig. 10C, E and F;
44 Ma (Aspden et al., 1987). We consider the Eocene cooling event alkali feldspar 40Ar/39Ar ages of 117107 Ma) were contemporaneous
to be a consequence of thermal relaxation following intrusion into with the deposition of the upper Aptian to middle Albian, uvial
the upper crust. The sampled granitoids of the batholith yield dis- estuarine Caballos Fm. (Fig. 13C) that is exposed in the Upper Magdalena
tinctly different post-Eocene thermal histories (Fig. 11), implying Valley Basin (Fig. 1; Sarmiento and Rangel, 2004). Dense mineral assem-
that it is likely that they reside in separate fault blocks. blages and detrital zircon FT ages suggest that this sequence, along with
equivalent rocks in Ecuador (Holln Fm.) were partly derived from a
10. Interpretation: Crustal exhumation and tectonic evolution proto-Cordillera that was exhuming in the Early Cretaceous (Kennan
and Pindell, 2009; Ruiz et al., 2007). Vergara and Prssl (1994) describe
The thermal history solutions reveal periods of rapid cooling of rocks the stratigraphically underlying Barremianearly Aptian Yav Fm. and
in the Central and Western Cordilleras since ~140 Ma (Fig. 12). With suggest that it was derived from a cordillera located to the west. A contin-
the exception of the Mande and Sonsn Batholiths, a comparison of ual supply of clastic detritus during 130100 Ma suggests that protracted
244 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
0
A) DV94, pegmatite C) DV165, diorite
0
20 20
40 Unconstrained 40 Unconstrained
60 60
Temperature (C)
Temperature (C)
80 80
100 100
120 Mean length 120 Mean length
observed: 13.321.17 m 140 observed: 14.451.09 m
140
best-fit: 14.181.37 m best-fit: 14.730.97 m
160 160
180 AFT 0.4 N: 31 180 AFT 0.50 N: 52
Measured: 61.59.4 Ma GOF: 0.58 Measured: 37.85.2 Ma GOF: 0.94
200 Best-fit: 59.9 Ma 200 Best-fit: 37.1 Ma
220 GOF: 0.87 220 GOF: 0.82
240 ZFT 0.2 240 ZFT 0.25
260 Measured: 67.97.4 Ma 260 Measured: 41.65.4 Ma
280 280
300 0.0 300 0.00
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (Ma) Length (m) Time (Ma) Length (m)
0
B) DV95, pegmatite 0
D) DV167, granodiorite
20 20
40 Unconstrained 40 Unconstrained
60 60
Temperature (C)
Temperature (C)
80 80
100 100
120 Mean length 120 Mean length
140 observed: 13.801.28 m 140 observed: 13.470.82 m
AFT best-fit: 14.251.30 m best-fit: 13.680.89 m
160 160 AFT
Measured: 62.86.8 Ma N: 42 Measured: 38.15.4 Ma N: 116
180 Best-fit: 63.3 Ma 0.30 180 0.4 GOF: 0.98
GOF: 0.98 Best-fit: 38.2 Ma
200 GOF: 0.88 200 GOF: 0.97
220 ZFT 220
ZFT
240 Measured: 62.55.2 Ma 0.15 240 Measured: 46.45.8 Ma 0.2
260 260
280 280
300 0.00 300 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (Ma) Length (m) Time (Ma) Length (m)
Fig. 11. Timetemperature solutions for allochthonous rocks of the Western Cordillera of Colombia. See the caption of Fig. 9 for details.
exhumation continued throughout the Early Cretaceous, although the analyses of gabbros of the Peltetec Unit (Spikings et al., 2010,
thermochronological data suggests that it occurred at its highest rates unpublished data), high-P rocks of the Raspas Complex (John et al.,
during ~117107 Ma. 2010) and highmedium PT metamorphic rocks of the Arqua Com-
To the west, the Aptianmiddle Albian Abejorral Fm. was deposited plex (Villagmez et al., 2011a) yield evidence for both MORB and OIB
within a Hautevarianearly Albian (Nivia et al., 2006) basin that may rocks.
