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COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE OF SEWAGE

Introduction

The waste generated should be expeditiously removed away to a suitable place, usually situated at
some distance from the town, for disposal. The refuse contains substance that is offensive and
injurious to public health; they decompose and give bad smelling gases which contaminate the air,
soil and water. All these have an adverse effect on the health of the person living by. Also, the
water supply also gets contaminated by infiltration of sewage through soil. It is therefore very
essential that such substances should be removed away from the vicinity of a town as soon as they
are produced.

Excreta and sewage is satisfactorily disposed if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The waste does not pollute the ground surface.
2. It does not pollute the drinking water.
3. It should not be accessible to children or household.
4. It should not give unsightly appearance.
5. It should not give rise to mosquito nuisance.

Types of sewers

Main or trunk sewer is a sewer that receives sewage from many tributary branches and sewers,
serving as an outlet for a large territory.
Branch or submain sewer is a sewer which receives sewage from a relatively small area, usually a
few laterals, and discharges into main sewers.
Lateral sewer is a sewer which collects sewage directly from the houses. It indicates the first stage
of sewage collection.
Separate sewers are those which carry the household and industrial wastes only.
Storm water drains are those which carry rainwater from roofs and street surfaces.
Combined sewers are those which carry both sewage and storm water.
House sewer (a drain) is a pipe carrying away the sewage from a building to a street sewer.
Depressed sewer is a section of sewer constructed lower than adjacent sections, to pass beneath an
obstacle or obstruction. It runs full under the force of gravity.
Intercepting sewer is a sewer laid transversely to a general sewer system to intercept the DWF of
sewage and such additional surface and storm water as may be desirable. An intercepting sewer is
usually a large sewer, flowing parallel to natural drainage channel, into which a number of main
or outfall sewers discharge.
Outfall sewer is a sewer that receives sewage from the collecting systems and conducts it to a point
of final discharge or to a disposal plant.
Relief or overflow sewer is a sewer built to carry the flow in excess of capacity of existing sewer.

Sewer systems

Once the water is used for its intended purpose, the water becomes wastewater. The individual
pipes used to collect and transport wastewater are called sewers, and the network of sewers used
to collect wastewater from a community is known as a sewerage collection system.

The collection system is meant for collection of the sewage generated from individual houses and
transporting it to a common point where it can be treated as per the needs before disposal. In olden
days, waste generated from water closets was collected by conservancy methods and other liquid
waste was transported through open drain to finally join natural drains. Since, the excreta was
carried through carts, it was not hygienic method for transportation to the disposal point. Now,
collection and conveyance of sewage is done in water carriage system, where it is transported in
closed conduit using water as a medium.

The sanitation of a town or city is done by two methods, which are:


1. Conservancy system
2. Water- carriage system.

Conservancy system:This system is sometimes also called as dry system. The faecal matter (night
soil) in this system is collected in pails which is then removed to some convenient site away from
the inhabitated area and buried underground in shallow trenches which are covered with alternate
layers of dry earth, as it possesses the property of de-odouring and oxidizing the organic matter.
In the localities where agriculture is an occupation, the excreta are mostly used as manures.The
garbage is collected separately in dust bins and conveyed in hand carts or vehicle twice in a day.
The combustible waste in incinerated and the non-combustible waste are used as land fill. The
storm water is conveyed in open drains.
Disadvantages of conservancy system
a. Hygiene and sanitary aspect The conservancy is highly unhygienic and cause insanitary
conditions since the excreta starts decomposing within few hours of its production.
b. Transportation aspect Transportation of night soil takes place in open carts through streets
and other crowded localities. It is highly undesirable.
c. Labour aspect The working of this system depends entirely on the labour force. If they
go on strike even for one day, the privies cannot be used because of foul smell.
d. Building design aspect The lavatories or privies is to be located outside the house and
slightly away from main building. The compact design is therefore not possible.
e. Pollution problem The liquid wastes from the lavatories may soak in ground and
contaminate the soil.
f. Health issues Due to improper and careless disposal of night soil, there are more chances
of outbreak of epidemic.
g. Cost consideration Though the system is quite cheap in the beginning, its maintenance
and establishment costs are very high.

Water- carriage system:In this system the solid faecal matter is removed along with sewage water
in underground sewers. There is always a variation in sewerage system due to size of the town and
the occupation of the inhabitants. Sometimes, the storm water is also allowed to flow into the
sewers due to lack of space for its removal inopen drains. Generally, in small towns the excreta
and domestic sewage are separated from the storm water and in large cities the sewage along with
industrial wastes and storm water are removed together.
Advantages of water- carriage system
a. Hygiene and sanitary aspect The system is very hygienic since the night soil and other
wastewater is conveyed through closed conduits.
b. Pollution aspect The liquid wastes are directly conveyed through sewers and therefore
there is no chance of waste being soaked into the ground.
c. Labour aspect The labour required for the operation and maintenance is extremely small.
d. Compactness of design Since the latrines are flushed after every use, excreta does not
remain and there is no foul smells. The lavatories, thus, can be accommodated in any part
of the building.
e. Treatment aspect The system permits modern treatment methods and treated wastewater
and sewage can be safely disposed off.
f. Cost consideration Even though the initial cost of installation of the system is costly, the
running costs are very small, since manual labour is very much reduced.
g. Epidemic aspect There are no chances of outbreak of epidemic because flies and other
insects do not have direct access to the sewage.

