Calculus Option Notes [RR]

IB Math HL

Watch this if you need motivation :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YXNAFy-KQ8

Sources used:

HAESE Mathematics HL Calculus Option workbook

Convergence thread on IB Survival forum

http://www.ibsurvival.com/topic/22237-tests-for-convergence/

AP Calculus Final Review Sheet

https://chaffeemath.wikispaces.com/file/view/Final%20Review%20Sheet%20-%20Rahn
%20KEY.pdf/429650174/Final%20Review%20Sheet%20-%20Rahn%20KEY.pdf

/u/SushiNoob's teacher's mindmap

https://www.reddit.com/r/IBO/comments/4j1dwc/my_teachers_mathematics_hl_calculus_o
ption_p3/

/u/Dre_J 's playlist of Calculus videos made by Professor Leonard

https://www.reddit.com/r/IBO/comments/4j88yp/lectures_on_the_calculus_option_by_profe
ssor/
 What the question asks: What you have to do + Notes:
9.3 + Basics
Show that lim f ( x) exists Find lim f (x ) and lim f (x ) (the limit
x a x a+ xa
as it reaches the point from the left side and
from the right side) and show that they are
equal.

Show that f(x) is continuous Show that lim f ( x) exists and that it is
x a
equal to f(a).

Show that f(x) is differentiable at a Show that f(x) is continuous at a and:

f (a+h)f (a)
lim and
ha h
f (a+ h)f (a)
lim exist and are equal.
ha+ h

9.2 Show that series {an} is convergent / divergent [Infinite Series] :

By comparison test Find a series {bn}, where {bn} {an} and
({an},{bn} 0 ).

If {bn} converges, {an} is forced to converge

as well.

This can also be used to test for divergence.

If {bn} is divergent and
{an} {bn}, {an} is divergent as well.

When to use this:

9.1
Use the squeeze theorem to evaluate a limit 1. Find a f(x) and a h(x), such that:

lim g( x ) f(x) g(x) h(x) .

x0

and

lim f ( x )=l =lim h( x)

x a x a
 2. If both of these conditions apply,
lim g( x )=l
x a

By limit comparison test Find a series {bn}, for which you know
whether it converges or diverges and
({an},{bn} 0 )

an
If lim =c , where c is a positive, finite
n bn
value, both series will either converge or
diverge.

By integral test: Let f be a positive, decreasing on ]1, ] and

let an = f(n). Then the series

[Note {an} is the same as na is convergent if f ( x)dx is also
n=1 1
an ] convergent. If

f ( x)dx is divergent,
1

an is also divergent.
n=1

By ratio test: Find an+1. (Distribute a + 1 for all the n's in

an)
[Used to test if a series is absolutely
convergent, divergent or inconclusive
Calculate L=lim
n
| |
an+1
an
A series is absolutely convergent if

|a n| is also convergent. Otherwise, If L<1, the series is absolutely convergent,
n=1 thus convergent
conditionally convergent. ]
If L>1, the series is divergent

If L=1 the series may be divergent,

conditionally convergent, or absolutely
convergent

Nth term test -

Gemoetric series -
p-series 1
np is convergent if p > 1, otherwise it is
divergent. If p=1, it is the harmonic series

NOTE: P-series is useful when testing for

Absolute value test
9.6: Differential Equations <3
Show that a general solution for differential
equation
convergence using the other tests. E.g. it can
be used for comparison test, as it is known
that the p series converges / diverges.
-
1. Find derivative of general solution
provided
2. Plug in derivative found for differential
equation given

Draw a slope field -

[Initial value problem, IVT] To approximate a value for y(c):
1. Start with writing down intial condition
Given an initial condition, use Euler's x0, y0
method of numerical integration with a step 2. Obtain x1 by adding step size x to intial
size of h to find an approximate value for condition x0 .
y(c) x1= x0 + h
3. Obtain y1 by:
dy
y 1= y 0 +h( ) , where dy over dx is found
dx
using the values x0 and y0 , and h is step size.
4. Repeat this process until y(c) is obtained.

i.e. yn+1 = yn + hf(xn, yn) , xn+1 = xn+h

^ Do all of that on calculator

[Seperable differential equations] 1. Get equation in the form of:

Integrate a function dy
g( x) =f (x)
dx
dy f (x )
= or something such
dx g( y ) 2. Integrate both sides with respect to x

dy
g (x)dx dx= f (x )dx
 3. This gives

g (x)dy f ( x) dx
4. Integrate both sides.

Sometimes it's nice to simplify the constant

of integration.

E.g.

1 dy 1 1
y dx dx= (1+ x1 x+1 )dx
1
y dy=x+ ln | x+ 1|ln | x1| +c

let ln(c) = A

ln y=x +ln ( A | x1
x +1 |
)

Therefore

x1
y= Ae x ( )
x +1
Solve a homogeneous equation 1. Use substitution y=vx

It can be deduced that an equation is 2. By product rule

homogeneous, when you cannot simply get
the equation in the form dy dv
= dx+ v
dx dx
dy
g( x) =f ( x)
dx 3. Compare this to diffferential equation
dy y
=f ( ) given.
A homogeneous equation is of the form dx x

dy y 4. Get this in the form of a seperable

=f ( ) where y=y(x)
dx x differntial equation, where one side is
integrated with respect to v and one side is
where v is a function of x. integrated with respect to x
Solve a differential equation in the form: 1. Find P(x)

dy 2. Integrating factor I(x) is found by:

+ P(x ) y =Q( x)
dx
P( x)dx
I ( x)=e (in formula booklet)
Which is not seperable
3. Calculate this integrating factor