have been formed by either crustal exure or back-arc extension On a more regional scale, the retrogression ages of highmedium
(Fig. 13C), and was derived from continental crust to the east PT metamorphic rocks exposed along the northern Andes overlap
(Restrepo et al., 2009), possibly as a consequence of erosion of a with metamorphic zircon ages (116106 Ma; Maresch et al., 2009)
proto-Central Cordillera. obtained from anatectites within HP-LT metagabbros at La Rinconada,
High exhumation rates during 117107 Ma are interpreted to have Margarita Island, southern Caribbean. Those rocks are interpreted as
been driven by closure of the Quebradagrande back-arc basin and colli- back-arc basin crust that was subducted and retrogressed during
sion of the Quebradagrande Arc (Villagmez et al., 2011a) with the closure of the back-arc basin during 116100 Ma. The coincidence in
continental margin along the San Jernimo Fault (Figs. 1 and 13D). the timing of metamorphism recorded in the Arqua Complex, and on
The same collision event may have been responsible for exhuming Margarita Island suggests the rocks may have formed in the same tec-
highmedium PT metamorphic rocks of the Arqua Complex (Figs. 1 tonic setting. However, Maresch et al. (2009) suggest that the HP-LT
and 2), forcing them to cool through ~500 C (hornblende 40Ar/39Ar rocks at Margarita formed on a west dipping slab of continental and
age of 112.0 3.7 Ma) and emplace along the SilviaPijao Fault. back-arc crust, which is inconsistent with the spatial relationship in
The Arqua Complex may be the along-strike equivalent of high PT Colombia and Ecuador, where the relict slab represented by the
metamorphic rocks of the Raspas Complex in Ecuador (Fig. 1), which RaspasPeltetecArqua complex is consistently located to the west of
yield peak metamorphic ages of ~130 Ma (Lu/Hf garnet; John et al., the arc rocks.
2010). Similar ages (140130 Ma; plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar; Spikings Amphibolite DV28 is currently mapped as part of the Arqua Com-
et al., 2010, unpublished data) have been obtained from gabbros of plex, and yields a plateau 40Ar/ 39Ar age of 64.4 3.6 (Fig. 7C). We inter-
the Peltetec Unit in Ecuador (Fig. 1), which may be the along-strike, pret this age as either i) retrogression of a sliver of the Arqua Complex
non-metamorphosed protolith of the Arqua Complex. Geochemical during the collision of the CLIP in the CampanianLower Tertiary, or
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 245
Increased Batholiths; Fig. 2A, B), suggesting that the Caribbean Large Igneous
Onset of convergence
accretion of SOAM and Subduction of the Province collided with South America after 80 Ma.
of CLIP Farallon plates Carnegie Ridge
10.4. CampanianMaastrichtian
120
DV70 1999) within a retro-foreland position (Magdalena Valley; Fig. 1),
160 ii) deposition of the CampanianMaastrichtian Nogales Fm. along
200 the western border of the growing Central Cordillera within the
240 forearc, which hosts a large proportion of metamorphic grains that
were derived from the Central Cordillera (Moreno and Pardo, 2003).
280
Clearly, rapid cooling of the buttressing rocks during 7565 Ma was
320 a consequence of rapid exhumation.
The onset of exhumation in the Campanian was driven by the colli-
500
sion of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province with the South American
540 Plate along the CaucaAlmaguer Fault (Fig. 13G). The collision event
South of 5N drove rock and surface uplift resulting in erosional exhumation
0
Western Cordillera that persisted until ~65 Ma. Previous intensive thermochronological
40 DV95
studies of the Late Cretaceous buttressing margin of Ecuador (Eastern
Temperature (C)
Central Cordillera
80 Cordillera; Fig. 1) revealed dramatically increased cooling rates at
DV94
120 7370 Ma (Spikings et al., 2010), which in combination with palaeo-
160 magnetic and sedimentological data is considered to record the timing
of collision of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province with the Ecuadorian
200
DV06 margin (Luzieux et al., 2006; Vallejo et al., 2006, 2009). Average exhu-
South of
240 Ibague Fault mation rates in the Central Cordillera of Colombia were ~1.6 km/My
DV09
280 during 7565 Ma, which are similar to an average rate of >1 km/My
320
North of (Spikings et al., 2001, 2010) obtained from the Eastern Cordillera of
Ibague Fault
Ecuador during the same time period.