The water- carriage system is further classified into:


I. Separate system.
II. Combined system.
III. Partially separate system.

When the domestic and industrial sewage are taken in one set of sewers, whereas storm and surface
water are taken in another set of sewers, it is called separate system. When only one set of sewers
is laid for carrying both the sanitary sewage and storm water, it is called combined system. In the
separate system, if a portion of storm water is allowed to enter in the sewers carrying the sewage,
and the remaining storm water flows in separate set of sewers, it is called partially separate system.

The combined system is most suited in areas having small rainfall which is evenly distributed
throughout the area, because at such places self- cleaning velocity will be available in every season.
As only one sewer is laid in this system, therefore it can also be used in crowded areas, where it is
very difficult to lay two sewers. The combined system can also be used in area having less sewage,
to obtain the self-cleaning velocity.

If the rainfall is heavy and it is for short time, it is better to provide separate system, because in
combined system self-cleaning velocity will not be available for most of the period of the years.
In rocky areas it is more expensive to lay one large sewer than two small sewers. Separate system
should be provided if the sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
Comparison of conservancy and water- carriage system

Conservancy system Water- carriage system

Economicalinitially. Initial cost is high.

System is unhygienic since everything is System is hygienic since everything is not


visible. visible.

Compact design is not possible. Compact design is possible.

Large labour force is required. Labour force required is small.

Water consumption is small. Higher water consumption.

No technical person required. Technical persons are required.

Risk of spread of epidemic diseases. Risk is very less.

Comparison of separate and combined system

Separate system Combined system

The quantity of sewage to be treated is less. As the treatment of sewage as well as storm
water is to be done, treatment cost is high.

In the cities having more intensity of rainfall, In the cities having less intensity rainfall this
this system is more suitable. system is more suitable.

If due to topographical feature, the sewage In this case cost of pumping is high, as storm
pumping is required, this system is more water also is to be pumped along with sewage.
suitable.

In narrow streets, it is difficult to use this It is more suitable in narrow streets.


system.
If rainfall is throughout the year and intensity In such cases this system is more suitable.
is less, this system is not suitable.

Factors governing the choice of system


Separate system
1. Financial aspect:
2. Flat topography:
3. Rainfall pattern:
4. Outlet conditions:
5. Pumping aspects:
6. Steep topography:
7. Subsoil conditions:
8. Development pattern:

Combined system
1. Space consideration:
2. Integrated development:
3. Even rainfall pattern:
4. Pumping requirements:

Planning and Hydraulic Design of sewers

Before designing of any sewage system, it is necessary to know the total quantity of sewage, which
will flow in it after the completion of the design. The total wastewater flow can be divided into
two components:
a. Dry Weather Flow (DWF)
b. Storm Water Flow (wet weather flow)
The dry weather flow is the flow through the sewers that would normally be available during non-
rainfall periods. It consists mainly of i) Domestic sewage ii) Industrial sewage and iii)
Groundwater infiltration.
The storm water flow is additional flow that would occur during the rainy season. It consists of
runoff available from roofs, streets, open spaces etc. during rainfall.

Factors affecting dry weather flow

The quantity of dry weather flow is mainly affected bythe following factors.
(i) Rate of water supply
(ii) Population
(iii) Type of area served as residential, industrial or commercial
(iv) Groundwater infiltration
Rate of water supply:The rate of water supply to a city or town is expressed as so many
lts/captia/day. The quantity of wastewater entering the sewers would be less than the quantity of
water supplied. This is because that some water is lost in domestic consumption (i.e., cooking etc.),
evaporation, gardening, etc. However, infiltration of sub-soil water, other water supplies (i.e.,
domestic wells) increases the wastewater flow rate. This extra water that enters is approximately
assumed equal to the water lost in consumption. So, wastewater flow rates are assumed equal to
the rate of supply of water. If there is no addition of extra water into the wastewater generated then
wastewater quantity may be assumed to be 80% of the quantity of water supply. However, the
sewers must be designed for a minimum of 150 lts/capita/day.
Population:The quantity of wastewater depends on the population. As the population increases the
quantity of sewage alsoincreases because the consumption of water is more.The sewerage system
is designed for the quantity of wastewater not only of the present population but also the future
population. The population forecast may be done by the following methods:
i. Arithmetical increase method.
ii. Geometrical increase method.
iii. Incremental increase method.
iv. Decrease rate of growth method.
v. Graphical method.
vi. Graphical comparison method.
vii. Zoning method or Master plan method.
viii. The logistic curve method.

Table shows the water consumption and sewage production with the increase in population.
Population Water consumption Sewage production

(lts/capita/day) (lts/capita/day)

Below 2 lakhs 130-160 110-120

2 to 5 lakhs 160-180 130-140

5 to 10 lakhs 180-200 150-170

More than 10 lakhs 200-250 180-200

Type of area served:The quantity of sewage depends upon the type of area asresidential, industrial
or commercial. The quantity is depends onpopulation if it is residential, type of industry if it is
industrial.Commercial and public places can be determined by studying thedevelopment of other
such places. The wastewater produced from the residential area may be assumed to be equal to 70
to 80% of the water supplied through the water supply system.
Groundwater infiltration:When sewers are laid below the water table in the ground,
thegroundwater may infiltrate into the sewer from the faulty jointsand cracks in the pipelines.
Exfiltration is the reverse process which indicates the flow of wastewater from the sewer into the
ground. Both infiltration as well as exfiltration are undesirable and take place due to imperfect
joints.The quantity of infiltration water inthe sewer depends upon the height of the water table
about thesewer, sewer material, permeability of soil, size and nature of the faults orcracks in the
sewer line.
Infiltration of water into the sewer line may be expressed by the following methods:
a. Area basis: In this, the rate of infiltration is expressed as litres per hectare of area per day,
i.e, 5,000 lts/hect/day. Thus, if area served by the sewer is 10 hectares, the total infiltration
volume per day will be 5000*10 = 50,000 lts. The infiltration may range from 0.2 to 28
m3/hect/day. In the absence of any other data, the following flow rates shown may be
adopted.
b. Length basis: In this, rate of infiltration is expressed as lts/unit length/day, i.e., 10,000
lts/km length of sewer/day. If the length of sewer through the ground water zone is 5km,
the total infiltration volume will be 10000*5 = 50,000 lts/day, at the above rate.