4. Multiply the full differential equation by

I(x)

5. Simplify the LHS to obtain

I ( x) y= I ( x )Q(x )dx + c

6. Integrate to obtain general solution

9.4 Riemann sums, 'Fundamental theorem of calculus', Improper integrals
Find the area under a curve using riemann 1. Find delta x, given by:
sums
ba
x= (a and b are given by definite
Identities: n
b

n integral f ( x )dx . Lower and upper

c=cn a

i=1 values of interval [a,b] , where b > a.

n
n (n+1) 2. Find xi* , given by:
i= 2
i=1
x i=a+ x (i)
n
n (n+1)(2 n+ 1)
i= 6 3. Riemann sum is given by:
i=12
b n
f (x )dx=lim f ( x i) x
n
a i=1

4. Calculate the area by using the identities.

You will want to move anything 'n' out of the
sum and keep 'i' in the sum.

Lower and upper values for Riemann Sum -

Fundamental theorem of calculus -
Evaluate an improper integral of the form 1. Write integral in the form of:

f ( x )dx
b
lim f ( x)dx
a b
a

Often includes techniques such as b

integration by parts, limit laws, l'Hopital's 2. Integrate f ( x )dx

Rule and integration by substitution. a

3. Move all that does not have b in it to the

left hand side of the limit (as it won't be
affected by b tending towards infinity)

4. Evaluate the limit

5. Solve improper integral

Determine whether an improper integral of If integral can be found easily:
the form f ( x ) dx is convergent or 1. Integrate what is given
a
divergent. b
2. Convergent if f ( x )dx exists for all b
a
b
where a b < and if lim f (x) dx exists.
b
a
Otherwise divergent.
By comparison test:
For convergence:

Find g(x) that is greater than or equal to f(x),

for all x a.

If g ( x)dx is convergent so is
a

f (x )dx
a

For divergence:

Find g(x) that is smaller or equal to f(x), for

all x a.

If g ( x)dx is divergent so is f ( x ) dx
a a

Often uses p series, as convergence and

divergence is known
9.6
Determine whether or not Rolle's theorem 1. Plug in values a and b in function f(x)
applies to the function f on the given interval
[a,b]
Show that the given function f satisfies the
Mean Value Theorem (MVT) on the given
interval [a,b]. Find all values of c such that
f(b)-f(a) = f'(c) x (b-a)
2. If both result in 0, Rolle's theorem
guarantees that there is at least one point c at
which f'(c)=0.
1. Show that f(x) is continuous on [a,b] and
differentiable on ]a,b[, then MVT guarantees
f(b)-f(a) = f'(c) x (b-a) for some value
c ]a,b[.

[ f(b)-f(a) = f'(c) x (b-a) basically means that 2. Values for f'(c) can be found by plugging
there must be a value c ]a,b[ where the in values in f(b)-f(a) = f'(c) x (b-a).
gradient f'(c) is equal to the gradient
f (b)f (a)
(joining two outer values of
ba
interval together ]
Find the nth degree Taylor polynomial Watch Professor Leonard 's video about
approximation to f(x) about x=a Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series

[Difficult to summarize]

Use of error term, Taylor's formula with -

remainder
Maclaurin series for equations given in -
formula booklet
Taylor series developed from differentials -
Use of substitution, products, integration and -
differentiation to obtain other series.
9.7 l'Hopital's rule, evaluation of limits of form f(x) / g(x)
Evaluate limit of the form f(x)/g(x) using If given a limit of the form f(x)/g(x) which
l'Hopital's results indeterminate form (either 0/0,
infinity over infinity or 0 times infinity)

Find f'(x) and g'(x). The limit of f'(x) / g'(x)

equals the limit of f(x)/g(x), provided limit
of f'(x)/g'(x) exists.
 Summary about series and stuff like that

Concept Explained
Alternating series Terms in series are alternately positive and
negative.

If (1)n1 bn=b 1b2 +b3.. . satisfies
n=1
0 bn+1 bn for all n |Z+ , and if
lim b n=0 , then the series is convergent.
n

+ others
Power series A series of the form:

n 2
lim cn x =c 0 +c 1 x +c 2 x +.. .
n=0

Three possibilities for convergence of a

n 2
lim cn (xa) =c 0+ c 1 ( xa)+ c 2( xa) +.. .
n=0
- Series converges only when x = a
- The series converges for all n |R+
- There exists a radius of convergence
R |R+, such that series converges if
|x-a| < R and diverges if |x-a| > R
Radius of convergence A value R, which is the greatest number such
that the series converges for all x |R such
that |x-a| < R and diverges for all x |R such
that |x-a| > R
Interval of convergence Interval of convergence I is the set of all
points x for which the power series
converges.
Truncating -

Conditional vs absolute convergence A series an is absolutely convergent if
n=1

the series of absolute values |a n| is
n=1
convergent. If an 0 for all n, absolute
convergence is the same as convergence.

n1
A series such as (1)n which is
n=1
convergent but not absolutely convergent, is
called conditionally convergent. If a series is
absolutely convergent, then it's convergent.
Binomial series -
Kinds of continuity Continuous if f(a) is defined, lim of f(x)
from positive side and lim of f(x) from
negative side exist and are equal, and if lim
of x tending towards a of f(x) equals to f(a).

If conditions fail, f(x) is discontinuous at

x=a.

If lim of x tending to a of f(x) exists, then f

has a removable discontinuity at x=a.

Otherwise, essential discontinuity.

Fundamental theorem of calculus -
Monotone sequence -
Monotone convergence -
Product of series -

Note on tests:

Comparison tests can be done for integrals, limits, sequences and series