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Time (Ma)
10.5. Paleocenemiddle Eocene
Fig. 12. Summary of good-t thermal history solutions for a representative selection of
samples of the Central Cordillera (Late Cretaceous continental margin; light grey) and Exhumation of the buttressing and indenting margins mainly
the Western Cordillera (Late Cretaceous indentor; dark grey) that are shown in Figs. 9 ceased after 7065 Ma, although it may have continued at a signi-
11. These samples highlight the main periods of exhumation of the Central and Western cantly slower rate during 6545 Ma within specic faulted blocks
Cordillera. Not all samples experienced distinct periods of cooling and exhumation (e.g. (e.g. granodiorite DV70 and gneiss DV65; Fig. 9). Subduction of the
gneiss DV65; Fig. 9), presumably due to the orientation of faulted blocks relative to the
local stress eld. Vertical bands highlight the timing of rapid cooling and exhumation in
Faralln Plate beneath the South American Plate occurred subsequent
Colombia, and labels are sample numbers. CLIP: Caribbean Large Igneous Province. to the collision, accretion and fragmentation of the Caribbean Large
Igneous Province, forming a volcanic arc which includes the Sonsn
Batholith at 6555 Ma (Fig. 13H; Ordez-Carmona et al., 2001).
Exhumation
Palaeozoic and
Triassic
basement
su
bd
uc
tio
ns
top
s
SPF
D) 115-105 Ma Arqua Complex SJF OPF
Closure of the Quebradagrande back-arc basin
Accretion of the Quebradagrande arc
Obduction and accretion of high and medium P rocks
Rock uplift and exhumation of the continent
Antioquia Batholith
E) 95-90 Ma Arqua Complex
Onset of continental arc magmatism
Formation of the CLIP
Crdoba Batholith
F) 90-80 Ma Santa Marta
CLIP converges towards South America Buga Batholith Schists
Sonsn Batholith
H) ~60 Ma
Active continental margin continues
D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249 247
conglomerates in the Oriente Basin. Elsewhere within South America, constrained by apatite (UTh)/He data and is tentative. Compression-
FT analyses of the Eastern Cordilleras of Per and Bolivia (Barnes al events at ~ 9 Ma have been identied within Venezuela, Ecuador,
et al., 2006) also record elevated cooling rates between 43 and 30 Ma, Peru, Bolivia and northern Argentina (see review in Spikings et al.,
implying that tectonic reactivation affected >2000 km of the South 2010), which suggests that they may have been driven by an increase
American Pacic margin. An increase in convergence rates between in the velocity of westward drift of South America, possibly driven
the Faralln and South American plates during 4237 Ma (Pardo- due to increased half-spreading rates in the equatorial Atlantic at
Casas and Molnar, 1987) may be responsible for increased compres- ~ 98 Ma (Brozena, 1986).
sion of the western South American Plate, driving rock uplift and
exhumation. 10.8. Reactivation of the Ibagu Fault
Fig. 13. Tectonic reconstruction of Western Colombia during 18060 Ma. Thick, black arrows are indicative of exhumation determined from the thermochronological data in combination
with the stratigraphic record of the foreland basins. CAF: CaucaAlmaguer Fault, OPF: Oto-Pericos Fault, SJF: San-Jeronimo Fault, SPF: SilviaPijao Fault.
248 D. Villagmez, R. Spikings / Lithos 160161 (2013) 228249
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