Fig.: Average infiltration rate curve


c. Diameter-length basis: This is the most rational method in which infiltration rate is
expressed in litres per cm diameter of sewer per km length per day. The rate of infiltration
will increase with increase in the diameter of the sewer.

While estimating the design discharge, following suggested discharge can be considered
Table: Suggested estimates for groundwater infiltration for sewers laid below groundwater table
Unit Minimum Maximum

L/ha.d 5000 50000

L/km.d 500 5000

L per day per manhole 250 500


Design Period
The future period for which the provision is made in designing the capacities of the
variouscomponents of the sewerage scheme is known as the design period. The design period
depends upon the following:
Ease and difficulty in expansion,
Amount and availability of investment,
Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in communities, industries and
commercial investments,
Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
Life of the material and equipment.
The branch and main sewers are designed for a population which may occur at the end of one
generation of 30 years. The pumping plants are designed for a design period of 5 to 10 yrs only,
since additional pumps can be installed whenever needed. The treatment units are designed for 10
to 30 yrs period.

Variation in Sewage Flow


The rate of sewage flow is not constant.Variation occurs in the flow of sewage over annual average
daily flow. Fluctuation in flowoccurs from hour to hour and from season to season. The designer
must be concerned with both maximum and minimum rate of flow. The sewers should be designed
that it can take the maximum load. At the same time, they should be laid on such longitudinal
gradient that there are no deposits in the sewers at the minimum flow. Both the maximum and
minimum flows are expressed as percentage of the average rate of flow.
The relation between the maximum and average rate of flow of sewage for residential areas can
be expressed by the following empirical relations:

Babbits formula:
5
=
0.2
Harmons formula:
14
= (1 + )
4 + 0.5
Where, Qmax = maximum rate of flow
Qav = average rate of flow
P = population in thousands

The first formula is restricted to maximum value of P = 1000 and a minimum value of P = 1. There
is no such limitation in the second formula.
In practice, the above flow are not calculated by using any formulae given above, but are simply
assumed with common values given below.
Maximum daily flow = Two times the annual average daily flow (representing seasonal
variations)

Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow (accounting hourly variations)
= Three times the annual average daily flow

The hourly, daily and seasonal variation of the sewage flow of a town affects the working of not
only sewers, but also the pumping station and treatment plants. The hourly rate of wastewater flow
is affected by the hourly variations in water consumptions. In general, the wastewater discharge
curve closely follows the water consumption curve, but with a time lag of few hours.

Fig.: Hourly variations of sewage flowFig.: Hourly variations of sewage flow


with respect to water supply

Peaking factors
The effect of daily variations in sewage flow is maximum on domestic and lateral sewers since,
they receive the flow directly from the sources. This effect reduces gradually as the flow reaches
the branches and main sewers. This variation is considered in the design by taking peaking factors
(ratio of peak flow to average flow). Such peaking factors are given in table.
Sewer Peaking factor

Domestic sewer 6

Lateral sewer 4-6

Branch sewer 3

Main sewer 2.5

Trunk or outfall sewer 2

As the tributary area increases, peak hourly flow will decrease. For smaller population served(less
than 50000) the peak factor can be 2.5, and as the population served increases its valuereduces.For
large cities it can be considered about 1.5 to 2.0. If the flow records are insufficient to establish
the peaking factors, the curves given below may be used.

Fig.: Peaking factors for domestic sewage

Minimum flows
The minimum flow passing through sewers is also important to develop self cleansing velocityto
avoid silting in sewers. This flow will generate in the sewers during late night hours. Theeffect of
this flow is more pronounced on lateral sewers than the main sewers. Sewers must bechecked for
minimum velocity as follows:
Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow
Minimum hourly flow = minimum daily flow
= 1/3 Annual average daily flow
The overall variation between the maximum and minimum flow is more in the laterals and lessin
the main or trunk sewers. This ratio may be more than 6 for laterals and about 2 to 3 in caseof main
sewers.

Storm water flow (wet weather flow (WWF))


When rainfall occurs, part of it infiltrates or percolates into the ground, a part of it is evaporated
into the atmosphere and the remaining part overflows as storm or flood water. The quantity of
storm water reaching the sewers or drains may be very large as compared to sanitary sewage.

In the case of combined system, the sewers are normally not designed for peak storm water flow,
since the size of the sewers required would be very large. During ordinary rain, the sewers run full
of storm water. However, during heavy rainfall, the peak storm water is allowed to accumulate for
some time, while the sewers continue to run full of storm water. After the rains are over, the
accumulated storm water is discharged gradually through the sewers. In separate system, the
sanitary sewage is taken in one set of sewers and storm sewage is taken in another set of sewers.
The quantity of storm sewage depends on many factors.

The factors affecting the quantity of stormwater flow are as below:


i. Area of the catchment
ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
viii. Number and size of ditches present in the area

Measurement of Intensity of rainfall


The rainfall intensity could be measured by using rain gauges and recording the amount of rain
falling in unit time. The rainfall intensity is usually expressed as mm/hour or cm/hour. The rain
gauges used can be manual recording type or automatic recording rain gauges.

Time of concentration
The period after which the entire catchment area will start contributing to the runoff is called time
of concentration.In other words, it is the time required for the flood discharge to reach to the
maximum limit. The time of concentration consists of two components: i) Inlet time or time of
entry (teor ti) ii) time of flow or time of travel (tfor tt). The time of concentration is the summation
of inlet time and time of flow.
Time of concentration = inlet time + time of flow
The time required for the rain in falling on the most remote point of the tributaryarea to flow across
the ground surface along the natural drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer iscalled inlet time
(Figure). The areas tributary to most of the sewers is usually small. Hence, it is a suitable value is
normally assumed. The inlet time decreases with increase in slope and imperviousness of the
ground, while it increases with distance and storage conditions of the ground. A normal practice
is to assume it between 3 to 20 minutes. The lower value being adopted for the steepest slope while
higher value is adopted for grassy plots.

Fig.: Runoff from a given catchment


The time required by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth tothe point under
consideration is called as time of travel. It is computed by assuming the velocity of flow in the
drain and measuring the length of drain or sewer from inlet point to the point under consideration.
Time of Travel (tf) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain
It is generally considered that the maximum runoff occurs when duration of storm is equal to time
of concentration. This is because if the duration of storm is shorter than the time of concentration,
the whole catchment will not be contributing water, though the intensity of rainfall will be more
than the obtainable for a storm of longer duration. The result will be that lesser runoff will be
obtained. If, the duration of storm is longer than the time of concentration, the rainfall intensity
will be less, resulting in lesser runoff.

Further, the Federal Aviation Agency also has given a formula to estimate the time of concentration
given by,
1.8(1.1 )3.28
= 3

Where, tc = time of concentration in min.
C = runoff coefficient (similar to imperviousness coefficient)
D = overland flow distance in m
S = slope in %

Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm Water


1. Rational Method
2. Empirical formulae method
In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is considered as function of intensity
ofrainfall, coefficient of runoff and area of catchment. The coefficient of runoff or the maximum
rate of runoff mainly depends on the surface slope and the estimated condition of the drainage area
with reference to the proportion of rainfall that will run.

Rational Method
The rational method is most commonly used for design of storm drains. It takes into account three
main factors: i) Catchment area (A) ii) Impermeability factor (I) of the catchment iii) Intensity of
rainfall (R). The rational formula can be expressed as,
= . . .
Where,
Q = quantity of storm water in m3/sec.
I = impermeability factor
Ri = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr for the duration equal to time of concentration
A = catchment area in hectares
To find the constant K, we have

= (104 )() ( )
10003600

. .
=
360

Catchment area (A)


The catchment area can be directly found from the map of the town showing the position of streets,
houses, play grounds, sewers etc. However, since the impermeability factor depends on the type
of surface, the catchment area of the different types of surfaces should be found separately.

Impermeability factor (I)


The storm water flow depends upon the imperviousness of the surface over which rainfall occurs.
The percentage of rainwater available in the form of runoff is known as impermeability factor or
runoff coefficient. The common values of impermeability factors, which are commonly used in
determining the quantity of storm water are given below in table.

Type of surface Value of I

Forest and wooden area (depending on ground surface and soil) 0.01 to 0.20
Open grounds, unpaved streets and railroad yards 0.10 to 0.30

Parks, lawns, meadows and gardens 0.10 to 0.25

Gravel roads and walks 0.15 to 0.30

Macadam roadways 0.25 to 0.60

Inferious stones, brick or block pavements with open joints 0.40 to 0.50

Stone, brick and block pavements with open joints 0.50 to 0.70

Good quantity pavements of stones, bricks or blocks 0.75 to 0.85

Asphalt pavements in good conditions 0.85 to 0.90

Water-tight roof surfaces 0.70 to 0.95

As every locality consists of different types of surface areas, the overall impermeability factor for
the catchment (or drainage) area can be worked out as follows:
1 1 + 2 2 + +
( ) = =
1 + 2 + +
Where, A1,A2,.An are types of area with I1,I2,In as their respective impermeability factors.

From the above expression it is clear that for calculating impermeability factor, area of each type
of surface is to be measured and then substituted in the formula. The calculation of area of each
type of surface is very tedious. Therefore, impermeability factors are chosen based on the type of
localities, which depends on the density of population. Table below gives the impermeability
factors for various types of localities.

Type of locality Value of I

Business area 0.85

Areas closely built up 0.75


Areas with semi-detached houses 0.65

Suburban areas with detached houses 0.45 to 0.55

Extremely suburban areas thinly populated 0.35

Intensity of rainfall (Ri)


The value of intensity of rainfall can be determined from the rainfall records of the area. However,
R also depends on the storm frequency and duration of the storm.
The frequency of storm for which the sewers are to be designed depends on the importance of the
locality. Commercial and high priced areas should be subjected to less frequent flooding than the
residential areas. The following values of frequency are generally adopted:
a) Residential areas
i) Peripheral areas: Twice a year
ii) Central and comparatively high priced areas: once a year
b) Commercial and high priced areas: one in two years
The duration of storm is equal to time of concentration. It is the time required for the runoff to be
contributed to the point of concentration from the entire area.

Fig.: Relationship of rainfall duration and intensity


These relationships between rainfall intensity and duration are developed based on long term
experience in field (Fig.). Under Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall in design isusually in the
range 12 mm/h to 20 mm/h. In general, the empirical relationship has thefollowing forms:
a. General formula
25.4
=
+
Where, Ri = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
t = duration of storm in min = time of concentration
a,b = constants

The following values of a and b are adopted.


Duration of storm a b
5 to 20 min 30 10
20 to 100 min 40 20
b. For areas of heavy and frequent rainfall
3430
=
+ 18
The above formula gives rainfall intensity of frequency once in 5 years.
c. For storm occurring once in a year
150
=
0.625
d. For storm occurring once in 10 years
380
=
0.5
Empirical formulae method
Rational formula is used only when the area of draining water into the sewer is small, say smaller
than 400 hectares. For larger area empirical formulae are more suited. All empirical formulae are
applicable under specific conditions such as slope of land, imperviousness, rate of rainfall etc.
These have been developed for a particular region after long practical experience and collection of
field data.

A. Burkli-Zeiglar formula (used in Switzerland)


1/4
= 296 ( )

Constant C varies between 0.5 to 0.9, with an average value of 0.7 is recommended.

B. Mc. Math formula (used in USA)


1/5
= 296 ( )

Constant C varies between 0.3 to 0.9, with an average value of 0.75 is recommended.

C. Fannings formula
3/4
= 3125

E. Talbots formula
1/4
= 87000

F. Dickens formula (Suited for North India)


3/4
= 14
Where, constant C = 250 for very large areas
= 850 for average areas with annual rainfall between 600 to 1200 mm.
= 1600 for small areas

G. Ryves formula (Suited for North India)


2/3
= 15
The constant C may vary between 400 to 625.

Where, Q = runoff in lts/sec


Ri = maximum rate of rainfall in mm/hr
A = catchment area in hectares
Ak = area in square km.
S = slope of the ground in metres per 1000 m.

Hydraulic Design of sewers

After estimating the quantity of sewage and storm water, the diameter of main sewer, branch sewer,
etc. should be designed properly. The sewage, to be transported through sewers, is mostly liquid
(i.e. water), containing hardly 0.1 to 0.2 percent of solid matter in the form of organic matter,
sediments and minerals. Hence, the general approach for the design of sewers is similar to the
design of water mains. However, there are some differences in the designs of sewers and water
mains:
Water Supply Pipes Sewer Pipes

It carries pure water. It carries contaminated water containing


organic or inorganic solids which may settle in
the pipe. It can cause corrosion of the pipe
material.

Velocity higher than self-cleansing is not To avoid deposition of solids in the pipes self-
essential, because of solids are not present in cleansing velocity is necessary at all possible
suspension. discharge.

It carries water under pressure. Hence, the pipe It carries sewage under gravity. Therefore it is
can be laid up and down the hills and the required to be laid at a continuous falling
valleys within certain limits. gradient in the downward direction towards
outfall point.

These pipes are flowing full under pressure. Sewers are design to run partial full at
maximum discharge. This extra space ensures
non-pressure gravity flow. This will minimize
the leakage from sewer, from the faulty joints
or crack, if any.

Generally, sewers are laid at steeper gradients falling towards the outfall point with circularpipe
cross section. Storm water drains are separately constructed as surface drains at suitablegradient,
either rectangular or trapezoidal section. Sewers are designed to carry the maximumquantity of
sanitary sewage likely to be produced from the area contributing to the particularsewer. Storm
water drains are designed to carry the maximum storm runoff that is likely to beproduced by the
contributing catchment area from a rain of design frequency and of durationequal to the time of
concentration.The maximum and minimum velocities of flow of sewage should be maintained by
providing suitable gradient so that the conditions of non-silting and non-scouring may be achieved.

Provision of Freeboard in Sewers


7.4.1 Sanitary Sewers
Sewers with diameter less than 0.4 m are designed to run half full at maximum discharge,
andsewers with diameter greater than 0.4 m are designed to flow 2/3 to full at
maximumdischarge. The extra space provided in the sewers provides factor of safety to
counteractagainst the following factors:
1. Safeguard against lower estimation of the quantity of wastewater to be collected at the end
of design period due to private water supply by industries and public. Thus, to ensure that
sewers will never flow full eliminating pressure flow inside the sewer.
2. Large scale infiltration of storm water through wrong or illegal connection, through
underground cracks or open joints in the sewers.
3. Unforeseen increase in population or water consumption and the consequent increase in
sewage production.

7.4.2 Storm Water Drains


Storm water drains are provided with nominal freeboard, above their designed full supply
linebecause the overflow from storm water drains is not much harmful. Minimum of 0.3 m free
board is generally provided in storm water drains.

Hydraulic Formulae for Determining Flow Velocities


Sewers of any shape are hydraulically designed as open channels, except in the case of
invertedsiphons and discharge lines of pumping stations. Following formulae can be used for
design ofsewers.
1. Chezys formula
2. Kutters formula
3. Bazins formula
4. Manning formula
5. Crimp and Bruges formula
6. Hazen and Williams formula

1. Chezys formula
V = CR. S
Where, V = velocity of flow (m/s)
S = hydraulic gradient or slope of the sewer
C = Chezys constant
R = hydraulic mean radius (m) = A/P
A = area of cross-section (m2)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
The Chezys constant is a complex parameter which is dependent on several factors such as
roughness of inner surface of sewer, hydraulic mean radius, size and shape of sewer, slope etc.
The value of C is found using Bazins formula or Kutters formula. Knowing the velocity of flow
V, the channel section is designed by the general formula,
Q = A. V
Where, Q = discharge in m3/sec

2. Kutters formula
0.00155 1
23 + +N
C= S
0.00155 N
1 + (23 + )
S R
Where, R = hydraulic mean radius
S = slope
N = rugosity coefficient and it depends on the nature of inside surface of the sewer.

Table: Value of Kutters or Mannings coefficient N


Conduit Material Condition of the interior surface

Good Fair
Salt glazed stoneware 0.012 0.014

Cement concrete 0.013 0.015

Cast iron 0.012 0.013

Brick, unglazed 0.013 0.015

Asbestos cement 0.011 0.012

Plastic smooth 0.011 0.011

A reduction in the value of N has been seen with the increase in diameter of the sewer or drain.
For cement concrete pipes of dia. 600mm and above, a value of N = 0.013 may be adopted.

3. Bazins formula
157.6
C=
K
1.81 +
R
Where, K = Brazins constant can be obtained from the table

Table: Brazins constant K


Nature of inside surface of sewer K

Very smooth surface 0.109

Smooth brick or concrete surface 0.29

Rough brick or concrete surface 0.833

Smooth rubble masonry surface 1.54

Good earthen channels 0.50

Rough earthen channels 3.17


4. Mannings formula
1 2/3 1/2
V= R S
N
Where, V, R, N and S are the same as explained above. The value of N can be obtained
from the same table given for Kutters constant.

5. Crimp and Bruges formula


V = 83.47 R2/3 S1/2
The above is similar to Mannings formula and with comparison, we have,
1 2/3 1/2
V = 83.47 R2/3 S1/2 = R S
N
Which gives N = 1/83.47 = 0.012. Hence, Mannings formula becomes Crimp and Bruges formula
when N = 0.012.

6. Hazen and Williams formula


The formula is mostly used for flow under pressure.
V = 0.85C R0.63 S 0.54
Where, the coefficient C can be obtained from table below.

Table: Hazen and Williams coefficient C


Type of material C

Old CI pipes 100

Stoneware pipes in good condition 110

Steel lined with cement 120

RCC new pipe 120

New CI pipes 130

Plastic pipes 120


Asbestos cement pipes 120

Minimum Velocity: Self Cleansing Velocity


The velocity that would not permit the solids to settle down and even scour the depositedparticles
of a given size is called as self-cleansing velocity. This minimum velocity should at least develop
once in a day so as not to allow any deposition in the sewers. Otherwise, if such deposition takes
place, it will obstruct free flow causing further deposition and finally leading to the complete
blocking of the sewers. This minimum velocity or self-cleansing velocity canbe worked out as
below:

8K
Vs = (Ss 1)g. d
f

Where, K= constant, for clean inorganic solids = 0.04 and for organic solids = 0.06
f' = Darcy Weisbach friction factor (for sewers = 0.03)
Ss = Specific gravity of sediments
g = gravity acceleration
d' = diameter of grain, m

Hence, for removing the impurities present in sewage i.e., sand up to 1 mm diameter with
specific gravity 2.65 and organic particles up to 5 mm diameter with specific gravity of 1.2, it
is necessary that a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/sec and an average velocity of about 0.9
m/sec should be developed in sewers.
Hence, while finalizing the sizes and gradients of the sewers, they must be checked for the
minimum velocity that would be generated at minimum discharge, i.e., about 1/3 of the average
discharge.
While designing the sewers the flow velocity at full depth is generally kept at about 0.8 m/sec
or so. Since, sewers are generally designed for to full, the velocity at designed discharge
(i.e., to full) will even be more than 0.8 m/sec. Thus, the minimum velocity generated in
sewers will help in the following ways:
Adequate transportation of suspended solids,
Keeping the sewer size under control; and
Preventing the sewage from decomposition by moving it faster, thereby preventing
evolution of foul gases.

Maximum Velocity or Non-scouring Velocity


The interior surface of the sewer pipe gets scored due to the continuous abrasion caused by
suspended solids present in sewage. The scoring is pronounced at higher velocity than what can
be tolerated by the pipe materials. This wear and tear of the sewer pipes will reduce thelife span
of the pipe and their carrying capacity. In order to avoid this, it is necessary to limitthe maximum
velocity that will be produced in sewer pipe at any time. This limiting or non-scouringvelocity
mainly depends upon the material of sewer. The limiting velocity fordifferent sewer material is
provided in Table below.
Sewer Material Limiting velocity, m/sec

Vitrified tiles 4.5 5.5

Cast iron sewer 3.5 4.5

Cement concrete 2.5 3.0

Stone ware sewer 3.0 4.5

Brick lined sewer 1.5 2.5

The problem of maximum or non-scouring velocity is severe in hilly areas where ground slopeis
very steep and this is overcome by constructing drop manholes at suitable places along thelength
of the sewer.

Effect of Flow Variations on Velocities in a Sewer


The discharge flowing through sewers varies considerably from time to time. Due to the variation
in the discharge, the Hydraulic Mean Depth (R) also varies. Since, the velocity is a proportional to
R2/3, the velocity of flow varies as sewer discharge varies. This is more prominent in case of
combined sewers or partially combined sewers. As the flow decreases, the velocity of flow also
decreases. Therefore, it is necessary to check the sewer for minimum velocity of about 0.45m/sec
at the time of minimum flow (1/3 of average flow) and the velocity of about 0.9 to 1.2m/sec should
be developed at a time of average flow. The velocity should also be checked forlimiting velocity
i.e. non-scouring velocity at the maximum discharge.

Hydraulic elements of circular sewer


Sewers of circular cross-section are the most commonly used shape of sewer. Sometimes, egg-
shaped sewers are also used. Using of circular sewers offer the following advantages:
1. They can be easily manufactured.
2. A circular sewer gives maximum area for a given perimeter and hence, has the greatest
Hydraulic Mean Depth (HMD) when running full or half full.
3. It is the most economical section since it utilizes minimum quantities of material.
4. It has uniform curvature all around and hence, minimum deposition of solid waste.
To take advantage of the circular section, most of the times the sewer runs more than half full.
However, if the flow drops to 0.2depth, the velocity must be increased to equal self-cleansing
velocity.

a) Circular section running full


Let D be the internal diameter of the circular sewer.
2
= =
4
= = D
A D
Hydraulic Mean Depth = = =
P 4

b) Circular section running full


Figure shows a circular sewer running partially full. Let d be the
depth at partial flow and let be the central subtended angle.

Let a = area of cross-section


p = wetted perimeter
r = HMD
v = velocity of flow

Central angle is given by,


1 2
= 1
2

Depth:

= = (1 )
2 2 2 2 2

1
Proportional depth, = (1 )
2 2

Area:
2 D D
= ( X ) ( cos ) . ( sin )
4 360 2 2 2 2
2 sin
= ( )( )
4 360 2

Proportional area, =( )
360 2

Wetted Perimeter:

= .
360

Proportional wetted perimeter, =
360

Hydraulic mean depth:


2 sin
a 4 (360 2 )
= =
p
D 360

D 360sin
= [1 ]
4 2
360sin
Proportional HMD, = [1 ]
2

Velocity of flow:
1 2/3 1/2
v= r S
n
where, n = rugosity coefficient applicable for partial flow
2/3
r
Proportional velocity, = (R)

Discharge:
q = av
Taking N/n = 1.0, we have,
2/3
Proportional discharge, = = ( )

2/3
360sin
=[ ] [1 ]
360 2 2

2/3
360sin
= [1 ]
360 2

For variable n/N, we get,


2/3
= ( )( )

Fig.: Hydraulic elements for circular sewer
From the plot it is evident that the velocities in partially filled circular sewer sections canexceed
those in full section and it is maximum at d/D of 0.8. Similarly, the discharge obtainedis not
maximum at flow full condition, but it is maximum when the depth is about 0.95 timesthe full
depth.The sewers flowing with depths between 50% and 80% full need not to be placed on
steepergradients to be as self cleansing as sewers flowing full. The reason is that velocity
anddischarge are function of tractive force intensity which depends upon friction coefficient aswell
as flow velocity generated by gradient of the sewer.

Partial depth self cleansing flow


Sewers flowing between 0.5 to 0.8 full need not be placed at steeper grades to be as self-cleansing
as sewers running full. The minimum grades (corresponding to that for running full) are enough
as long as circular sewer flows more than half full since they will remain equal to self cleansing.
Using subscript s denoting self cleansing equaling that obtained in full section, the following
equations are obtained.

r 1/6
= ( )
R

r 1/6
= ( )( )
R
Because of ventilation considerations, sewers are not designed running full even at ultimate peak
discharge. Small size sewers (upto 0.4m dia.) are generally designed to flow depth, sewers of
size 0.4m to 0.9m are designed to flow at 2/3 depth while large sewers are generally designed to
flow at depth, at ultimate peak discharge.

Other sewer sections


Circular sewers are suitable only where variation in discharge is not large. They are, therefore,
suitable with separate sewerage system. In combined system, the discharge is subject to great
variation. The sewer is becomes very costly since, in rainy season it will be running full while the
DWF during the non-rainy season may not be even 5 to 10% of the combined system, will run at
very low depths.
For combined sewer system, therefore, egg shaped sewer (also called as ovoid sewers) are more
suitable. Their principal advantage is slightly higher velocity for low flows over the circular sewer
of equal capacity. However, egg shaped sewers have the following disadvantages:
a. An egg-shaped sewer is somewhat unstable because the small edge of the egg is down and
the top broader section is to be supported.
b. It is more difficult to construct.
c. It is expensive, as more material is required and as the cost of construction is also high.
d. In the absence of adequate gradient, it is not self-cleansing.
Egg-shaped have become obsolete now because of the above mentioned disadvantages.

In case of soft soils, there may be difficulties of providing foundations for sharply-shaped circular
or ovoid shaped sewers. In such cases, other shapes for sewers can be adopted. Some of the shapes
are semi-elliptical, horse-shoe, parabolic, rectangular or U-shaped sewer in which the bottom is
comparatively is flat.
(g) Egg shaped
Fig.:Other sewer sections

The shape of sewer depends on the hydraulic considerations, construction considerations,


foundation considerations and available space. The lower surface is generally curved to
concentrate low flows and maintain self-cleansing velocities. The horse-shoe section has a semi-
circular arch above the springing line while the invert may be horizontal, circular or parabolic. The
semi-elliptic section is more suitable when width of sewer is more than 2m. The parabolic section
has large carrying capacity as compared with a circular section of the same height. A rectangular
section is used where head room is limited. It has excellent properties until it is filled. Sometimes
under drains may be provided below the section for draining infiltration water.

Sewer materials
Sewers may be made of one of the following materials:
a. Asbestos cement.
b. Plain or reinforced cement concrete.
c. Vitrified clay or stoneware.
d. Brick.
e. Cast iron.
f. Steel
g. Plastic

Asbestos cement sewer pipes possess considerable strength against internal pressure. They are
lightweight and easy to handle. The inner surface is smooth and hence, hydraulically more
efficient. But, they are brittle and weak against impact forces. They are not strong against external
forces. They are also susceptible to sulphide corrosion.
Cement concrete sewer pipes are strong under both internal as well external forces. They can be
easily manufactured at the site of required shape. They are economical for medium and large sized
installations. The major disadvantage of concrete sewers is the corrosion and pitting.
Vitrified clay sewer pipes are highly resistant to corrosion and abrasion. They have smooth interior
and hence, hydraulically efficient. They possess high compressive strength. The sewer material is
cheap and easily available. Since, they are weak in tension, they can carry sewage under pressure.
They are brittle, heavy and bulky. Hence, handling, laying and transportation is difficult.
Brick sewers are preferred for large sized combined sewers. These sewers should be plastered from
outside avoid infiltration. But, the construction of is labour intensive and requires much time. It is
uneconomical compared to cement sewers.
Cast iron sewers are easily corroded by the action of acids and are also costlier. So, they are used
in specific cases where the load is very high, internal pressure is high, protection against infiltration
and vibrations in ground.
Steel sewers can resist high external or internal pressures. They are perfectly impervious. They are
light in weight. The main problem is the corrosion of the sewer material which has to be protected
by some coating inside the pipe. The cost of such pipe is quite high compared to cast iron sewers.
Plastic (PVC) sewers are used for carrying sewage. Plastic sewers are resistant to corrosion. Such
types of sewer are light in weight, smooth and can be bent easily. But these types of sewer (Plastic
sewers) are having high co-efficient of thermal expansion and cannot be used in very hot areas.

While selecting a particular material of a sewer, the following factors must be carefully considered.
1. Hydraulic efficiency: The material selected should be such that the value of Mannings
coefficient is as low as possible so that a hydraulically efficient surface is available.
2. Resistance to abrasion: The flowing sewage may contain lot of solids such as grit and sand
particles. At high velocity at the sewage invert, erosion of sewer material may take place due
to abrasion. For a longer life, the sewer material must possess high degree of resistance to
abrasion.
3. Resistance to corrosion: The composition of sewage may be such that the sewer material may
get corroded. For longer life, the sewer material should possess enough resistance to
corrosion.
4. Strength: The sewers are generally laid underground and hence they are subjected to a
number of external forces, including the weight of overburden and vehicular loads. The
material should be strong enough to resist to all such external forces.
5. Durability: The sewer material should be durable so that expenditure due to its frequent
replacement is minimum.
6. Cost: The cost of material must be less so that overall economy is achieved in its construction.
7. Weight: The material should be light in weight so that it can be easily handled and
transportation costs are less.
8. Imperviousness: The sewer material must be impervious and should not allow seepage of
sewage from the sewer.

Storm water drains


These drains are used in separate sewer systems or in partially combined sewer systems. The storm
water is generally carried through storm water drains. These drains are most of the times surface
drains.

Surface drains can be used to carry both sullage as well as storm water. The sullage carrying drains
are less hygienic as they are opened to atmosphere. These drains are normally laid along either
side of the streets facing boundary walls of houses and buildings. They require frequent cleaning
as bigger size particles clog the movement of waste. They carry gravity discharge. The different
shapes of surface drains available are:
a. Rectangular sections. b. Trapezoidal sections. c. Semi-circular sections. d. U-sections.
e. V-sections.
Fig.: Different shapes of surface drains
Crown corrosion
The basic corrosion of crown is due to the formation of H2S gas due to aerobic and anaerobic
conditions prevalent in the lower layers of wastewater (sewage) which contain nitrogen, calcium,
phosphorous, chlorides, sulphates etc. Because of bacterial action, the sulphates are reduced to
sulphides and to hydrogen sulphide as,

+ 2+ 2
The hydrogen sulphide gas so produced is malodorous and inflammable, having odour like rotten
eggs, due to which blackening of sewage take place. Further, bacteria convert the H2S gas into
H2SO4 as,

The H2SO4 so formed is collected into the droplet form at the crown of the sewer, and acts with
concrete to form CaSO4 resulting in crown corrosion. This not only reduces the life span of sewers
but also reduces their carrying capacity with time. Apart from crown corrosion, concrete pipes are
also susceptible to erosion due to high velocity of sewage containing too much silt and grit.
In order to protect concrete pipes against such erosion and crown corrosion, their interiors are lined
with vitrified clay lining. The blocks of vitrified clay, provided with projections, are fixed in
cement concrete. The joints between the adjacent blocks are filled either with rich cement mortar
or with bituminous compounds.

Some of the methods of reducing crown corrosion are:


The following measures should be considered during design for corrosion control in Sewers.
Design shall provide for self-cleansing velocity, good ventilation, low turbulence, flushing
facilities, minimal periods of flow and minimum stagnation.
Pipes made of inert materials are preferable.
In case of large diameter pipes, RCC with sacrificial lining of 25 to 50mm thick is the
suitable pipe material.
Lining the inside of the RCC pipe with sulphate resistant or high alumina cement or
vitrified clay lining as sacrificial layer may increase the life expectancy of the pipe by 3 to
5 times.
RCC pipes are manufactured with sulphate resistant cement when the soil contains sulphur
and other corrosive substances.
For metallic pipes (DI or MS) the acceptable linings are cement mortar lining either with
sulphate resistant or high alumina cement.
The design of sewer section with a depth of flow of about 0.8D will minimize the chance
of corrosion.
Good ventilation usually removes condensation in the immediate vicinity of the air inlet.
Periodic flushing of sewers is necessary to remove solids accumulation and control their
subsequent anaerobic decomposition and H2S formation.

Fig.: Vitrified clay lining

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